101
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Gomes EV, Costa MDN, de Paula RG, de Azevedo RR, da Silva FL, Noronha EF, Ulhoa CJ, Monteiro VN, Cardoza RE, Gutiérrez S, Silva RN. The Cerato-Platanin protein Epl-1 from Trichoderma harzianum is involved in mycoparasitism, plant resistance induction and self cell wall protection. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17998. [PMID: 26647876 PMCID: PMC4673615 DOI: 10.1038/srep17998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma harzianum species are well known as biocontrol agents against important fungal phytopathogens. Mycoparasitism is one of the strategies used by this fungus in the biocontrol process. In this work, we analyzed the effect of Epl-1 protein, previously described as plant resistance elicitor, in expression modulation of T. harzianum genes involved in mycoparasitism process against phytopathogenic fungi; self cell wall protection and recognition; host hyphae coiling and triggering expression of defense-related genes in beans plants. The results indicated that the absence of Epl-1 protein affects the expression of all mycoparasitism genes analyzed in direct confrontation assays against phytopathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum as well as T. harzianum itself; the host mycoparasitic coiling process and expression modulation of plant defense genes showing different pattern compared with wild type strain. These data indicated the involvement T. harzianum Epl-1 in self and host interaction and also recognition of T. harzianum as a symbiotic fungus by the bean plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eriston Vieira Gomes
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Mariana do Nascimento Costa
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Renato Graciano de Paula
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Rafael Ricci de Azevedo
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Eliane F Noronha
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Cirano José Ulhoa
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular Biology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Goias, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | | | - Rosa Elena Cardoza
- Department of Microbiology, University School of Agricultural Engineers, University of León, Ponferrada, Spain
| | - Santiago Gutiérrez
- Department of Microbiology, University School of Agricultural Engineers, University of León, Ponferrada, Spain
| | - Roberto Nascimento Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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102
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Chitinases from Bacteria to Human: Properties, Applications, and Future Perspectives. Enzyme Res 2015; 2015:791907. [PMID: 26664744 PMCID: PMC4668315 DOI: 10.1155/2015/791907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitin is the second most plenteous polysaccharide in nature after cellulose, present in cell walls of several fungi, exoskeletons of insects, and crustacean shells. Chitin does not accumulate in the environment due to presence of bacterial chitinases, despite its abundance. These enzymes are able to degrade chitin present in the cell walls of fungi as well as the exoskeletons of insect. They have shown being the potential agents for biological control of the plant diseases caused by various pathogenic fungi and insect pests and thus can be used as an alternative to chemical pesticides. There has been steady increase in demand of chitin derivatives, obtained by action of chitinases on chitin polymer for various industrial, clinical, and pharmaceutical purposes. Hence, this review focuses on properties and applications of chitinases starting from bacteria, followed by fungi, insects, plants, and vertebrates. Designing of chitinase by applying directed laboratory evolution and rational approaches for improved catalytic activity for cost-effective field applications has also been explored.
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103
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Langner T, Göhre V. Fungal chitinases: function, regulation, and potential roles in plant/pathogen interactions. Curr Genet 2015; 62:243-54. [PMID: 26527115 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0530-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the past decades our knowledge about fungal cell wall architecture increased tremendously and led to the identification of many enzymes involved in polysaccharide synthesis and remodeling, which are also of biotechnological interest. Fungal cell walls play an important role in conferring mechanic stability during cell division and polar growth. Additionally, in phytopathogenic fungi the cell wall is the first structure that gets into intimate contact with the host plant. A major constituent of fungal cell walls is chitin, a homopolymer of N-acetylglucosamine units. To ensure plasticity, polymeric chitin needs continuous remodeling which is maintained by chitinolytic enzymes, including lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases N-acetylglucosaminidases, and chitinases. Depending on the species and lifestyle of fungi, there is great variation in the number of encoded chitinases and their function. Chitinases can have housekeeping function in plasticizing the cell wall or can act more specifically during cell separation, nutritional chitin acquisition, or competitive interaction with other fungi. Although chitinase research made huge progress in the last decades, our knowledge about their role in phytopathogenic fungi is still scarce. Recent findings in the dimorphic basidiomycete Ustilago maydis show that chitinases play different physiological functions throughout the life cycle and raise questions about their role during plant-fungus interactions. In this work we summarize these functions, mechanisms of chitinase regulation and their putative role during pathogen/host interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Langner
- Institute for Microbiology, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vera Göhre
- Institute for Microbiology, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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104
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Identification of genes differentially expressed during the interaction between the plant symbiont Suillus luteus and two plant pathogenic allopatric Heterobasidion species. Mycol Prog 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11557-015-1130-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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105
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Shinya T, Nakagawa T, Kaku H, Shibuya N. Chitin-mediated plant-fungal interactions: catching, hiding and handshaking. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 26:64-71. [PMID: 26116978 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2015.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plants can detect infecting fungi through the perception of chitin oligosaccharides by lysin motif receptors such as CEBiP and CERK1. A major function of CERK1 seems to be as a signaling molecule in the receptor complex formed with ligand-binding molecules and to activate downstream defense signaling. Fungal pathogens, however, have developed counter strategies to escape from the chitin-mediated detection by using effectors and/or changing their cell walls. Common structural features between chitin and Nod-/Myc-factors and corresponding receptors have suggested the close relationships between the chitin-mediated immunity and rhizobial/arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. The recent discovery of the dual function of OsCERK1 in both plant immunity and mycorrhizal symbiosis sheds new light on the evolutionary relationships between defense and symbiotic systems in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomonori Shinya
- Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University, Kurashiki, Okayama 710-0046, Japan
| | - Tomomi Nakagawa
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan
| | - Hanae Kaku
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan
| | - Naoto Shibuya
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan.
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106
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Cheng W, Li HP, Zhang JB, Du HJ, Wei QY, Huang T, Yang P, Kong XW, Liao YC. Tissue-specific and pathogen-inducible expression of a fusion protein containing a Fusarium-specific antibody and a fungal chitinase protects wheat against Fusarium pathogens and mycotoxins. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2015; 13:664-674. [PMID: 25418882 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and other small grain cereals is a globally devastating disease caused by toxigenic Fusarium pathogens. Controlling FHB is a challenge because germplasm that is naturally resistant against these pathogens is inadequate. Current control measures rely on fungicides. Here, an antibody fusion comprised of the Fusarium spp.-specific recombinant antibody gene CWP2 derived from chicken, and the endochitinase gene Ech42 from the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma atroviride was introduced into the elite wheat cultivar Zhengmai9023 by particle bombardment. Expression of this fusion gene was regulated by the lemma/palea-specific promoter Lem2 derived from barley; its expression was confirmed as lemma/palea-specific in transgenic wheat. Single-floret inoculation of independent transgenic wheat lines of the T3 to T6 generations revealed significant resistance (type II) to fungal spreading, and natural infection assays in the field showed significant resistance (type I) to initial infection. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed marked reduction of mycotoxins in the grains of the transgenic wheat lines. Progenies of crosses between the transgenic lines and the FHB-susceptible cultivar Huamai13 also showed significantly enhanced FHB resistance. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that the tissue-specific expression of the antibody fusion was induced by salicylic acid drenching and induced to a greater extent by F. graminearum infection. Histochemical analysis showed substantial restriction of mycelial growth in the lemma tissues of the transgenic plants. Thus, the combined tissue-specific and pathogen-inducible expression of this Fusarium-specific antibody fusion can effectively protect wheat against Fusarium pathogens and reduce mycotoxin content in grain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Cheng
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - He-Ping Li
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing-Bo Zhang
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Hong-Jie Du
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi-Yong Wei
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Tao Huang
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Yang
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xian-Wei Kong
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu-Cai Liao
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- National Center of Plant Gene Research (Wuhan), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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107
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Małagocka J, Grell MN, Lange L, Eilenberg J, Jensen AB. Transcriptome of an entomophthoralean fungus (Pandora formicae) shows molecular machinery adjusted for successful host exploitation and transmission. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 128:47-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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108
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Chitinases Are Essential for Cell Separation in Ustilago maydis. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2015; 14:846-57. [PMID: 25934689 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00022-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chitin is an essential component of the fungal cell wall, providing rigidity and stability. Its degradation is mediated by chitinases and supposedly ensures the dynamic plasticity of the cell wall during growth and morphogenesis. Hence, chitinases should be particularly important for fungi with dramatic morphological changes, such as Ustilago maydis. This smut fungus switches from yeast to filamentous growth for plant infection, proliferates as a mycelium in planta, and forms teliospores for spreading. Here, we investigate the contribution of its four chitinolytic enzymes to the different morphological changes during the complete life cycle in a comprehensive study of deletion strains combined with biochemical and cell biological approaches. Interestingly, two chitinases act redundantly in cell separation during yeast growth. They mediate the degradation of remnant chitin in the fragmentation zone between mother and daughter cell. In contrast, even the complete lack of chitinolytic activity does not affect formation of the infectious filament, infection, biotrophic growth, or teliospore germination. Thus, unexpectedly we can exclude a major role for chitinolytic enzymes in morphogenesis or pathogenicity of U. maydis. Nevertheless, redundant activity of even two chitinases is essential for cell separation during saprophytic growth, possibly to improve nutrient access or spreading of yeast cells by wind or rain.
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109
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Tzelepis G, Dubey M, Jensen DF, Karlsson M. Identifying glycoside hydrolase family 18 genes in the mycoparasitic fungal species Clonostachys rosea. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2015; 161:1407-19. [PMID: 25881898 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Clonostachysrosea is a mycoparasitic fungal species that is an efficient biocontrol agent against many plant diseases. During mycoparasitic interactions, one of the most crucial steps is the hydrolysis of the prey's fungal cell wall, which mainly consists of glucans, glycoproteins and chitin. Chitinases are hydrolytic enzymes responsible for chitin degradation and it is suggested that they play an important role in fungal-fungal interactions. Fungal chitinases belong exclusively to the glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 18.These GH18 proteins are categorized into three distinct phylogenetic groups (A, B and C), subdivided into several subgroups. In this study, we identified 14 GH18 genes in the C. rosea genome, which is remarkably low compared with the high numbers found in mycoparasitic Trichoderma species. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that C. rosea contains eight genes in group A, two genes in group B, two genes in group C, one gene encoding a putative ENGase (endo-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase) and the ech37 gene, which is of bacterial origin. Gene expression analysis showed that only two genes had higher transcription levels during fungal-fungal interactions, while eight out of 14 GH18 genes were triggered by chitin. Furthermore, deletion of the C group chiC2 gene decreased the growth inhibitory activity of C. rosea culture filtrates against Botrytis cinerea and Rhizoctonia solani, although the biocontrol ability of C. rosea against B. cinerea was not affected. In addition, a potential role of the CHIC2 chitinase in the sporulation process was revealed. These results provide new information about the role of GH18 proteins in mycoparasitic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Tzelepis
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mukesh Dubey
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Dan Funck Jensen
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Magnus Karlsson
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden
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110
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Novak M, Lah L, Šala M, Stojan J, Bohlmann J, Komel R. Oleic acid metabolism via a conserved cytochrome P450 system-mediated ω-hydroxylation in the bark beetle-associated fungus Grosmannia clavigera. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120119. [PMID: 25794012 PMCID: PMC4368105 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The bark beetle-associated fungus Grosmannia clavigera participates in the large-scale destruction of pine forests. In the tree, it must tolerate saturating levels of toxic conifer defense chemicals (e.g. monoterpenes). The fungus can metabolize some of these compounds through the ß-oxidation pathway and use them as a source of carbon. It also uses carbon from pine triglycerides, where oleic acid is the most common fatty acid. High levels of free fatty acids, however, are toxic and can cause additional stress during host colonization. Fatty acids induce expression of neighboring genes encoding a cytochrome P450 (CYP630B18) and its redox partner, cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR2). The aim of this work was to study the function of this novel P450 system. Using LC/MS, we biochemically characterized CYP630 as a highly specific oleic acid ω-hydroxylase. We explain oleic acid specificity using protein interaction modeling. Our results underscore the importance of ω-oxidation when the main ß-oxidation pathway may be overwhelmed by other substrates such as host terpenoid compounds. Because this CYP-CPR gene cluster is evolutionarily conserved, our work has implications for metabolism studies in other fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Metka Novak
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Ljerka Lah
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- * E-mail: (LL); (RK)
| | - Martin Šala
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jure Stojan
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Radovan Komel
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- * E-mail: (LL); (RK)
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111
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Siozios S, Tosi L, Ferrarini A, Ferrari A, Tononi P, Bellin D, Maurhofer M, Gessler C, Delledonne M, Pertot I. Transcriptional Reprogramming of the Mycoparasitic Fungus Ampelomyces quisqualis During the Powdery Mildew Host-Induced Germination. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2015; 105:199-209. [PMID: 25185010 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-14-0013-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Ampelomyces quisqualis is a mycoparasite of a diverse range of phytopathogenic fungi associated with the powdery mildew disease. Among them are several Erysiphaceae species with great economic impact on high-value crops such as grape. Due to its ability to parasitize and prevent the spread of powdery mildews, A. quisqualis has received considerable attention for its biocontrol potential. However, and in sharp contrast to the extensively studied biocontrol species belonging to the genus Trichoderma, little is known about the biology of A. quisqualis at the molecular and genetic levels. We present the first genome-wide transcription profiling in A. quisqualis during host-induced germination. A total of 1,536 putative genes showed significant changes in transcription during the germination of A. quisqualis. This finding denotes an extensive transcriptional reprogramming of A. quisqualis induced by the presence of the host. Several upregulated genes were predicted to encode for putative mycoparasitism-related proteins such as secreted proteases, virulence factors, and proteins related to toxin biosynthesis. Our data provide the most comprehensive sequence resource currently available for A. quisqualis in addition to offering valuable insights into the biology of A. quisqualis and its mycoparasitic lifestyle. Eventually, this may improve the biocontrol capacity of this mycoparasite.
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112
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113
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Akcapinar GB, Kappel L, Sezerman OU, Seidl-Seiboth V. Molecular diversity of LysM carbohydrate-binding motifs in fungi. Curr Genet 2015; 61:103-13. [PMID: 25589417 PMCID: PMC4392113 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-014-0471-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Revised: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
LysM motifs are carbohydrate-binding modules found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They bind to N-acetylglucosamine-containing carbohydrates, such as chitin, chitio-oligosaccharides and peptidoglycan. In this review, we summarize the features of the protein architecture of LysM-containing proteins in fungi and discuss their so far known biochemical properties, transcriptional profiles and biological functions. Further, based on data from evolutionary analyses and consensus pattern profiling of fungal LysM motifs, we show that they can be classified into a fungal-specific group and a fungal/bacterial group. This facilitates the classification and selection of further LysM proteins for detailed analyses and will contribute to widening our understanding of the functional spectrum of this protein family in fungi. Fungal LysM motifs are predominantly found in subgroup C chitinases and in LysM effector proteins, which are secreted proteins with LysM motifs but no catalytic domains. In enzymes, LysM motifs mediate the attachment to insoluble carbon sources. In plants, receptors containing LysM motifs are responsible for the perception of chitin-oligosaccharides and are involved in beneficial symbiotic interactions between plants and bacteria or fungi, as well as plant defence responses. In plant pathogenic fungi, LysM effector proteins have already been shown to have important functions in the dampening of host defence responses as well as protective functions of fungal hyphae against chitinases. However, the large number and diversity of proteins with LysM motifs that are being unravelled in fungal genome sequencing projects suggest that the functional repertoire of LysM effector proteins in fungi is only partially discovered so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunseli Bayram Akcapinar
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Sabanci University, Tuzla, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
- Present Address: Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorfer Strasse 1a, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lisa Kappel
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorfer Strasse 1a, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Osman Ugur Sezerman
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Sabanci University, Tuzla, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Verena Seidl-Seiboth
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorfer Strasse 1a, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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114
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115
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Nicolás C, Hermosa R, Rubio B, Mukherjee PK, Monte E. Trichoderma genes in plants for stress tolerance- status and prospects. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 228:71-8. [PMID: 25438787 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/01/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Many filamentous fungi from the genus Trichoderma are well known for their anti-microbial properties. Certain genes from Trichoderma spp. have been identified and transferred to plants for improving biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, as well for applications in bioremediation. Several Trichoderma genomes have been sequenced and many are in the pipeline, facilitating high throughput gene analysis and increasing the availability of candidate transgenes. This, coupled with improved plant transformation systems, is expected to usher in a new era in plant biotechnology where several genes from these antagonistic fungi can be transferred into plants to achieve enhanced stress tolerance, bioremediation activity, herbicide tolerance, and reduction of phytotoxins. In this review, we illustrate the major achievements made by transforming plants with Trichoderma genes as well as their possible mode of action. Moreover, examples of efficient application of genetically modified plants as biofactories to produce active Trichoderma enzymes are indicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Nicolás
- Departamento de Fisiología Vegetal, Centro Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, C/Río Duero 12, Campus de Villamayor, 37185 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Rosa Hermosa
- Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Centro Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, C/Río Duero 12, Campus de Villamayor, 37185 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Belén Rubio
- Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Centro Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, C/Río Duero 12, Campus de Villamayor, 37185 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Prasun K Mukherjee
- NuclearAgriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India.
| | - Enrique Monte
- Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Centro Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Salamanca, C/Río Duero 12, Campus de Villamayor, 37185 Salamanca, Spain
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116
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Gruber S, Zeilinger S. The transcription factor Ste12 mediates the regulatory role of the Tmk1 MAP kinase in mycoparasitism and vegetative hyphal fusion in the filamentous fungus Trichoderma atroviride. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111636. [PMID: 25356841 PMCID: PMC4214791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoparasitic species of the fungal genus Trichoderma are potent antagonists able to combat plant pathogenic fungi by direct parasitism. An essential step in this mycoparasitic fungus-fungus interaction is the detection of the fungal host followed by activation of molecular weapons in the mycoparasite by host-derived signals. The Trichoderma atroviride MAP kinase Tmk1, a homolog of yeast Fus3/Kss1, plays an essential role in regulating the mycoparasitic host attack, aerial hyphae formation and conidiation. However, the transcription factors acting downstream of Tmk1 are hitherto unknown. Here we analyzed the functions of the T. atroviride Ste12 transcription factor whose orthologue in yeast is targeted by the Fus3 and Kss1 MAP kinases. Deletion of the ste12 gene in T. atroviride not only resulted in reduced mycoparasitic overgrowth and lysis of host fungi but also led to loss of hyphal avoidance in the colony periphery and a severe reduction in conidial anastomosis tube formation and vegetative hyphal fusion events. The transcription of several orthologues of Neurospora crassa hyphal fusion genes was reduced upon ste12 deletion; however, the Δste12 mutant showed enhanced expression of mycoparasitism-relevant chitinolytic and proteolytic enzymes and of the cell wall integrity MAP kinase Tmk2. Based on the comparative analyses of Δste12 and Δtmk1 mutants, an essential role of the Ste12 transcriptional regulator in mediating outcomes of the Tmk1 MAPK pathway such as regulation of the mycoparasitic activity, hyphal fusion and carbon source-dependent vegetative growth is suggested. Aerial hyphae formation and conidiation, in contrast, were found to be independent of Ste12.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Gruber
- Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Wien, Austria
| | - Susanne Zeilinger
- Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Wien, Austria
- * E-mail:
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Staats CC, Junges A, Guedes RLM, Thompson CE, de Morais GL, Boldo JT, de Almeida LGP, Andreis FC, Gerber AL, Sbaraini N, da Paixão RLDA, Broetto L, Landell M, Santi L, Beys-da-Silva WO, Silveira CP, Serrano TR, de Oliveira ES, Kmetzsch L, Vainstein MH, de Vasconcelos ATR, Schrank A. Comparative genome analysis of entomopathogenic fungi reveals a complex set of secreted proteins. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:822. [PMID: 25263348 PMCID: PMC4246632 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Metarhizium anisopliae is an entomopathogenic fungus used in the biological control of some agricultural insect pests, and efforts are underway to use this fungus in the control of insect-borne human diseases. A large repertoire of proteins must be secreted by M. anisopliae to cope with the various available nutrients as this fungus switches through different lifestyles, i.e., from a saprophytic, to an infectious, to a plant endophytic stage. To further evaluate the predicted secretome of M. anisopliae, we employed genomic and transcriptomic analyses, coupled with phylogenomic analysis, focusing on the identification and characterization of secreted proteins. Results We determined the M. anisopliae E6 genome sequence and compared this sequence to other entomopathogenic fungi genomes. A robust pipeline was generated to evaluate the predicted secretomes of M. anisopliae and 15 other filamentous fungi, leading to the identification of a core of secreted proteins. Transcriptomic analysis using the tick Rhipicephalus microplus cuticle as an infection model during two periods of infection (48 and 144 h) allowed the identification of several differentially expressed genes. This analysis concluded that a large proportion of the predicted secretome coding genes contained altered transcript levels in the conditions analyzed in this study. In addition, some specific secreted proteins from Metarhizium have an evolutionary history similar to orthologs found in Beauveria/Cordyceps. This similarity suggests that a set of secreted proteins has evolved to participate in entomopathogenicity. Conclusions The data presented represents an important step to the characterization of the role of secreted proteins in the virulence and pathogenicity of M. anisopliae. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-822) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Augusto Schrank
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), P, O, Box 15005, Porto Alegre, RS CEP 91501-970, Brazil.
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Junges Â, Boldo JT, Souza BK, Guedes RLM, Sbaraini N, Kmetzsch L, Thompson CE, Staats CC, de Almeida LGP, de Vasconcelos ATR, Vainstein MH, Schrank A. Genomic analyses and transcriptional profiles of the glycoside hydrolase family 18 genes of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107864. [PMID: 25232743 PMCID: PMC4169460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal chitin metabolism involves diverse processes such as metabolically active cell wall maintenance, basic nutrition, and different aspects of virulence. Chitinases are enzymes belonging to the glycoside hydrolase family 18 (GH18) and 19 (GH19) and are responsible for the hydrolysis of β-1,4-linkages in chitin. This linear homopolymer of N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine is an essential constituent of fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons. Several chitinases have been directly implicated in structural, morphogenetic, autolytic and nutritional activities of fungal cells. In the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae, chitinases are also involved in virulence. Filamentous fungi genomes exhibit a higher number of chitinase-coding genes than bacteria or yeasts. The survey performed in the M. anisopliae genome has successfully identified 24 genes belonging to glycoside hydrolase family 18, including three previously experimentally determined chitinase-coding genes named chit1, chi2 and chi3. These putative chitinases were classified based on domain organization and phylogenetic analysis into the previously described A, B and C chitinase subgroups, and into a new subgroup D. Moreover, three GH18 proteins could be classified as putative endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidases, enzymes that are associated with deglycosylation and were therefore assigned to a new subgroup E. The transcriptional profile of the GH18 genes was evaluated by qPCR with RNA extracted from eight culture conditions, representing different stages of development or different nutritional states. The transcripts from the GH18 genes were detected in at least one of the different M. anisopliae developmental stages, thus validating the proposed genes. Moreover, not all members from the same chitinase subgroup presented equal patterns of transcript expression under the eight distinct conditions studied. The determination of M. anisopliae chitinases and ENGases and a more detailed study concerning the enzymes’ roles in morphological or nutritional functions will allow comprehensive insights into the chitinolytic potential of this highly infective entomopathogenic fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ângela Junges
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Bárbara Kunzler Souza
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Nicolau Sbaraini
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lívia Kmetzsch
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Augusto Schrank
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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119
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Foflonker F, Price DC, Qiu H, Palenik B, Wang S, Bhattacharya D. Genome of the halotolerant green alga Picochlorum sp. reveals strategies for thriving under fluctuating environmental conditions. Environ Microbiol 2014; 17:412-26. [PMID: 24965277 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
An expected outcome of climate change is intensification of the global water cycle, which magnifies surface water fluxes, and consequently alters salinity patterns. It is therefore important to understand the adaptations and limits of microalgae to survive changing salinities. To this end, we sequenced the 13.5 Mbp genome of the halotolerant green alga Picochlorum SENEW3 (SE3) that was isolated from a brackish water pond subject to large seasonal salinity fluctuations. Picochlorum SE3 encodes 7367 genes, making it one of the smallest and most gene dense eukaryotic genomes known. Comparison with the pico-prasinophyte Ostreococcus tauri, a species with a limited range of salt tolerance, reveals the enrichment of transporters putatively involved in the salt stress response in Picochlorum SE3. Analysis of cultures and the protein complement highlight the metabolic flexibility of Picochlorum SE3 that encodes genes involved in urea metabolism, acetate assimilation and fermentation, acetoin production and glucose uptake, many of which form functional gene clusters. Twenty-four cases of horizontal gene transfer from bacterial sources were found in Picochlorum SE3 with these genes involved in stress adaptation including osmolyte production and growth promotion. Our results identify Picochlorum SE3 as a model for understanding microalgal adaptation to stressful, fluctuating environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Foflonker
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
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120
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Jacquiod S, Demanèche S, Franqueville L, Ausec L, Xu Z, Delmont TO, Dunon V, Cagnon C, Mandic-Mulec I, Vogel TM, Simonet P. Characterization of new bacterial catabolic genes and mobile genetic elements by high throughput genetic screening of a soil metagenomic library. J Biotechnol 2014; 190:18-29. [PMID: 24721211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A mix of oligonucleotide probes was used to hybridize soil metagenomic DNA from a fosmid clone library spotted on high density membranes. The pooled radio-labeled probes were designed to target genes encoding glycoside hydrolases GH18, dehalogenases, bacterial laccases and mobile genetic elements (integrases from integrons and insertion sequences). Positive hybridizing spots were affiliated to the corresponding clones in the library and the metagenomic inserts were sequenced. After assembly and annotation, new coding DNA sequences related to genes of interest were identified with low protein similarity against the closest hits in databases. This work highlights the sensitivity of DNA/DNA hybridization techniques as an effective and complementary way to recover novel genes from large metagenomic clone libraries. This study also supports that some of the identified catabolic genes might be associated with horizontal transfer events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Jacquiod
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France.
| | - Sandrine Demanèche
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France
| | - Laure Franqueville
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France
| | - Luka Ausec
- Department for Food Science and Technology Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Zhuofei Xu
- Molecular Microbial Ecology Group, Section of Microbiology, København Universitet, København, Denmark
| | - Tom O Delmont
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France
| | - Vincent Dunon
- Division of Soil and Water Management, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 20, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Christine Cagnon
- Équipe Environnement et Microbiologie, IBEAS - UFR Sciences et Techniques, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, 64013 Pau, France
| | - Ines Mandic-Mulec
- Department for Food Science and Technology Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Timothy M Vogel
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France
| | - Pascal Simonet
- Environmental Microbial Genomics Group, Laboratoire Ampère, CNRS, École Centrale de Lyon, Université de Lyon, 36 Avenue Guy de Collongue, 69134 Ecully, France.
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121
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Gómez-Mendoza DP, Junqueira M, do Vale LHF, Domont GB, Ferreira Filho EX, Sousa MVD, Ricart CAO. Secretomic survey of Trichoderma harzianum grown on plant biomass substrates. J Proteome Res 2014; 13:1810-22. [PMID: 24593137 DOI: 10.1021/pr400971e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The present work aims at characterizing T. harzianum secretome when the fungus is grown in synthetic medium supplemented with one of the four substrates: glucose, cellulose, xylan, and sugarcane bagasse (SB). The characterization was done by enzymatic assays and proteomic analysis using 2-DE/MALDI-TOF and gel-free shotgun LC-MS/MS. The results showed that SB induced the highest cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities when compared with the other substrates, while remarkable differences in terms of number and distribution of protein spots in 2-DE gels were also observed among the samples. Additionally, treatment of the secretomes with PNGase F revealed that most spot trails in 2-DE gels corresponded to N-glycosylated proteoforms. The LC-MS/MS analysis of the samples identified 626 different protein groups, including carbohydrate-active enzymes and accessory, noncatalytic, and cell-wall-associated proteins. Although the SB-induced secretome displayed the highest cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities, it did not correspond to a higher proteome complexity because CM-cellulose-induced secretome was significantly more diverse. Among the identified proteins, 73% were exclusive to one condition, while only 5% were present in all samples. Therefore, this study disclosed the variation of T. harzianum secretome in response to different substrates and revealed the diversity of the fungus enzymatic toolbox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Paola Gómez-Mendoza
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Protein Chemistry, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia , Asa Norte, Brasília, 70910-900 DF, Brazil
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122
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Functional analysis of the C-II subgroup killer toxin-like chitinases in the filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 64:58-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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123
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Kernaghan G. Functional diversity and resource partitioning in fungi associated with the fine feeder roots of forest trees. Symbiosis 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-013-0265-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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124
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Adrangi S, Faramarzi MA. From bacteria to human: a journey into the world of chitinases. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 31:1786-95. [PMID: 24095741 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Revised: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Chitinases, the enzymes responsible for the biological degradation of chitin, are found in a wide range of organisms from bacteria to higher plants and animals. They participate in numerous physiological processes such as nutrition, parasitism, morphogenesis and immunity. Many organisms, in addition to chitinases, produce inactive chitinase-like lectins that despite lacking enzymatic activity are involved in several regulatory functions. Most known chitinases belong to families 18 and 19 of glycosyl hydrolases, however a few chitinases that belong to families 23 and 48 have also been identified in recent years. In this review, different aspects of chitinases and chi-lectins from bacteria, fungi, insects, plants and mammals are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Adrangi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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125
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Liang L, Wu H, Liu Z, Shen R, Gao H, Yang J, Zhang K. Proteomic and transcriptional analyses of Arthrobotrys oligospora cell wall related proteins reveal complexity of fungal virulence against nematodes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 97:8683-92. [PMID: 23948728 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-5178-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Revised: 07/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora is the best-studied fungus for understanding the interaction between fungi and nematodes. The fungus uses three-dimensional adhesive networks to capture nematodes and then penetrates into the worms through their cuticle. Here we examine the effects of fungal cell wall related proteins on morphogenesis and virulence of the fungi. We focused on the changes in its proteomic and transcriptional profiles during its transition from saprophytic to predatory phase. Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) proteomics using the liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) method revealed an extended set of virulence related proteins, such as adhesins and serine proteases, on the cell wall of A. oligospora. Transcription analyses of their coding genes revealed an important set of candidate virulence factors. Our analyses also show that glycosyl hydrolases likely play important roles in trap formation of A. oligospora. The adhesins on the three-dimensional adhesive networks may have two functions: to enable the mycelia to stick to nematodes and to serve as important constituents of the extracellular matrix that harbors many secreted virulence related proteins. This study is the first to systematically identify cell wall related proteins that are important in the trap formation and infection of the fungus against nematode hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianming Liang
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, and Key Laboratory for Microbial Resources of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650091, China
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126
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Abstract
Biological control of phytopathogenic fungi and insects continues to inspire the research and development of environmentally friendly bioactive alternatives. Potentially lytic enzymes, chitinases can act as a biocontrol agent against agriculturally important fungi and insects. The cell wall in fungi and protective covers, i.e. cuticle in insects shares a key structural polymer, chitin, a β-1,4-linked N-acetylglucosamine polymer. Therefore, it is advantageous to develop a common biocontrol agent against both of these groups. As chitin is absent in plants and mammals, targeting its metabolism will signify an eco-friendly strategy for the control of agriculturally important fungi and insects but is innocuous to mammals, plants, beneficial insects and other organisms. In addition, development of chitinase transgenic plant varieties probably holds the most promising method for augmenting agricultural crop protection and productivity, when properly integrated into traditional systems. Recently, human proteins with chitinase activity and chitinase-like proteins were identified and established as biomarkers for human diseases. This review covers the recent advances of chitinases as a biocontrol agent and its various applications including preparation of medically important chitooligosaccharides, bioconversion of chitin as well as in implementing chitinases as diagnostic and prognostic markers for numerous diseases and the prospect of their future utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Nagpure
- University School of Biotechnology, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University , New Delhi , India
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127
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Mycoparasitism studies of Trichoderma species against three phytopathogenic fungi: evaluation of antagonism and hydrolytic enzyme production. Biotechnol Lett 2013; 35:1461-8. [PMID: 23690037 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-013-1225-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Trichoderma spp. are used for biocontrol of several plant pathogens. However, their efficient interaction with the host needs to be accompanied by production of secondary metabolites and cell wall-degrading enzymes. Three parameters were evaluated after interaction between four Trichoderma species and plant-pathogenic fungi: Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Trichoderma harzianum and T. asperellum were the most effective antagonists against the pathogens. Most of the Trichoderma species produced toxic volatile metabolites, having significant effects on growth and development of the plant pathogens. When these species were grown in liquid cultures with cell walls from these plant pathogens, they produced and secreted β-1,3-glucanase, NAGAse, chitinase, acid phosphatase, acid proteases and alginate lyase.
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128
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Yang J, Yu Y, Li J, Zhu W, Geng Z, Jiang D, Wang Y, Zhang KQ. Characterization and functional analyses of the chitinase-encoding genes in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora. Arch Microbiol 2013; 195:453-62. [PMID: 23661195 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-013-0894-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Nematode-trapping fungi can secrete many extracellular hydrolytic enzymes such as serine proteases and chitinases to digest and penetrate nematode/egg-cuticles. However, little is known about the structure and function of chitinases in these fungi. In this study, 16 ORFs encoding putative chitinases, which all belong to glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 18, were identified from the Arthrobotrys oligospora genome. Bioinformatics analyses showed that these 16 putative chitinases differ in their functional domains, molecular weights and pI. Phylogenetic analysis grouped these A. oligospora chitinases into four clades: clades I, II, III and IV, respectively, including an A. oligospora-specific subclade (Clade IV-B) that contained high-molecular weight chitinases (≥100 kDa). Transcriptional analysis of A. oligospora chitinases suggested that the expression of most chitinases was repressed by carbon starvation, and all chitinases were up-regulated under nitrogen starvation. However, chitinase AO-190 was up-regulated under carbon and/or nitrogen starvation. Moreover, several chitinases (such as AO-59, AO-190 and AO-801) were up-regulated in the presence of chitinous substrates or a plant pathogenic fungus, indicating that they could play a role in biocontrol applications of A. oligospora. Our results provided a basis for further understanding the functions, diversities and evolutionary relationships between chitinase genes in nematode-trapping fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinkui Yang
- Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, and Key Laboratory of Microbial Diversity in Southwest China, Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, People's Republic of China.
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129
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Mukherjee PK, Horwitz BA, Herrera-Estrella A, Schmoll M, Kenerley CM. Trichoderma research in the genome era. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2013; 51:105-29. [PMID: 23915132 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma species are widely used in agriculture and industry as biopesticides and sources of enzymes, respectively. These fungi reproduce asexually by production of conidia and chlamydospores and in wild habitats by ascospores. Trichoderma species are efficient mycoparasites and prolific producers of secondary metabolites, some of which have clinical importance. However, the ecological or biological significance of this metabolite diversity is sorely lagging behind the chemical significance. Many strains produce elicitors and induce resistance in plants through colonization of roots. Seven species have now been sequenced. Comparison of a primarily saprophytic species with two mycoparasitic species has provided striking contrasts and has established that mycoparasitism is an ancestral trait of this genus. Among the interesting outcomes of genome comparison is the discovery of a vast repertoire of secondary metabolism pathways and of numerous small cysteine-rich secreted proteins. Genomics has also facilitated investigation of sexual crossing in Trichoderma reesei, suggesting the possibility of strain improvement through hybridization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasun K Mukherjee
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India.
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130
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Manning VA, Pandelova I, Dhillon B, Wilhelm LJ, Goodwin SB, Berlin AM, Figueroa M, Freitag M, Hane JK, Henrissat B, Holman WH, Kodira CD, Martin J, Oliver RP, Robbertse B, Schackwitz W, Schwartz DC, Spatafora JW, Turgeon BG, Yandava C, Young S, Zhou S, Zeng Q, Grigoriev IV, Ma LJ, Ciuffetti LM. Comparative genomics of a plant-pathogenic fungus, Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, reveals transduplication and the impact of repeat elements on pathogenicity and population divergence. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2013; 3:41-63. [PMID: 23316438 PMCID: PMC3538342 DOI: 10.1534/g3.112.004044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis is a necrotrophic fungus causal to the disease tan spot of wheat, whose contribution to crop loss has increased significantly during the last few decades. Pathogenicity by this fungus is attributed to the production of host-selective toxins (HST), which are recognized by their host in a genotype-specific manner. To better understand the mechanisms that have led to the increase in disease incidence related to this pathogen, we sequenced the genomes of three P. tritici-repentis isolates. A pathogenic isolate that produces two known HSTs was used to assemble a reference nuclear genome of approximately 40 Mb composed of 11 chromosomes that encode 12,141 predicted genes. Comparison of the reference genome with those of a pathogenic isolate that produces a third HST, and a nonpathogenic isolate, showed the nonpathogen genome to be more diverged than those of the two pathogens. Examination of gene-coding regions has provided candidate pathogen-specific proteins and revealed gene families that may play a role in a necrotrophic lifestyle. Analysis of transposable elements suggests that their presence in the genome of pathogenic isolates contributes to the creation of novel genes, effector diversification, possible horizontal gene transfer events, identified copy number variation, and the first example of transduplication by DNA transposable elements in fungi. Overall, comparative analysis of these genomes provides evidence that pathogenicity in this species arose through an influx of transposable elements, which created a genetically flexible landscape that can easily respond to environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola A. Manning
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - Iovanna Pandelova
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - Braham Dhillon
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Larry J. Wilhelm
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
- Carbone/Ferguson Laboratories, Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center (ONPRC), Beaverton, Oregon 97006
| | - Stephen B. Goodwin
- USDA–Agricultural Research Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
| | | | - Melania Figueroa
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Forage Seed and Cereal Research Unit, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - Michael Freitag
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - James K. Hane
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization−Plant Industry, Centre for Environment and Life Sciences, Floreat, Western Australia 6014, Australia
| | - Bernard Henrissat
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, Aix-Marseille Université, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 13288 Marseille cedex 9, France
| | - Wade H. Holman
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - Chinnappa D. Kodira
- The Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
- Roche 454, Branford, Connecticut 06405
| | - Joel Martin
- US DOE Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, California 94598
| | - Richard P. Oliver
- Australian Centre for Necrotrophic Fungal Pathogens, Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia 6845, Australia
| | - Barbara Robbertse
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, Aix-Marseille Université, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 13288 Marseille cedex 9, France
| | | | - David C. Schwartz
- Laboratory for Molecular and Computational Genomics, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Genetics, UW Biotechnology Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | - Joseph W. Spatafora
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
| | - B. Gillian Turgeon
- Department of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850
| | | | - Sarah Young
- The Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - Shiguo Zhou
- Laboratory for Molecular and Computational Genomics, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Genetics, UW Biotechnology Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
| | | | | | - Li-Jun Ma
- The Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
| | - Lynda M. Ciuffetti
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
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Zhuang X, McPhee KE, Coram TE, Peever TL, Chilvers MI. Rapid transcriptome characterization and parsing of sequences in a non-model host-pathogen interaction; pea-Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:668. [PMID: 23181755 PMCID: PMC3534286 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND White mold, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is one of the most important diseases of pea (Pisum sativum L.), however, little is known about the genetics and biochemistry of this interaction. Identification of genes underlying resistance in the host or pathogenicity and virulence factors in the pathogen will increase our knowledge of the pea-S. sclerotiorum interaction and facilitate the introgression of new resistance genes into commercial pea varieties. Although the S. sclerotiorum genome sequence is available, no pea genome is available, due in part to its large genome size (~3500 Mb) and extensive repeated motifs. Here we present an EST data set specific to the interaction between S. sclerotiorum and pea, and a method to distinguish pathogen and host sequences without a species-specific reference genome. RESULTS 10,158 contigs were obtained by de novo assembly of 128,720 high-quality reads generated by 454 pyrosequencing of the pea-S. sclerotiorum interactome. A method based on the tBLASTx program was modified to distinguish pea and S. sclerotiorum ESTs. To test this strategy, a mixture of known ESTs (18,490 pea and 17,198 S. sclerotiorum ESTs) from public databases were pooled and parsed; the tBLASTx method successfully separated 90.1% of the artificial EST mix with 99.9% accuracy. The tBLASTx method successfully parsed 89.4% of the 454-derived EST contigs, as validated by PCR, into pea (6,299 contigs) and S. sclerotiorum (2,780 contigs) categories. Two thousand eight hundred and forty pea ESTs and 996 S. sclerotiorum ESTs were predicted to be expressed specifically during the pea-S. sclerotiorum interaction as determined by homology search against 81,449 pea ESTs (from flowers, leaves, cotyledons, epi- and hypocotyl, and etiolated and light treated etiolated seedlings) and 57,751 S. sclerotiorum ESTs (from mycelia at neutral pH, developing apothecia and developing sclerotia). Among those ESTs specifically expressed, 277 (9.8%) pea ESTs were predicted to be involved in plant defense and response to biotic or abiotic stress, and 93 (9.3%) S. sclerotiorum ESTs were predicted to be involved in pathogenicity/virulence. Additionally, 142 S. sclerotiorum ESTs were identified as secretory/signal peptides of which only 21 were previously reported. CONCLUSIONS We present and characterize an EST resource specific to the pea-S. sclerotiorum interaction. Additionally, the tBLASTx method used to parse S. sclerotiorum and pea ESTs was demonstrated to be a reliable and accurate method to distinguish ESTs without a reference genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Zhuang
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, 1066 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Kevin E McPhee
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, 370G Loftsgard Hall, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Tristan E Coram
- Dow AgroSciences LLC, 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Tobin L Peever
- Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Martin I Chilvers
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, 1066 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, USA
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132
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Benhamou N, le Floch G, Vallance J, Gerbore J, Grizard D, Rey P. Pythium oligandrum: an example of opportunistic success. Microbiology (Reading) 2012; 158:2679-2694. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.061457-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Benhamou
- Centre de recherche en horticulture, Pavillon de l’ENVIROTRON, 2480 Boulevard Hochelga, Université Laval, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Gaêtan le Floch
- Université Européenne de Bretagne/Université de Brest, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESMISAB, 29 820 Plouzané, France
| | - Jessica Vallance
- Université de Bordeaux, ISVV, UMR1065 Santé et Agroécologie du Vignoble (SAVE), Bordeaux Sciences Agro, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France et INRA, ISVV, UMR1065 SAVE, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | - Jonathan Gerbore
- Université de Bordeaux, ISVV, UMR1065 Santé et Agroécologie du Vignoble (SAVE), Bordeaux Sciences Agro, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France et INRA, ISVV, UMR1065 SAVE, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France
| | | | - Patrice Rey
- Université de Bordeaux, ISVV, UMR1065 Santé et Agroécologie du Vignoble (SAVE), Bordeaux Sciences Agro, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France et INRA, ISVV, UMR1065 SAVE, F-33140, Villenave d’Ornon, France
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133
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Moktali V, Park J, Fedorova-Abrams ND, Park B, Choi J, Lee YH, Kang S. Systematic and searchable classification of cytochrome P450 proteins encoded by fungal and oomycete genomes. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:525. [PMID: 23033934 PMCID: PMC3505482 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytochrome P450 proteins (CYPs) play diverse and pivotal roles in fungal metabolism and adaptation to specific ecological niches. Fungal genomes encode extremely variable "CYPomes" ranging from one to more than 300 CYPs. Despite the rapid growth of sequenced fungal and oomycete genomes and the resulting influx of predicted CYPs, the vast majority of CYPs remain functionally uncharacterized. To facilitate the curation and functional and evolutionary studies of CYPs, we previously developed Fungal Cytochrome P450 Database (FCPD), which included CYPs from 70 fungal and oomycete species. Here we present a new version of FCPD (1.2) with more data and an improved classification scheme. RESULTS The new database contains 22,940 CYPs from 213 species divided into 2,579 clusters and 115 clans. By optimizing the clustering pipeline, we were able to uncover 36 novel clans and to assign 153 orphan CYP families to specific clans. To augment their functional annotation, CYP clusters were mapped to David Nelson's P450 databases, which archive a total of 12,500 manually curated CYPs. Additionally, over 150 clusters were functionally classified based on sequence similarity to experimentally characterized CYPs. Comparative analysis of fungal and oomycete CYPomes revealed cases of both extreme expansion and contraction. The most dramatic expansions in fungi were observed in clans CYP58 and CYP68 (Pezizomycotina), clans CYP5150 and CYP63 (Agaricomycotina), and family CYP509 (Mucoromycotina). Although much of the extraordinary diversity of the pan-fungal CYPome can be attributed to gene duplication and adaptive divergence, our analysis also suggests a few potential horizontal gene transfer events. Updated families and clans can be accessed through the new version of the FCPD database. CONCLUSIONS FCPD version 1.2 provides a systematic and searchable catalogue of 9,550 fungal CYP sequences (292 families) encoded by 108 fungal species and 147 CYP sequences (9 families) encoded by five oomycete species. In comparison to the first version, it offers a more comprehensive clan classification, is fully compatible with Nelson's P450 databases, and has expanded functional categorization. These features will facilitate functional annotation and classification of CYPs encoded by newly sequenced fungal and oomycete genomes. Additionally, the classification system will aid in studying the roles of CYPs in the evolution of fungal adaptation to specific ecological niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatesh Moktali
- Integrative Biosciences program in Bioinformatics & Genomics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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134
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Druzhinina IS, Shelest E, Kubicek CP. Novel traits of Trichoderma predicted through the analysis of its secretome. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012; 337:1-9. [PMID: 22924408 PMCID: PMC3533174 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotrophic species of Trichoderma are among the most common fungi isolated from free soil, dead wood and as parasites on sporocarps of other fungi (mycoparasites). In addition, they undergo various other biotrophic associations ranging from rhizosphere colonization and endophytism up to facultative pathogenesis on such animals as roundworms and humans. Together with occurrence on a variety of less common substrata (marine invertebrates, artificial materials, indoor habitats), these lifestyles illustrate a wealthy opportunistic potential of the fungus. One tropical species, Trichoderma reesei, has become a prominent producer of cellulases and hemicellulases, whereas several other species are applied in agriculture for the biological control of phytopathogenic fungi. The sequencing of the complete genomes of the three species (T. reesei, T. virens, and T. atroviride) has led to a deepened understanding of Trichoderma lifestyle and its molecular physiology. In this review, we present the in silico predicted secretome of Trichoderma, and – in addition to the unique features of carbohydrate active enzymes – demonstrate the importance of such protein families as proteases, oxidative enzymes, and small cysteine-rich proteins, all of that received little attention in Trichoderma genetics so far. We also discuss the link between Trichoderma secretome and biology of the fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina S Druzhinina
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
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135
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Functional analysis of glycoside hydrolase family 18 and 20 genes in Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genet Biol 2012; 49:717-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2012.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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136
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Do Vale LHF, Gómez-Mendoza DP, Kim MS, Pandey A, Ricart CAO, Edivaldo XFF, Sousa MV. Secretome analysis of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum grown on cellulose. Proteomics 2012; 12:2716-28. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201200063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luis H. F. Do Vale
- Brazilian Center for Protein Research; Laboratory of Protein Chemistry and Biochemistry; Department of Cell Biology; University of Brasilia; Brasilia; DF; Brazil
| | - Diana P. Gómez-Mendoza
- Brazilian Center for Protein Research; Laboratory of Protein Chemistry and Biochemistry; Department of Cell Biology; University of Brasilia; Brasilia; DF; Brazil
| | - Min-Sik Kim
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Baltimore; MD; USA
| | - Akhilesh Pandey
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Baltimore; MD; USA
| | - Carlos A. O. Ricart
- Brazilian Center for Protein Research; Laboratory of Protein Chemistry and Biochemistry; Department of Cell Biology; University of Brasilia; Brasilia; DF; Brazil
| | | | - Marcelo V. Sousa
- Brazilian Center for Protein Research; Laboratory of Protein Chemistry and Biochemistry; Department of Cell Biology; University of Brasilia; Brasilia; DF; Brazil
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137
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High resolution crystal structure of the endo-N-Acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase responsible for the deglycosylation of Hypocrea jecorina cellulases. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40854. [PMID: 22859955 PMCID: PMC3408457 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidases (ENGases) hydrolyze the glycosidic linkage between the two N-acetylglucosamine units that make up the chitobiose core of N-glycans. The endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidases classified into glycoside hydrolase family 18 are small, bacterial proteins with different substrate specificities. Recently two eukaryotic family 18 deglycosylating enzymes have been identified. Here, the expression, purification and the 1.3Å resolution structure of the ENGase (Endo T) from the mesophilic fungus Hypocrea jecorina (anamorph Trichoderma reesei) are reported. Although the mature protein is C-terminally processed with removal of a 46 amino acid peptide, the protein has a complete (β/α)8 TIM-barrel topology. In the active site, the proton donor (E131) and the residue stabilizing the transition state (D129) in the substrate assisted catalysis mechanism are found in almost identical positions as in the bacterial GH18 ENGases: Endo H, Endo F1, Endo F3, and Endo BT. However, the loops defining the substrate-binding cleft vary greatly from the previously known ENGase structures, and the structures also differ in some of the α-helices forming the barrel. This could reflect the variation in substrate specificity between the five enzymes. This is the first three-dimensional structure of a eukaryotic endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase from glycoside hydrolase family 18. A glycosylation analysis of the cellulases secreted by a Hypocrea jecorina Endo T knock-out strain shows the in vivo function of the protein. A homology search and phylogenetic analysis show that the two known enzymes and their homologues form a large but separate cluster in subgroup B of the fungal chitinases. Therefore the future use of a uniform nomenclature is proposed.
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138
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Harman GE, Herrera-Estrella AH, Horwitz BA, Lorito M. Special issue: Trichoderma--from basic Biology to Biotechnology. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2012; 158:1-2. [PMID: 22210803 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.056424-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gary E Harman
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Cornell University, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
| | | | | | - Matteo Lorito
- Dipartimento di Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale (ArBoPaVe), Università di Napoli Federico II, Portici, Napoli, Italy
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139
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Fungal chitinases: diversity, mechanistic properties and biotechnological potential. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 93:533-43. [PMID: 22134638 PMCID: PMC3257436 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3723-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2011] [Revised: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chitin derivatives, chitosan and substituted chito-oligosaccharides have a wide spectrum of applications ranging from medicine to cosmetics and dietary supplements. With advancing knowledge about the substrate-binding properties of chitinases, enzyme-based production of these biotechnologically relevant sugars from biological resources is becoming increasingly interesting. Fungi have high numbers of glycoside hydrolase family 18 chitinases with different substrate-binding site architectures. As presented in this review, the large diversity of fungal chitinases is an interesting starting point for protein engineering. In this review, recent data about the architecture of the substrate-binding clefts of fungal chitinases, in connection with their hydrolytic and transglycolytic abilities, and the development of chitinase inhibitors are summarized. Furthermore, the biological functions of chitinases, chitin and chitosan utilization by fungi, and the effects of these aspects on biotechnological applications, including protein overexpression and autolysis during industrial processes, are discussed in this review.
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