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Moore BD, Andrew RL, Külheim C, Foley WJ. Explaining intraspecific diversity in plant secondary metabolites in an ecological context. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2014; 201:733-750. [PMID: 24117919 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) are ubiquitous in plants and play many ecological roles. Each compound can vary in presence and/or quantity, and the composition of the mixture of chemicals can vary, such that chemodiversity can be partitioned within and among individuals. Plant ontogeny and environmental and genetic variation are recognized as sources of chemical variation, but recent advances in understanding the molecular basis of variation may allow the future deployment of isogenic mutants to test the specific adaptive function of variation in PSMs. An important consequence of high intraspecific variation is the capacity to evolve rapidly. It is becoming increasingly clear that trait variance linked to both macro- and micro-environmental variation can also evolve and may respond more strongly to selection than mean trait values. This research, which is in its infancy in plants, highlights what could be a missing piece of the picture of PSM evolution. PSM polymorphisms are probably maintained by multiple selective forces acting across many spatial and temporal scales, but convincing examples that recognize the diversity of plant population structures are rare. We describe how diversity can be inherently beneficial for plants and suggest fruitful avenues for future research to untangle the causes and consequences of intraspecific variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben D Moore
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, 2751, NSW, Australia
| | - Rose L Andrew
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 3529-6270 University Blvd, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Carsten Külheim
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, 0200, ACT, Australia
| | - William J Foley
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, 0200, ACT, Australia
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Zi J, Mafu S, Peters RJ. To gibberellins and beyond! Surveying the evolution of (di)terpenoid metabolism. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 65:259-86. [PMID: 24471837 PMCID: PMC4118669 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-035705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The diterpenoids are classically defined by their composition--four isoprenyl units (20 carbons)--and are generally derived from [E,E,E]-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). Such metabolism seems to be ancient and has been extensively diversified, with ∼12,000 diterpenoid natural products known. Particularly notable are the gibberellin phytohormones, whose requisite biosynthesis has provided a genetic reservoir that gave rise to not only a large superfamily of ∼7,000 diterpenoids but also, to some degree, all plant terpenoid natural products. This review focuses on the diterpenoids, particularly the defining biosynthetic characteristics of the major superfamilies defined by the cyclization and/or rearrangement of GGPP catalyzed by diterpene synthases/cyclases, although it also includes some discussion of the important subsequent elaboration in the few cases where sufficient molecular genetic information is available. It additionally addresses the array of biological activity providing the selective pressures that drive the observed gene family expansion and diversification, along with biosynthetic gene clustering.
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103
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Bach SS, Bassard JÉ, Andersen-Ranberg J, Møldrup ME, Simonsen HT, Hamberger B. High-throughput testing of terpenoid biosynthesis candidate genes using transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1153:245-55. [PMID: 24777803 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0606-2_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
To respond to the rapidly growing number of genes putatively involved in terpenoid metabolism, a robust high-throughput platform for functional testing is needed. An in planta expression system offers several advantages such as the capacity to produce correctly folded and active enzymes localized to the native compartments, unlike microbial or prokaryotic expression systems. Two inherent drawbacks of plant-based expression systems, time-consuming generation of transgenic plant lines and challenging gene-stacking, can be circumvented by transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana. In this chapter we describe an expression platform for rapid testing of candidate terpenoid biosynthetic genes based on Agrobacterium mediated gene expression in N. benthamiana leaves. Simultaneous expression of multiple genes is facilitated by co-infiltration of leaves with several engineered Agrobacterium strains, possibly making this the fastest and most convenient system for the assembly of plant terpenoid biosynthetic routes. Tools for cloning of expression plasmids, N. benthamiana culturing, Agrobacterium preparation, leaf infiltration, metabolite extraction, and automated GC-MS data mining are provided. With all steps optimized for high throughput, this in planta expression platform is particularly suited for testing large panels of candidate genes in all possible permutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Spanner Bach
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Brückner K, Tissier A. High-level diterpene production by transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana. PLANT METHODS 2013; 9:46. [PMID: 24330621 PMCID: PMC3878842 DOI: 10.1186/1746-4811-9-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Characterization of plant terpene synthases is typically done by production of recombinant enzymes in Escherichia coli. This is often difficult due to solubility and codon usage issues. Furthermore, plant terpene synthases which are targeted to the plastids, such as diterpene synthases, have to be shortened in a more or less empirical approach to improve expression. We report here an optimized Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression assay in Nicotiana benthamiana for plant diterpene synthase expression and product analysis. RESULTS Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression of plant diterpene synthases in N. benthamiana led to the accumulation of diterpenes within 3 days of infiltration and with a maximum at 5 days. Over 50% of the products were exported onto the leaf surface, thus considerably facilitating the analysis by reducing the complexity of the extracts. The robustness of the method was tested by expressing three different plant enzymes, cembratrien-ol synthase from Nicotiana sylvestris, casbene synthase from Ricinus communis and levopimaradiene synthase from Gingko biloba. Furthermore, co-expression of a 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase from tomato and a geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from tobacco led to a 3.5-fold increase in the amount of cembratrien-ol produced, with maximum yields reaching 2500 ng/cm2. CONCLUSION With this optimized method for diterpene synthase expression and product analysis, a single infiltrated leaf of N. benthamiana would be sufficient to produce quantities required for the structure elucidation of unknown diterpenes. The method will also be of general use for gene function discovery, pathway reconstitution and metabolic engineering of diterpenoid biosynthesis in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Brückner
- Department of Cell and Metabolic Biology, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle-Saale, Germany
| | - Alain Tissier
- Department of Cell and Metabolic Biology, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle-Saale, Germany
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105
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Picking sides: distinct roles for CYP76M6 and CYP76M8 in rice oryzalexin biosynthesis. Biochem J 2013; 454:209-16. [PMID: 23795884 DOI: 10.1042/bj20130574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Natural products biosynthesis often requires the action of multiple CYPs (cytochromes P450), whose ability to introduce oxygen, increasing solubility, is critical for imparting biological activity. In previous investigations of rice diterpenoid biosynthesis, we characterized CYPs that catalyse alternative hydroxylation of ent-sandaracopimaradiene, the precursor to the rice oryzalexin antibiotic phytoalexins. In particular, CYP76M5, CYP76M6 and CYP76M8 were all shown to carry out C-7β hydroxylation, whereas CYP701A8 catalyses C-3α hydroxylation, with oxy groups found at both positions in oryzalexins A-D, suggesting that these may act consecutively in oryzalexin biosynthesis. In the present paper, we report that, although CYP701A8 only poorly reacts with 7β-hydroxy-ent-sandaracopimaradiene, CYP76M6 and CYP76M8 readily react with 3α-hydroxy-ent-sandaracopimaradiene. Notably, their activity yields distinct products, resulting from hydroxylation at C-9β by CYP76M6 or C-7β by CYP76M8, on different sides of the core tricyclic ring structure. Thus CYP76M6 and CYP76M8 have distinct non-redundant roles in orzyalexin biosynthesis. Moreover, the resulting 3α,7β- and 3α,9β-diols correspond to oryzalexins D and E respectively. Accordingly, the results of the present study complete the functional identification of the biosynthetic pathway underlying the production of these bioactive phytoalexins. In addition, the altered regiochemistry catalysed by CYP76M6 following C-3α hydroxylation has some implications for its active-site configuration, offering further molecular insight.
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106
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Westbrook JW, Resende MFR, Munoz P, Walker AR, Wegrzyn JL, Nelson CD, Neale DB, Kirst M, Huber DA, Gezan SA, Peter GF, Davis JM. Association genetics of oleoresin flow in loblolly pine: discovering genes and predicting phenotype for improved resistance to bark beetles and bioenergy potential. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2013; 199:89-100. [PMID: 23534834 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Rapidly enhancing oleoresin production in conifer stems through genomic selection and genetic engineering may increase resistance to bark beetles and terpenoid yield for liquid biofuels. We integrated association genetic and genomic prediction analyses of oleoresin flow (g 24 h(-1)) using 4854 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in expressed genes within a pedigreed population of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) that was clonally replicated at three sites in the southeastern United States. Additive genetic variation in oleoresin flow (h(2) ≈ 0.12-0.30) was strongly correlated between years in which precipitation varied (r(a) ≈ 0.95), while the genetic correlation between sites declined from 0.8 to 0.37 with increasing differences in soil and climate among sites. A total of 231 SNPs were significantly associated with oleoresin flow, of which 81% were specific to individual sites. SNPs in sequences similar to ethylene signaling proteins, ABC transporters, and diterpenoid hydroxylases were associated with oleoresin flow across sites. Despite this complex genetic architecture, we developed a genomic prediction model to accelerate breeding for enhanced oleoresin flow that is robust to environmental variation. Results imply that breeding could increase oleoresin flow 1.5- to 2.4-fold in one generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared W Westbrook
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Marcio F R Resende
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Patricio Munoz
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Alejandro R Walker
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Jill L Wegrzyn
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California at Davis, Mail Stop 4, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - C Dana Nelson
- Southern Institute of Forest Genetics, USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 23332 Success Rd, Saucier, MS, 39574, USA
| | - David B Neale
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California at Davis, Mail Stop 4, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Matias Kirst
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Dudley A Huber
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Salvador A Gezan
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Gary F Peter
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - John M Davis
- Forest Genomics Laboratory, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, 1376 Mowry Rd, Rm 320, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
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CYP76AH1 catalyzes turnover of miltiradiene in tanshinones biosynthesis and enables heterologous production of ferruginol in yeasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:12108-13. [PMID: 23812755 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1218061110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) play major roles in generating highly functionalized terpenoids, but identifying the exact biotransformation step(s) catalyzed by plant CYP in terpenoid biosynthesis is extremely challenging. Tanshinones are abietane-type norditerpenoid naphthoquinones that are the main lipophilic bioactive components of the Chinese medicinal herb danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza). Whereas the diterpene synthases responsible for the conversion of (E,E,E)-geranylgeranyl diphosphate into the abietane miltiradiene, a potential precursor to tanshinones, have been recently described, molecular characterization of further transformation of miltiradiene remains unavailable. Here we report stable-isotope labeling results that demonstrate the intermediacy of miltiradiene in tanshinone biosynthesis. We further use a next-generation sequencing approach to identify six candidate CYP genes being coregulated with the diterpene synthase genes in both the rhizome and danshen hairy roots, and demonstrate that one of these, CYP76AH1, catalyzes a unique four-electron oxidation cascade on miltiradiene to produce ferruginol both in vitro and in vivo. We then build upon the previous establishment of miltiradiene production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with incorporation of CYP76AH1 and phyto-CYP reductase genes leading to heterologous production of ferruginol at 10.5 mg/L. As ferruginol has been found in many plants including danshen, the results and the approaches that were described here provide a solid foundation to further elucidate the biosynthesis of tanshinones and related diterpenoids. Moreover, these results should facilitate the construction of microbial cell factories for the production of phytoterpenoids.
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108
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Boone CK, Keefover-Ring K, Mapes AC, Adams AS, Bohlmann J, Raffa KF. Bacteria associated with a tree-killing insect reduce concentrations of plant defense compounds. J Chem Ecol 2013; 39:1003-6. [PMID: 23807433 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-013-0313-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Bark beetles encounter a diverse array of constitutive and rapidly induced terpenes when attempting to colonize living conifers. Concentrations of these compounds at entry sites can rapidly reach levels toxic to beetles, their brood, and fungal symbionts. Large numbers of beetles can overwhelm tree defenses via pheromone-mediated mass attacks, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. We show that bacteria associated with mountain pine beetles can metabolize monoterpenes and diterpene acids. The abilities of different symbionts to reduce concentrations of different terpenes appear complementary. Serratia reduced concentrations of all monoterpenes applied to media by 55-75 %, except for α-pinene. Beetle-associated Rahnella reduced (-)- and (+)-α-pinene by 40 % and 45 %, respectively. Serratia and Brevundimonas reduced diterpene abietic acid levels by 100 % at low concentrations. However, high concentrations exhausted this ability, suggesting that opposing rates of bacterial metabolism and plant induction of terpenes are critical. The two major fungal symbionts of mountain pine beetle, Grosmannia clavigera and Ophiostoma montium were highly susceptible to abietic acid. Grosmannia clavigera did not reduce total monoterpene concentrations in lodgepole pine turpentine. We propose the ability of bark beetles to exert landscape-scale impacts may arise partly from micro-scale processes driven by bacterial symbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia K Boone
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin, 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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109
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Zerbe P, Hamberger B, Yuen MM, Chiang A, Sandhu HK, Madilao LL, Nguyen A, Hamberger B, Bach SS, Bohlmann J. Gene discovery of modular diterpene metabolism in nonmodel systems. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 162:1073-91. [PMID: 23613273 PMCID: PMC3668041 DOI: 10.1104/pp.113.218347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce over 10,000 different diterpenes of specialized (secondary) metabolism, and fewer diterpenes of general (primary) metabolism. Specialized diterpenes may have functions in ecological interactions of plants with other organisms and also benefit humanity as pharmaceuticals, fragrances, resins, and other industrial bioproducts. Examples of high-value diterpenes are taxol and forskolin pharmaceuticals or ambroxide fragrances. Yields and purity of diterpenes obtained from natural sources or by chemical synthesis are often insufficient for large-volume or high-end applications. Improvement of agricultural or biotechnological diterpene production requires knowledge of biosynthetic genes and enzymes. However, specialized diterpene pathways are extremely diverse across the plant kingdom, and most specialized diterpenes are taxonomically restricted to a few plant species, genera, or families. Consequently, there is no single reference system to guide gene discovery and rapid annotation of specialized diterpene pathways. Functional diversification of genes and plasticity of enzyme functions of these pathways further complicate correct annotation. To address this challenge, we used a set of 10 different plant species to develop a general strategy for diterpene gene discovery in nonmodel systems. The approach combines metabolite-guided transcriptome resources, custom diterpene synthase (diTPS) and cytochrome P450 reference gene databases, phylogenies, and, as shown for select diTPSs, single and coupled enzyme assays using microbial and plant expression systems. In the 10 species, we identified 46 new diTPS candidates and over 400 putatively terpenoid-related P450s in a resource of nearly 1 million predicted transcripts of diterpene-accumulating tissues. Phylogenetic patterns of lineage-specific blooms of genes guided functional characterization.
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110
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Hall DE, Yuen MMS, Jancsik S, Quesada AL, Dullat HK, Li M, Henderson H, Arango-Velez A, Liao NY, Docking RT, Chan SK, Cooke JEK, Breuil C, Jones SJM, Keeling CI, Bohlmann J. Transcriptome resources and functional characterization of monoterpene synthases for two host species of the mountain pine beetle, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:80. [PMID: 23679205 PMCID: PMC3668260 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mountain pine beetle (MPB, Dendroctonus ponderosae) epidemic has affected lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) across an area of more than 18 million hectares of pine forests in western Canada, and is a threat to the boreal jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forest. Defence of pines against MPB and associated fungal pathogens, as well as other pests, involves oleoresin monoterpenes, which are biosynthesized by families of terpene synthases (TPSs). Volatile monoterpenes also serve as host recognition cues for MPB and as precursors for MPB pheromones. The genes responsible for terpene biosynthesis in jack pine and lodgepole pine were previously unknown. RESULTS We report the generation and quality assessment of assembled transcriptome resources for lodgepole pine and jack pine using Sanger, Roche 454, and Illumina sequencing technologies. Assemblies revealed transcripts for approximately 20,000 - 30,000 genes from each species and assembly analyses led to the identification of candidate full-length prenyl transferase, TPS, and P450 genes of oleoresin biosynthesis. We cloned and functionally characterized, via expression of recombinant proteins in E. coli, nine different jack pine and eight different lodgepole pine mono-TPSs. The newly identified lodgepole pine and jack pine mono-TPSs include (+)-α-pinene synthases, (-)-α-pinene synthases, (-)-β-pinene synthases, (+)-3-carene synthases, and (-)-β-phellandrene synthases from each of the two species. CONCLUSION In the absence of genome sequences, transcriptome assemblies are important for defence gene discovery in lodgepole pine and jack pine, as demonstrated here for the terpenoid pathway genes. The product profiles of the functionally annotated mono-TPSs described here can account for the major monoterpene metabolites identified in lodgepole pine and jack pine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn E Hall
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Macaire M S Yuen
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sharon Jancsik
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Alfonso Lara Quesada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Harpreet K Dullat
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Maria Li
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Hannah Henderson
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Adriana Arango-Velez
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Nancy Y Liao
- British Columbia Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4E6, Canada
| | - Roderick T Docking
- British Columbia Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4E6, Canada
| | - Simon K Chan
- British Columbia Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4E6, Canada
| | - Janice EK Cooke
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Colette Breuil
- Department of Wood Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Steven JM Jones
- British Columbia Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4E6, Canada
| | - Christopher I Keeling
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jörg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Neilson EH, Goodger JQD, Woodrow IE, Møller BL. Plant chemical defense: at what cost? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 18:250-8. [PMID: 23415056 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants are sessile organisms and dependent on deployment of secondary metabolites for their response to biotic and abiotic challenges. A trade-off is envisioned between resources allocated to growth, development, and reproduction and to the biosynthesis, storage, and maintenance of secondary metabolites. However, increasing evidence suggests that secondary metabolites serve auxiliary roles, including functions associated with primary metabolism. In this opinion article, we examine how the costs of plant chemical defense can be offset by multifunctional biosynthesis and the optimization of primary metabolism. These additional benefits may negate the trade-off between primary and secondary metabolism, and provide plants with an innate plasticity required for growth, development, and interactions with their environment.
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112
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Foster AJ, Hall DE, Mortimer L, Abercromby S, Gries R, Gries G, Bohlmann J, Russell J, Mattsson J. Identification of genes in Thuja plicata foliar terpenoid defenses. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 161:1993-2004. [PMID: 23388118 PMCID: PMC3613470 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.206383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Thuja plicata (western redcedar) is a long-lived conifer species whose foliage is rarely affected by disease or insect pests, but can be severely damaged by ungulate browsing. Deterrence to browsing correlates with high foliar levels of terpenoids, in particular the monoterpenoid α-thujone. Here, we set out to identify genes whose products may be involved in the production of α-thujone and other terpenoids in this species. First, we generated a foliar transcriptome database from which to draw candidate genes. Second, we mapped the storage of thujones and other terpenoids to foliar glands. Third, we used global expression profiling to identify more than 600 genes that are expressed at high levels in foliage with glands, but can either not be detected or are expressed at low levels in a natural variant lacking foliar glands. Fourth, we used in situ RNA hybridization to map the expression of a putative monoterpene synthase to the epithelium of glands and used enzyme assays with recombinant protein of the same gene to show that it produces sabinene, the monoterpene precursor of α-thujone. Finally, we identified candidate genes with predicted enzymatic functions for the conversion of sabinene to α-thujone. Taken together, this approach generated both general resources and detailed functional characterization in the identification of genes of foliar terpenoid biosynthesis in T. plicata.
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113
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Janocha S, Zapp J, Hutter M, Kleser M, Bohlmann J, Bernhardt R. Resin Acid Conversion with CYP105A1: An Enzyme with Potential for the Production of Pharmaceutically Relevant Diterpenoids. Chembiochem 2013; 14:467-73. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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114
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Hall DE, Zerbe P, Jancsik S, Quesada AL, Dullat H, Madilao LL, Yuen M, Bohlmann J. Evolution of conifer diterpene synthases: diterpene resin acid biosynthesis in lodgepole pine and jack pine involves monofunctional and bifunctional diterpene synthases. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 161:600-16. [PMID: 23370714 PMCID: PMC3561007 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.208546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Diterpene resin acids (DRAs) are major components of pine (Pinus spp.) oleoresin. They play critical roles in conifer defense against insects and pathogens and as a renewable resource for industrial bioproducts. The core structures of DRAs are formed in secondary (i.e. specialized) metabolism via cycloisomerization of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) by diterpene synthases (diTPSs). Previously described gymnosperm diTPSs of DRA biosynthesis are bifunctional enzymes that catalyze the initial bicyclization of GGPP followed by rearrangement of a (+)-copalyl diphosphate intermediate at two discrete class II and class I active sites. In contrast, similar diterpenes of gibberellin primary (i.e. general) metabolism are produced by the consecutive activity of two monofunctional class II and class I diTPSs. Using high-throughput transcriptome sequencing, we discovered 11 diTPS from jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Three of these were orthologous to known conifer bifunctional levopimaradiene/abietadiene synthases. Surprisingly, two sets of orthologous PbdiTPSs and PcdiTPSs were monofunctional class I enzymes that lacked functional class II active sites and converted (+)-copalyl diphosphate, but not GGPP, into isopimaradiene and pimaradiene as major products. Diterpene profiles and transcriptome sequences of lodgepole pine and jack pine are consistent with roles for these diTPSs in DRA biosynthesis. The monofunctional class I diTPSs of DRA biosynthesis form a new clade within the gymnosperm-specific TPS-d3 subfamily that evolved from bifunctional diTPS rather than monofunctional enzymes (TPS-c and TPS-e) of gibberellin metabolism. Homology modeling suggested alterations in the class I active site that may have contributed to their functional specialization relative to other conifer diTPSs.
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Hamberger B, Bak S. Plant P450s as versatile drivers for evolution of species-specific chemical diversity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20120426. [PMID: 23297350 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The irreversible nature of reactions catalysed by P450s makes these enzymes landmarks in the evolution of plant metabolic pathways. Founding members of P450 families are often associated with general (i.e. primary) metabolic pathways, restricted to single copy or very few representatives, indicative of purifying selection. Recruitment of those and subsequent blooms into multi-member gene families generates genetic raw material for functional diversification, which is an inherent characteristic of specialized (i.e. secondary) metabolism. However, a growing number of highly specialized P450s from not only the CYP71 clan indicate substantial contribution of convergent and divergent evolution to the observed general and specialized metabolite diversity. We will discuss examples of how the genetic and functional diversification of plant P450s drives chemical diversity in light of plant evolution. Even though it is difficult to predict the function or substrate of a P450 based on sequence similarity, grouping with a family or subfamily in phylogenetic trees can indicate association with metabolism of particular classes of compounds. Examples will be given that focus on multi-member gene families of P450s involved in the metabolic routes of four classes of specialized metabolites: cyanogenic glucosides, glucosinolates, mono- to triterpenoids and phenylpropanoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Hamberger
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, 1871 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Bohlmann J. Pine terpenoid defences in the mountain pine beetle epidemic and in other conifer pest interactions: specialized enemies are eating holes into a diverse, dynamic and durable defence system. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 32:943-5. [PMID: 22874830 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tps065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Joerg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6S 1Z4.
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Caniard A, Zerbe P, Legrand S, Cohade A, Valot N, Magnard JL, Bohlmann J, Legendre L. Discovery and functional characterization of two diterpene synthases for sclareol biosynthesis in Salvia sclarea (L.) and their relevance for perfume manufacture. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2012; 12:119. [PMID: 22834731 PMCID: PMC3520730 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-12-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sclareol is a diterpene natural product of high value for the fragrance industry. Its labdane carbon skeleton and its two hydroxyl groups also make it a valued starting material for semisynthesis of numerous commercial substances, including production of Ambrox® and related ambergris substitutes used in the formulation of high end perfumes. Most of the commercially-produced sclareol is derived from cultivated clary sage (Salvia sclarea) and extraction of the plant material. In clary sage, sclareol mainly accumulates in essential oil-producing trichomes that densely cover flower calices. Manool also is a minor diterpene of this species and the main diterpene of related Salvia species. RESULTS Based on previous general knowledge of diterpene biosynthesis in angiosperms, and based on mining of our recently published transcriptome database obtained by deep 454-sequencing of cDNA from clary sage calices, we cloned and functionally characterized two new diterpene synthase (diTPS) enzymes for the complete biosynthesis of sclareol in clary sage. A class II diTPS (SsLPPS) produced labda-13-en-8-ol diphosphate as major product from geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) with some minor quantities of its non-hydroxylated analogue, (9 S, 10 S)-copalyl diphosphate. A class I diTPS (SsSS) then transformed these intermediates into sclareol and manool, respectively. The production of sclareol was reconstructed in vitro by combining the two recombinant diTPS enzymes with the GGPP starting substrate and in vivo by co-expression of the two proteins in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Tobacco-based transient expression assays of green fluorescent protein-fusion constructs revealed that both enzymes possess an N-terminal signal sequence that actively targets SsLPPS and SsSS to the chloroplast, a major site of GGPP and diterpene production in plants. CONCLUSIONS SsLPPS and SsSS are two monofunctional diTPSs which, together, produce the diterpenoid specialized metabolite sclareol in a two-step process. They represent two of the first characterized hydroxylating diTPSs in angiosperms and generate the dihydroxylated labdane sclareol without requirement for additional enzymatic oxidation by activities such as cytochrome P450 monoxygenases. Yeast-based production of sclareol by co-expresssion of SsLPPS and SsSS was efficient enough to warrant the development and use of such technology for the biotechnological production of scareol and other oxygenated diterpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Caniard
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Université de Lyon, Saint-Etienne, F-42023, France
- Université de Saint-Etienne, Jean Monnet, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
- Laboratoire BVpam, EA3061, 23 rue du Dr Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
| | - Philipp Zerbe
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Sylvain Legrand
- Université Lille Nord de France, Lille, F-59000, France
- Université Lille1, Villeneuve d’Ascq, F-59655, France
- Stress Abiotiques et Différenciation des Végétaux Cultivés (SADV), UMR INRA 1281, Bâtiment SN2, Villeneuve d'Ascq, F-59655, France
| | - Allison Cohade
- Université de Lyon, Saint-Etienne, F-42023, France
- Université de Saint-Etienne, Jean Monnet, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
- Laboratoire BVpam, EA3061, 23 rue du Dr Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
| | - Nadine Valot
- Université de Lyon, Saint-Etienne, F-42023, France
- Université de Saint-Etienne, Jean Monnet, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
- Laboratoire BVpam, EA3061, 23 rue du Dr Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
| | - Jean-Louis Magnard
- Université de Lyon, Saint-Etienne, F-42023, France
- Université de Saint-Etienne, Jean Monnet, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
- Laboratoire BVpam, EA3061, 23 rue du Dr Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, F-42000, France
| | - Jörg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Laurent Legendre
- Université de Lyon, Lyon, F-69622, France
- Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
- CNRS, UMR5557, Ecologie Microbienne, Villeurbanne, France
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Zerbe P, Chiang A, Yuen M, Hamberger B, Hamberger B, Draper JA, Britton R, Bohlmann J. Bifunctional cis-abienol synthase from Abies balsamea discovered by transcriptome sequencing and its implications for diterpenoid fragrance production. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:12121-31. [PMID: 22337889 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.317669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The labdanoid diterpene alcohol cis-abienol is a major component of the aromatic oleoresin of balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and serves as a valuable bioproduct material for the fragrance industry. Using high-throughput 454 transcriptome sequencing and metabolite profiling of balsam fir bark tissue, we identified candidate diterpene synthase sequences for full-length cDNA cloning and functional characterization. We discovered a bifunctional class I/II cis-abienol synthase (AbCAS), along with the paralogous levopimaradiene/abietadiene synthase and isopimaradiene synthase, all of which are members of the gymnosperm-specific TPS-d subfamily. The AbCAS-catalyzed formation of cis-abienol proceeds via cyclization and hydroxylation at carbon C-8 of a postulated carbocation intermediate in the class II active site, followed by cleavage of the diphosphate group and termination of the reaction sequence without further cyclization in the class I active site. This reaction mechanism is distinct from that of synthases of the isopimaradiene- or levopimaradiene/abietadiene synthase type, which employ deprotonation reactions in the class II active site and secondary cyclizations in the class I active site, leading to tricyclic diterpenes. Comparative homology modeling suggested the active site residues Asp-348, Leu-617, Phe-696, and Gly-723 as potentially important for the specificity of AbCAS. As a class I/II bifunctional enzyme, AbCAS is a promising target for metabolic engineering of cis-abienol production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Zerbe
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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