Dynamic representation of whisker deflection by synaptic potentials in spiny stellate and pyramidal cells in the barrels and septa of layer 4 rat somatosensory cortex

Voltage-sensitive dye imaging reveals shifting spatiotemporal spread of whisker-induced activity in rat barrel cortex

In rats, navigating through an environment requires continuous information about objects near the head. Sensory information such as object location and surface texture are encoded by spike firing patterns of single neurons within rat barrel cortex. Although there are many studies using single-unit electrophysiology, much less is known regarding the spatiotemporal pattern of activity of populations of neurons in barrel cortex in response to whisker stimulation. To examine cortical response at the population level, we used voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging to examine ensemble spatiotemporal dynamics of barrel cortex in response to stimulation of single or two adjacent whiskers in urethane-anesthetized rats. Single whisker stimulation produced a poststimulus fluorescence response peak within 12-16 ms in the barrel corresponding to the stimulated whisker (principal whisker). This fluorescence subsequently propagated throughout the barrel field, spreading anisotropically preferentially along a barrel row. After paired whisker stimulation, the VSD signal showed sublinear summation (less than the sum of 2 single whisker stimulations), consistent with previous electrophysiological and imaging studies. Surprisingly, we observed a spatial shift in the center of activation occurring over a 10- to 20-ms period with shift magnitudes of 1-2 barrels. This shift occurred predominantly in the posteromedial direction within the barrel field. Our data thus reveal previously unreported spatiotemporal patterns of barrel cortex activation. We suggest that this nontopographical shift is consistent with known functional and anatomic asymmetries in barrel cortex and that it may provide an important insight for understanding barrel field activation during whisking behavior.

Correlated input reveals coexisting coding schemes in a sensory cortex

As in other sensory modalities, one function of the somatosensory system is to detect coherence and contrast in the environment. To investigate the neural bases of these computations, we applied different spatiotemporal patterns of stimuli to rat whiskers while recording multiple neurons in the barrel cortex. Model-based analysis of the responses revealed different coding schemes according to the level of input correlation. With uncorrelated stimuli on 24 whiskers, we identified two distinct functional categories of neurons, analogous in the temporal domain to simple and complex cells of the primary visual cortex. With correlated stimuli, however, a complementary coding scheme emerged: two distinct cell populations, similar to reinforcing and antagonist neurons described in the higher visual area MT, responded specifically to correlations. We suggest that similar context-dependent coexisting coding strategies may be present in other sensory systems to adapt sensory integration to specific stimulus statistics.

Network and neuronal membrane properties in hybrid networks reciprocally regulate selectivity to rapid thalamocortical inputs

Rapidly changing environments require rapid processing from sensory inputs. Varying deflection velocities of a rodent's primary facial vibrissa cause varying temporal neuronal activity profiles within the ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus. Local neuron populations in a single somatosensory layer 4 barrel transform sparsely coded input into a spike count based on the input's temporal profile. We investigate this transformation by creating a barrel-like hybrid network with whole cell recordings of in vitro neurons from a cortical slice preparation, embedding the biological neuron in the simulated network by presenting virtual synaptic conductances via a conductance clamp. Utilizing the hybrid network, we examine the reciprocal network properties (local excitatory and inhibitory synaptic convergence) and neuronal membrane properties (input resistance) by altering the barrel population response to diverse thalamic input. In the presence of local network input, neurons are more selective to thalamic input timing; this arises from strong feedforward inhibition. Strongly inhibitory (damping) network regimes are more selective to timing and less selective to the magnitude of input but require stronger initial input. Input selectivity relies heavily on the different membrane properties of excitatory and inhibitory neurons. When inhibitory and excitatory neurons had identical membrane properties, the sensitivity of in vitro neurons to temporal vs. magnitude features of input was substantially reduced. Increasing the mean leak conductance of the inhibitory cells decreased the network's temporal sensitivity, whereas increasing excitatory leak conductance enhanced magnitude sensitivity. Local network synapses are essential in shaping thalamic input, and differing membrane properties of functional classes reciprocally modulate this effect.

The vestibular system implements a linear-nonlinear transformation in order to encode self-motion

Early vestibular processing in macaque monkeys is inherently nonlinear and is optimized to detect specific features of self-motion.

Although it is well established that the neural code representing the world changes at each stage of a sensory pathway, the transformations that mediate these changes are not well understood. Here we show that self-motion (i.e. vestibular) sensory information encoded by VIIIth nerve afferents is integrated nonlinearly by post-synaptic central vestibular neurons. This response nonlinearity was characterized by a strong (∼50%) attenuation in neuronal sensitivity to low frequency stimuli when presented concurrently with high frequency stimuli. Using computational methods, we further demonstrate that a static boosting nonlinearity in the input-output relationship of central vestibular neurons accounts for this unexpected result. Specifically, when low and high frequency stimuli are presented concurrently, this boosting nonlinearity causes an intensity-dependent bias in the output firing rate, thereby attenuating neuronal sensitivities. We suggest that nonlinear integration of afferent input extends the coding range of central vestibular neurons and enables them to better extract the high frequency features of self-motion when embedded with low frequency motion during natural movements. These findings challenge the traditional notion that the vestibular system uses a linear rate code to transmit information and have important consequences for understanding how the representation of sensory information changes across sensory pathways.

Understanding how the coding of sensory information changes at different stages of sensory processing remains a fundamental challenge in systems neuroscience. Here we address this question by studying early sensory processing in vestibular pathways of monkeys, a system for which sensory stimuli are relatively easy to describe. Peripheral vestibular afferents detect and encode head motion in space to ensure posture and gaze is accurate and stable during everyday life. In this study, we show that central vestibular neurons nonlinearly integrate their afferent inputs, which helps explain the mechanisms that generate enhanced feature detection in sensory pathways. In addition, our results overturn conventional wisdom that early vestibular processing is linear, revealing a striking boosting nonlinearity that is a hallmark of the first central stage of vestibular processing. Studies from other sensory systems have shown that higher-order neurons can more efficiently detect specific features of sensory input, and that nonlinear transformations can increase this efficiency. We suggest that nonlinear integration of afferent input by central vestibular neurons extends their coding range and facilitates the detection of natural vestibular stimuli.

Excitatory neuronal connectivity in the barrel cortex

Neocortical areas are believed to be organized into vertical modules, the cortical columns, and the horizontal layers 1–6. In the somatosensory barrel cortex these columns are defined by the readily discernible barrel structure in layer 4. Information processing in the neocortex occurs along vertical and horizontal axes, thereby linking individual barrel-related columns via axons running through the different cortical layers of the barrel cortex. Long-range signaling occurs within the neocortical layers but also through axons projecting through the white matter to other neocortical areas and subcortical brain regions. Because of the ease of identification of barrel-related columns, the rodent barrel cortex has become a prototypical system to study the interactions between different neuronal connections within a sensory cortical area and between this area and other cortical as well subcortical regions. Such interactions will be discussed specifically for the feed-forward and feedback loops between the somatosensory and the somatomotor cortices as well as the different thalamic nuclei. In addition, recent advances concerning the morphological characteristics of excitatory neurons and their impact on the synaptic connectivity patterns and signaling properties of neuronal microcircuits in the whisker-related somatosensory cortex will be reviewed. In this context, their relationship between the structural properties of barrel-related columns and their function as a module in vertical synaptic signaling in the whisker-related cortical areas will be discussed.

Surround suppression and sparse coding in visual and barrel cortices

During natural vision the entire retina is stimulated. Likewise, during natural tactile behaviors, spatially extensive regions of the somatosensory surface are co-activated. The large spatial extent of naturalistic stimulation means that surround suppression, a phenomenon whose neural mechanisms remain a matter of debate, must arise during natural behavior. To identify common neural motifs that might instantiate surround suppression across modalities, we review models of surround suppression and compare the evidence supporting the competing ideas that surround suppression has either cortical or sub-cortical origins in visual and barrel cortex. In the visual system there is general agreement lateral inhibitory mechanisms contribute to surround suppression, but little direct experimental evidence that intracortical inhibition plays a major role. Two intracellular recording studies of V1, one using naturalistic stimuli (Haider et al., 2010), the other sinusoidal gratings (Ozeki et al., 2009), sought to identify the causes of reduced activity in V1 with increasing stimulus size, a hallmark of surround suppression. The former attributed this effect to increased inhibition, the latter to largely balanced withdrawal of excitation and inhibition. In rodent primary somatosensory barrel cortex, multi-whisker responses are generally weaker than single whisker responses, suggesting multi-whisker stimulation engages similar surround suppressive mechanisms. The origins of suppression in S1 remain elusive: studies have implicated brainstem lateral/internuclear interactions and both thalamic and cortical inhibition. Although the anatomical organization and instantiation of surround suppression in the visual and somatosensory systems differ, we consider the idea that one common function of surround suppression, in both modalities, is to remove the statistical redundancies associated with natural stimuli by increasing the sparseness or selectivity of sensory responses.

Columnar interactions determine horizontal propagation of recurrent network activity in neocortex

The cortex is organized in vertical and horizontal circuits that determine the spatiotemporal properties of distributed cortical activity. Despite detailed knowledge of synaptic interactions among individual cells in the neocortex, little is known about the rules governing interactions among local populations. Here, we used self-sustained recurrent activity generated in cortex, also known as up-states, in rat thalamocortical slices in vitro to understand interactions among laminar and horizontal circuits. By means of intracellular recordings and fast optical imaging with voltage-sensitive dyes, we show that single thalamic inputs activate the cortical column in a preferential layer 4 (L4) → layer 2/3 (L2/3) → layer 5 (L5) sequence, followed by horizontal propagation with a leading front in supragranular and infragranular layers. To understand the laminar and columnar interactions, we used focal injections of TTX to block activity in small local populations, while preserving functional connectivity in the rest of the network. We show that L2/3 alone, without underlying L5, does not generate self-sustained activity and is inefficient propagating activity horizontally. In contrast, L5 sustains activity in the absence of L2/3 and is necessary and sufficient to propagate activity horizontally. However, loss of L2/3 delays horizontal propagation via L5. Finally, L5 amplifies activity in L2/3. Our results show for the first time that columnar interactions between supragranular and infragranular layers are required for the normal propagation of activity in the neocortex. Our data suggest that supragranular and infragranular circuits, with their specific and complex set of inputs and outputs, work in tandem to determine the patterns of cortical activation observed in vivo.

Inhibitory Regulation of Dendritic Activity in vivo

The spatiotemporal control of neuronal excitability is fundamental to the inhibitory process. We now have a wealth of information about the active dendritic properties of cortical neurons including axonally generated sodium action potentials as well as local sodium spikelets generated in the dendrites, calcium plateau spikes, and NMDA spikes. All of these events have been shown to be highly modified by the spatiotemporal pattern of nearby inhibitory input which can drastically change the output firing mode of the neuron. This means that particular populations of interneurons embedded in the neocortical microcircuitry can more precisely control pyramidal cell output than has previously been thought. Furthermore, the output of any given neuron tends to feed back onto inhibitory circuits making the resultant network activity further dependent on inhibition. Network activity is therefore ultimately governed by the subcellular microcircuitry of the cortex and it is impossible to ignore the subcompartmentalization of inhibitory influence at the neuronal level in order to understand its effects at the network level. In this article, we summarize the inhibitory circuits that have been shown so far to act on specific dendritic compartments in vivo.

Experimental evidence for sparse firing in the neocortex

The advent of unbiased recording and imaging techniques to evaluate firing activity across neocortical neurons has revealed substantial heterogeneity in response properties in vivo, and that a minority of neurons are responsible for the majority of spikes. Despite the computational advantages to sparsely firing populations, experimental data defining the fraction of responsive neurons and the range of firing rates have not been synthesized. Here we review data about the distribution of activity across neuronal populations in primary sensory cortex. Overall, the firing output of granular and infragranular layers is highest. Although subthreshold activity across supragranular neurons is decidedly non-sparse, spikes are much less frequent and some cells are silent. Superficial layers of the cortex may employ specific cell and circuit mechanisms to increase sparseness.

Quantifying impacts of short-term plasticity on neuronal information transfer

Short-term changes in efficacy have been postulated to enhance the ability of synapses to transmit information between neurons, and within neuronal networks. Even at the level of connections between single neurons, direct confirmation of this simple conjecture has proven elusive. By combining paired-cell recordings, realistic synaptic modeling, and information theory, we provide evidence that short-term plasticity can not only improve, but also reduce information transfer between neurons. We focus on a concrete example in rat neocortex, but our results may generalize to other systems. When information is contained in the timings of individual spikes, we find that facilitation, depression, and recovery affect information transmission in proportion to their impacts upon the probability of neurotransmitter release. When information is instead conveyed by mean spike rate only, the influences of short-term plasticity critically depend on the range of spike frequencies that the target network can distinguish (its effective dynamic range). Our results suggest that to efficiently transmit information, the brain must match synaptic type, coding strategy, and network connectivity during development and behavior.

Trial-to-trial correlation between thalamic sensory response and global EEG activity

Thalamic gating of sensory inputs to the cortex varies with behavioral conditions, such as sleep-wake cycles, or with different stages of anesthesia. Behavioral conditions in turn are accompanied by stereotypic spectral content of the EEG. In the rodent somatosensory system, the receptive field size of the ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus (VPM) shrinks when anesthesia is deepened. Here we examined whether evoked thalamic responses are correlated with global EEG activity on a fine time scale of a few seconds. Trial-by-trial analysis of responses of VPM cells to whisker stimulation in lightly anesthetized rats indicated that increased EEG power in the delta band (1-4 Hz) was accompanied by a small, but highly significant, reduction in spontaneous and evoked thalamic firing. The opposite effect was found for the gamma EEG band (30-50 Hz). These significant correlations were not accompanied by an apparent change in the size of the receptive fields and were not EEG phase-related. The correlation between EEG and firing rate was observed only in neurons that responded to multiple whiskers and was higher for the non-principal whiskers. Importantly, the contributions of the two EEG bands to the modulation of VPM responses were to a large extent independent of each other. Our findings suggest that information conveyed by different whiskers can be rapidly modulated according to the global brain activity.

Subthreshold somatic voltage in neocortical pyramidal cells can control whether spikes propagate from the axonal plexus to axon terminals: a model study

There is suggestive evidence that pyramidal cell axons in neocortex may be coupled by gap junctions into an "axonal plexus" capable of generating very fast oscillations (VFOs) with frequencies exceeding 80 Hz. It is not obvious, however, how a pyramidal cell in such a network could control its output when action potentials are free to propagate from the axons of other pyramidal cells into its own axon. We address this problem by means of simulations based on three-dimensional reconstructions of pyramidal cells from rat somatosensory cortex. We show that somatic depolarization enables propagation via gap junctions into the initial segment and main axon, while somatic hyperpolarization disables it. We show further that somatic voltage cannot effectively control action potential propagation through gap junctions on minor collaterals; action potentials may therefore propagate freely from such collaterals regardless of somatic voltage. In previous work, VFOs are all but abolished during the hyperpolarization phase of slow oscillations induced by anesthesia in vivo. This finding constrains the density of gap junctions on collaterals in our model and suggests that axonal sprouting due to cortical lesions may result in abnormally high gap junction density on collaterals, leading in turn to excessive VFO activity and hence to epilepsy via kindling.

Local connections of excitatory neurons to corticothalamic neurons in the rat barrel cortex

Corticothalamic projection neurons in the cerebral cortex constitute an important component of the thalamocortical reciprocal circuit, an essential input/output organization for cortical information processing. However, the spatial organization of local excitatory connections to corticothalamic neurons is only partially understood. In the present study, we first developed an adenovirus vector expressing somatodendritic membrane-targeted green fluorescent protein. After injection of the adenovirus vector into the ventrobasal thalamic complex, a band of layer (L) 6 corticothalamic neurons in the rat barrel cortex were retrogradely labeled. In addition to their cell bodies, fine dendritic spines of corticothalamic neurons were well visualized without the labeling of their axon collaterals or thalamocortical axons. In cortical slices containing retrogradely labeled L6 corticothalamic neurons, we intracellularly stained single pyramidal/spiny neurons of L2-6. We examined the spatial distribution of contact sites between the local axon collaterals of each pyramidal neuron and the dendrites of corticothalamic neurons. We found that corticothalamic neurons received strong and focused connections from L4 neurons just above them, and that the most numerous nearby and distant sources of local excitatory connections to corticothalamic neurons were corticothalamic neurons themselves and L6 putative corticocortical neurons, respectively. These results suggest that L4 neurons may serve as an important source of local excitatory inputs in shaping the cortical modulation of thalamic activity.

Layer- and cell-type-specific subthreshold and suprathreshold effects of long-term monocular deprivation in rat visual cortex

Connectivity and dendritic properties are determinants of plasticity that are layer and cell-type specific in the neocortex. However, the impact of experience-dependent plasticity at the level of synaptic inputs and spike outputs remains unclear along vertical cortical microcircuits. Here I compared subthreshold and suprathreshold sensitivity to prolonged monocular deprivation (MD) in rat binocular visual cortex in layer 4 and layer 2/3 pyramids (4Ps and 2/3Ps) and in thick-tufted and nontufted layer 5 pyramids (5TPs and 5NPs), which innervate different extracortical targets. In normal rats, 5TPs and 2/3Ps are the most binocular in terms of synaptic inputs, and 5NPs are the least. Spike responses of all 5TPs were highly binocular, whereas those of 2/3Ps were dominated by either the contralateral or ipsilateral eye. MD dramatically shifted the ocular preference of 2/3Ps and 4Ps, mostly by depressing deprived-eye inputs. Plasticity was profoundly different in layer 5. The subthreshold ocular preference shift was sevenfold smaller in 5TPs because of smaller depression of deprived inputs combined with a generalized loss of responsiveness, and was undetectable in 5NPs. Despite their modest ocular dominance change, spike responses of 5TPs consistently lost their typically high binocularity during MD. The comparison of MD effects on 2/3Ps and 5TPs, the main affected output cells of vertical microcircuits, indicated that subthreshold plasticity is not uniquely determined by the initial degree of input binocularity. The data raise the question of whether 5TPs are driven solely by 2/3Ps during MD. The different suprathreshold plasticity of the two cell populations could underlie distinct functional deficits in amblyopia.

Effect of high velocity, large amplitude stimuli on the spread of depolarization in S1 "barrel" cortex

We examined the effect of large, controlled whisker movements, delivered at a high speed, on the amplitude and spread of depolarization in the anesthetized mouse barrel cortex. The stimulus speed was varied between 1500 and 6000°/s and the extent of movement was varied between 4° and 16°. The rate of rise of the response was linearly related to the rate of rise of the stimulus. The initial spatial extent of cortical activation was also related to the rate of rise of the stimulus: that is, the faster the stimulus onset, the faster the rate of rise of the response, the larger the extent of cortex activated initially. The spatial extent of the response and the rate of rise of the response were not correlated with changes in the deflection amplitude. However, slower, longer lasting stimuli produced an Off response, making the actual extent of activation larger for the slowest rising stimuli. These results indicate that the spread of cortical activation depends on stimulus features.

Long-range neuronal circuits underlying the interaction between sensory and motor cortex

In the rodent vibrissal system, active sensation and sensorimotor integration are mediated in part by connections between barrel cortex and vibrissal motor cortex. Little is known about how these structures interact at the level of neurons. We used Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) expression, combined with anterograde and retrograde labeling, to map connections between barrel cortex and pyramidal neurons in mouse motor cortex. Barrel cortex axons preferentially targeted upper layer (L2/3, L5A) neurons in motor cortex; input to neurons projecting back to barrel cortex was particularly strong. Barrel cortex input to deeper layers (L5B, L6) of motor cortex, including neurons projecting to the brainstem, was weak, despite pronounced geometric overlap of dendrites with axons from barrel cortex. Neurons in different layers received barrel cortex input within stereotyped dendritic domains. The cortico-cortical neurons in superficial layers of motor cortex thus couple motor and sensory signals and might mediate sensorimotor integration and motor learning.

Cell type-specific three-dimensional structure of thalamocortical circuits in a column of rat vibrissal cortex

Soma location, dendrite morphology, and synaptic innervation may represent key determinants of functional responses of individual neurons, such as sensory-evoked spiking. Here, we reconstruct the 3D circuits formed by thalamocortical afferents from the lemniscal pathway and excitatory neurons of an anatomically defined cortical column in rat vibrissal cortex. We objectively classify 9 cortical cell types and estimate the number and distribution of their somata, dendrites, and thalamocortical synapses. Somata and dendrites of most cell types intermingle, while thalamocortical connectivity depends strongly upon the cell type and the 3D soma location of the postsynaptic neuron. Correlating dendrite morphology and thalamocortical connectivity to functional responses revealed that the lemniscal afferents can account for some of the cell type- and location-specific subthreshold and spiking responses after passive whisker touch (e.g., in layer 4, but not for other cell types, e.g., in layer 5). Our data provides a quantitative 3D prediction of the cell type–specific lemniscal synaptic wiring diagram and elucidates structure–function relationships of this physiologically relevant pathway at single-cell resolution.

Loss of visually driven synaptic responses in layer 4 regular-spiking neurons of rat visual cortex in absence of competing inputs

Monocular deprivation (MD) during development shifts the ocular preference of primary visual cortex (V1) neurons by depressing closed-eye responses and potentiating open-eye responses. As these 2 processes are temporally and mechanistically distinct, we tested whether loss of responsiveness occurs also in absence of competing inputs. We thus compared the effects of long-term MD in layer 4 regular-spiking pyramidal neurons (L4Ns) of binocular and monocular V1 (bV1 and mV1) with whole-cell recordings. In bV1, input depression was larger than potentiation, and the ocular dominance shift was larger for spike outputs. MD-but not retinal inactivation with tetrodotoxin-caused a comparable loss of synaptic and spike responsiveness in mV1, which is innervated only by the deprived eye. Conversely, brief MD depressed synaptic responses only in bV1. MD-driven depression in mV1 was accompanied by a proportional reduction of visual thalamic inputs, as assessed upon pharmacological silencing of intracortical transmission. Finally, sub- and suprathreshold responsiveness was similarly degraded in L4Ns of bV1 upon complete deprivation of patterned vision through a binocular deprivation period of comparable length. Thus, loss of synaptic inputs from the deprived eye occurs also in absence of competition in the main thalamorecipient lamina, albeit at a slower pace.

Astrocytic regulation of cortical UP states

The synchronization of neuronal assemblies during cortical UP states has been implicated in computational and homeostatic processes, but the mechanisms by which this occurs remain unknown. To investigate potential roles of astrocytes in synchronizing cortical circuits, we electrically activated astrocytes while monitoring the activity of the surrounding network with electrophysiological recordings and calcium imaging. Stimulating a single astrocyte activates other astrocytes in the local circuit and can trigger UP state synchronizations of neighboring neurons. Moreover, interfering with astrocytic activity with intracellular injections of a calcium chelator into individual astrocytes inhibits spontaneous and stimulated UP states. Finally, both astrocytic activity and neuronal UP states are regulated by purinergic signaling in the circuit. These results demonstrate that astroglia can play a causal role in regulating the synchronized activation of neuronal ensembles.

Properties of the thalamic projection from the posterior medial nucleus to primary and secondary somatosensory cortices in the mouse

Primary somatosensory cortex (S1) receives two distinct classes of thalamocortical input via the lemniscal and paralemniscal pathways, the former via ventral posterior medial nucleus (VPM), and the latter, from the posterior medial nucleus (POm). These projections have been described as parallel thalamocortical pathways. Although the VPM thalamocortical projection has been studied in depth, several details of the POm projection to S1 are unknown. We studied the synaptic properties and anatomical features in the mouse of the projection from POm to all layers of S1 and to layer 4 of secondary somatosensory cortex (S2). Neurons in S1 responded to stimulation of POm with what has been termed Class 2 properties (paired-pulse facilitation, small initial excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), a graded activation profile, and a metabotropic receptor component; thought to be modulatory), whereas neurons in layer 4 of S2 responded with Class 1A properties (paired-pulse depression, large initial EPSPs, an all-or-none activation profile, and no metabotropic receptor component, thought to be a main information input). Also, labeling from POm produced small boutons in S1, whereas both small and large boutons were found in S2. Our data suggest that the lemniscal and paralemniscal projections should not be thought of as parallel information pathways to S1 and that the paralemniscal projection may instead provide modulatory inputs to S1.

Anatomical pathways involved in generating and sensing rhythmic whisker movements

The rodent whisker system is widely used as a model system for investigating sensorimotor integration, neural mechanisms of complex cognitive tasks, neural development, and robotics. The whisker pathways to the barrel cortex have received considerable attention. However, many subcortical structures are paramount to the whisker system. They contribute to important processes, like filtering out salient features, integration with other senses, and adaptation of the whisker system to the general behavioral state of the animal. We present here an overview of the brain regions and their connections involved in the whisker system. We do not only describe the anatomy and functional roles of the cerebral cortex, but also those of subcortical structures like the striatum, superior colliculus, cerebellum, pontomedullary reticular formation, zona incerta, and anterior pretectal nucleus as well as those of level setting systems like the cholinergic, histaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic pathways. We conclude by discussing how these brain regions may affect each other and how they together may control the precise timing of whisker movements and coordinate whisker perception.

Inhibitory interneurons in a cortical column form hot zones of inhibition in layers 2 and 5A

Although physiological data on microcircuits involving a few inhibitory neurons in the mammalian cerebral cortex are available, data on the quantitative relation between inhibition and excitation in cortical circuits involving thousands of neurons are largely missing. Because the distribution of neurons is very inhomogeneous in the cerebral cortex, it is critical to map all neurons in a given volume rather than to rely on sparse sampling methods. Here, we report the comprehensive mapping of interneurons (INs) in cortical columns of rat somatosensory cortex, immunolabeled for neuron-specific nuclear protein and glutamate decarboxylase. We found that a column contains ~2,200 INs (11.5% of ~19,000 neurons), almost a factor of 2 less than previously estimated. The density of GABAergic neurons was inhomogeneous between layers, with peaks in the upper third of L2/3 and in L5A. IN density therefore defines a distinct layer 2 in the sensory neocortex. In addition, immunohistochemical markers of IN subtypes were layer-specific. The "hot zones" of inhibition in L2 and L5A match the reported low stimulus-evoked spiking rates of excitatory neurons in these layers, suggesting that these inhibitory hot zones substantially suppress activity in the neocortex.

Dendritic coding of multiple sensory inputs in single cortical neurons in vivo

Single cortical neurons in the mammalian brain receive signals arising from multiple sensory input channels. Dendritic integration of these afferent signals is critical in determining the amplitude and time course of the neurons' output signals. As of yet, little is known about the spatial and temporal organization of converging sensory inputs. Here, we combined in vivo two-photon imaging with whole-cell recordings in layer 2 neurons of the mouse vibrissal cortex as a means to analyze the spatial pattern of subthreshold dendritic calcium signals evoked by the stimulation of different whiskers. We show that the principle whisker and the surrounding whiskers can evoke dendritic calcium transients in the same neuron. Distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic calcium transients and the corresponding subthreshold depolarization suggest feed-forward activation. We found that stimulation of different whiskers produced multiple calcium hotspots on the same dendrite. Individual hotspots were activated with low probability in a stochastic manner. We show that these hotspots are generated by calcium signals arising in dendritic spines. Some spines were activated uniquely by single whiskers, but many spines were activated by multiple whiskers. These shared spines indicate the existence of presynaptic feeder neurons that integrate and transmit activity arising from multiple whiskers. Despite the dendritic overlap of whisker-specific and shared inputs, different whiskers are represented by a unique set of activation patterns within the dendritic field of each neuron.

Parallel optical control of spatiotemporal neuronal spike activity using high-speed digital light processing

Neurons in the mammalian neocortex receive inputs from and communicate back to thousands of other neurons, creating complex spatiotemporal activity patterns. The experimental investigation of these parallel dynamic interactions has been limited due to the technical challenges of monitoring or manipulating neuronal activity at that level of complexity. Here we describe a new massively parallel photostimulation system that can be used to control action potential firing in in vitro brain slices with high spatial and temporal resolution while performing extracellular or intracellular electrophysiological measurements. The system uses digital light processing technology to generate 2-dimensional (2D) stimulus patterns with >780,000 independently controlled photostimulation sites that operate at high spatial (5.4 μm) and temporal (>13 kHz) resolution. Light is projected through the quartz–glass bottom of the perfusion chamber providing access to a large area (2.76 mm × 2.07 mm) of the slice preparation. This system has the unique capability to induce temporally precise action potential firing in large groups of neurons distributed over a wide area covering several cortical columns. Parallel photostimulation opens up new opportunities for the in vitro experimental investigation of spatiotemporal neuronal interactions at a broad range of anatomical scales.

Microcircuits of functionally identified neurons in the rat medial entorhinal cortex

VIDEO ABSTRACT

Extracellular recordings have elucidated spatial neural representations without identifying underlying microcircuits. We labeled neurons juxtacellularly in medial entorhinal cortex of freely moving rats with a friction-based, pipette-stabilization system. In a linear maze novel to the animals, spatial firing of superficial layer neurons was reminiscent of grid cell activity. Layer 2 stellate cells showed stronger theta modulation than layer 3 neurons, and both fired during the ascending phase of field potential theta. Deep-layer neurons showed little or no activity. Layer 2 stellate cells resided in hundreds of small patches. At the dorsomedial entorhinal border, we identified larger (putative parasubicular) patches, which contained polarized head-direction selective neurons firing during the descending theta phase. Three axon systems interconnected patches: centrifugal axons from superficial cells to single large patches, centripetal axons from large-patch cells to single small patches, and circumcurrent axons interconnecting large patches. Our microcircuit analysis during behavior reveals modularity of entorhinal processing.

Anatomical and sensory experiential determinants of synaptic plasticity in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons of mouse barrel cortex

A minority of layer 2/3 (L2/3) pyramidal neurons exhibit spike-timing-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) in normally reared adolescent mice. To determine whether particular subtypes of L2/3 neurons have a greater capacity for LTP than others, we correlated the morphological and electrophysiological properties of L2/3 neurons with their ability to undergo LTP by using a spike-timing-dependent protocol applied via layer 4 inputs from the neighboring barrel column. No correlation was found between the incidence of LTP and the cell's electrophysiological properties, nor with their laminar or columnar location. However, in cortex of normal, undeprived mice, neurons that exhibited LTP had dendrites that extended farther horizontally than those that showed no plasticity, and this horizontal spread was due to off-axis apical dendrites. From a sample of reconstructed neurons, two-thirds of neurons' dendritic arborizations reached into at least one adjacent barrel column. We also tested whether this relationship persisted following a short period of whisker deprivation. The probability of inducing LTP increased from 33% in cortex of undeprived mice to 53% following 7 days of whisker deprivation, and the incidence of LTD with the same protocol decreased from 49% to 9%. In deprived cortex, neurons exhibiting LTP did not extend any farther horizontally than those that showed no plasticity. Whisker deprivation did not affect horizontal spread of dendrites nor dendritic structure in general but did produced an increase in spine density, both on basal and on apical dendrites, suggesting a possible substrate for the increased levels of LTP observed in deprived cortex.

Spatial structure of multiwhisker receptive fields in the barrel cortex is stimulus dependent

The tactile sensations mediated by the whisker-trigeminal system allow rodents to efficiently detect and discriminate objects. These capabilities rely strongly on the temporal and spatial structure of whisker deflections. Subthreshold but also spiking receptive fields in the barrel cortex encompass a large number of vibrissae, and it seems likely that the functional properties of these multiwhisker receptive fields reflect the multiple-whisker interactions encountered by the animal during exploration of its environment. The aim of this study was to examine the dependence of the spatial structure of cortical receptive fields on stimulus parameters. Using a newly developed 24-whisker stimulation matrix, we applied a forward correlation analysis of spiking activity to randomized whisker deflections (sparse noise) to characterize the receptive fields that result from caudal and rostral directions of whisker deflection. We observed that the functionally determined principal whisker, the whisker eliciting the strongest response with the shortest latency, differed according to the direction of whisker deflection. Thus, for a given neuron, maximal responses to opposite directions of whisker deflections could be spatially separated. This spatial separation resulted in a displacement of the center of mass between the rostral and caudal subfields and was accompanied by differences between response latencies in rostral and caudal directions of whisker deflection. Such direction-dependent receptive field organization was observed in every cortical layer. We conclude that the spatial structure of receptive fields in the barrel cortex is not an intrinsic property of the neuron but depends on the properties of sensory input.

Integration and propagation of somatosensory responses in the corticostriatal pathway: an intracellular study in vivo

The dorsolateral striatum is critically involved in the execution and learning of sensorimotor tasks. It is proposed that this striatal function is achieved by the integration of convergent somatosensory and motor corticostriatal (CS) inputs in striatal medium-spiny neurons (MSNs). However, the cellular mechanisms of integration and propagation of somatosensory information in the CS pathway remain unknown. Here, by means of in vivo intracellular recordings in the rat, we analysed how sensory events generated by multi-whisker deflection, which provide essential somaesthetic information in rodents, are processed in contralateral barrel cortex layer 5 neurons and in the related somatosensory striatal MSNs. Pyramidal layer 5 barrel cortex neurons, including neurons antidromically identified as CS, responded to whisker deflection by depolarizing post-synaptic potentials that could reliably generate action potential discharge. In contrast, only half of recorded somatosensory striatal MSNs displayed whisker-evoked synaptic depolarizations that were effective in eliciting action potentials in one-third of responding neurons. The remaining population of MSNs did not exhibit any detectable electrical events in response to whisker stimulation. The relative inconstancy of sensory-evoked responses in MSNs was due, at least in part, to a Cl(-)-dependent membrane conductance concomitant with the cortical inputs,which was probably caused by whisker-induced activation of striatal GABAergic interneurons. Our results suggest that the propagation of whisker-mediated sensory flow through the CS pathway results in a refinement of sensory information in the striatum, which might allow the selection of specific sets of MSNs that are functionally significant during a given somaesthetic-guided behaviour.

Neuronal circuits with whisker-related patterns

Neuronal circuits with whisker-related patterns, such as those observed in the rodent somatosensory barrel cortex, have been widely used as a model system for investigating the anatomical organization, development and physiological roles of functional neuronal circuits. Whisker-related patterns exist not only in the barrel cortex but also in subcortical structures along the trigeminal neuraxis from the brainstem to the cortex. Here, we briefly summarize the organization, formation, and function of each neuronal circuit with whisker-related patterns, including the novel axonal trajectories that we recently found with the aid of in utero electroporation. We also discuss their biological implications as model systems for the studies of functional neuronal circuits.

Comprehensive mapping of whisker-evoked responses reveals broad, sharply tuned thalamocortical input to layer 4 of barrel cortex

Cortical neurons are organized in columns, distinguishable by their physiological properties and input-output organization. Columns are thought to be the fundamental information-processing modules of the cortex. The barrel cortex of rats and mice is an attractive model system for the study of cortical columns, because each column is defined by a layer 4 (L4) structure called a barrel, which can be clearly visualized. A great deal of information has been collected regarding the connectivity of neurons in barrel cortex, but the nature of the input to a given L4 barrel remains unclear. We measured this input by making comprehensive maps of whisker-evoked activity in L4 of rat barrel cortex using recordings of multiunit activity and current source density analysis of local field potential recordings of animals under light isoflurane anesthesia. We found that a large number of whiskers evoked a detectable response in each barrel (mean of 13 suprathreshold, 18 subthreshold) even after cortical activity was abolished by application of muscimol, a GABA(A) agonist. We confirmed these findings with intracellular recordings and single-unit extracellular recordings in vivo. This constitutes the first direct confirmation of the hypothesis that subcortical mechanisms mediate a substantial multiwhisker input to a given cortical barrel.

Increased excitability of cortical neurons induced by associative learning: an ex vivo study

In adult mice, classical conditioning in which whisker stimulation is paired with an electric shock to the tail results in a decrease in the frequency of head movements, induces expansion of the cortical representation of stimulated vibrissae and enhances inhibitory synaptic interactions within the 'trained' barrels. We investigated whether such a simple associative learning paradigm also induced changes in neuronal excitability. Using whole-cell recordings from ex vivo slices of the barrel cortex we found that layer IV excitatory cells located in the cortical representation of the 'trained' row of vibrissae had a higher frequency of spikes recorded at threshold potential than neurons from the 'untrained' row and than cells from control animals. Additionally, excitatory cells within the 'trained' barrels were characterized by increased gain of the input-output function, lower amplitudes of fast after-hyperpolarization and decreased effect of blocking of BK channels by iberiotoxin. These findings provide new insight into the possible mechanism for enhanced intrinsic excitability of layer IV excitatory neurons. In contrast, the fast spiking inhibitory cells recorded in the same barrels did not change their intrinsic excitability after the conditioning procedure. The increased excitability of excitatory neurons within the 'trained' barrels may represent the counterpart of homeostatic plasticity, which parallels enhanced synaptic inhibition described previously. Together, the two mechanisms would contribute to increase the input selectivity within the conditioned cortical network.

Neural activity in barrel cortex underlying vibrissa-based object localization in mice

Classical studies have related the spiking of selected neocortical neurons to behavior, but little is known about activity sampled from the entire neural population. We recorded from neurons selected independent of spiking, using cell-attached recordings and two-photon calcium imaging, in the barrel cortex of mice performing an object localization task. Spike rates varied across neurons, from silence to >60 Hz. Responses were diverse, with some neurons showing large increases in spike rate when whiskers contacted the object. Nearly half the neurons discriminated object location; a small fraction of neurons discriminated perfectly. More active neurons were more discriminative. Layer (L) 4 and L5 contained the highest fractions of discriminating neurons (∼63% and 79%, respectively), but a few L2/3 neurons were also highly discriminating. Approximately 13,000 spikes per activated barrel column were available to mice for decision making. Coding of object location in the barrel cortex is therefore highly redundant.

Neuronal arithmetic

The vast computational power of the brain has traditionally been viewed as arising from the complex connectivity of neural networks, in which an individual neuron acts as a simple linear summation and thresholding device. However, recent studies show that individual neurons utilize a wealth of nonlinear mechanisms to transform synaptic input into output firing. These mechanisms can arise from synaptic plasticity, synaptic noise, and somatic and dendritic conductances. This tool kit of nonlinear mechanisms confers considerable computational power on both morphologically simple and more complex neurons, enabling them to perform a range of arithmetic operations on signals encoded ina variety of different ways.

Cell type-specific thalamic innervation in a column of rat vibrissal cortex

This is the concluding article in a series of 3 studies that investigate the anatomical determinants of thalamocortical (TC) input to excitatory neurons in a cortical column of rat primary somatosensory cortex (S1). We used viral synaptophysin-enhanced green fluorescent protein expression in thalamic neurons and reconstructions of biocytin-labeled cortical neurons in TC slices to quantify the number and distribution of boutons from the ventral posterior medial (VPM) and posteromedial (POm) nuclei potentially innervating dendritic arbors of excitatory neurons located in layers (L)2–6 of a cortical column in rat somatosensory cortex. We found that 1) all types of excitatory neurons potentially receive substantial TC input (90–580 boutons per neuron); 2) pyramidal neurons in L3–L6 receive dual TC input from both VPM and POm that is potentially of equal magnitude for thick-tufted L5 pyramidal neurons (ca. 300 boutons each from VPM and POm); 3) L3, L4, and L5 pyramidal neurons have multiple (2–4) subcellular TC innervation domains that match the dendritic compartments of pyramidal cells; and 4) a subtype of thick-tufted L5 pyramidal neurons has an additional VPM innervation domain in L4. The multiple subcellular TC innervation domains of L5 pyramidal neurons may partly explain their specific action potential patterns observed in vivo. We conclude that the substantial potential TC innervation of all excitatory neuron types in a cortical column constitutes an anatomical basis for the initial near-simultaneous representation of a sensory stimulus in different neuron types.

Stochastic cellular automata model of neural networks

We propose a stochastic dynamical model of noisy neural networks with complex architectures and discuss activation of neural networks by a stimulus, pacemakers, and spontaneous activity. This model has a complex phase diagram with self-organized active neural states, hybrid phase transitions, and a rich array of behaviors. We show that if spontaneous activity (noise) reaches a threshold level then global neural oscillations emerge. Stochastic resonance is a precursor of this dynamical phase transition. These oscillations are an intrinsic property of even small groups of 50 neurons.

Intensity-dependent adaptation of cortical and thalamic neurons is controlled by brainstem circuits of the sensory pathway

Current views of sensory adaptation in the rat somatosensory system suggest that it results mainly from short-term synaptic depression. Experimental and theoretical studies predict that increasing the intensity of sensory stimulation, followed by an increase in firing probability at early sensory stages, is expected to attenuate the response at later stages disproportionately more than weaker stimuli, due to greater depletion of synaptic resources and the relatively slow recovery process. This may lead to coding ambiguity of stimulus intensity during adaptation. In contrast, we found that increasing the intensity of repetitive whisker stimulation entails less adaptation in cortical neurons. In a series of recordings, from the trigeminal ganglion to the thalamus, we pinpointed the source of the unexpected pattern of adaptation to the brainstem trigeminal complex. We suggest that low-level sensory processing counterbalances later effects of short-term synaptic depression by increasing the throughput of high-intensity sensory inputs.

Back-Propagation of Physiological Action Potential Output in Dendrites of Slender-Tufted L5A Pyramidal Neurons

Pyramidal neurons of layer 5A are a major neocortical output type and clearly distinguished from layer 5B pyramidal neurons with respect to morphology, in vivo firing patterns, and connectivity; yet knowledge of their dendritic properties is scant. We used a combination of whole-cell recordings and Ca²⁺ imaging techniques in vitro to explore the specific dendritic signaling role of physiological action potential patterns recorded in vivo in layer 5A pyramidal neurons of the whisker-related ‘barrel cortex’. Our data provide evidence that the temporal structure of physiological action potential patterns is crucial for an effective invasion of the main apical dendrites up to the major branch point. Both the critical frequency enabling action potential trains to invade efficiently and the dendritic calcium profile changed during postnatal development. In contrast to the main apical dendrite, the more passive properties of the short basal and apical tuft dendrites prevented an efficient back-propagation. Various Ca²⁺ channel types contributed to the enhanced calcium signals during high-frequency firing activity, whereas A-type K⁺ and BK_Ca channels strongly suppressed it. Our data support models in which the interaction of synaptic input with action potential output is a function of the timing, rate and pattern of action potentials, and dendritic location.

Neonatal sensory deprivation and the development of cortical function: unilateral and bilateral sensory deprivation result in different functional outcomes

The normal development of sensory perception in mammals depends on appropriate sensory experience between birth and maturity. Numerous reports have shown that trimming some or all of the large mystacial vibrissa (whiskers) on one side of the face after birth has a detrimental effect on the maturation of cortical function. The objective of the present study was to understand the differences that occur after unilateral whisker trimming compared with those that occur after bilateral deprivation. Physiological deficits produced by bilateral trimming (BD) of all whiskers for 2 mo after birth were compared with the deficits produced by unilateral trimming (UD) for the same period of time using extracellular recording under urethan anesthesia from single cells in rat barrel cortex. Fast spiking (FSUs) and regular spiking (RSUs) units were separated and their properties compared in four subregions identified by histological reconstructions of the electrode penetrations, namely: layer IV barrel and septum, and layers II/III above a barrel and above a septum. UD upregulated responses in layer IV septa and in layers II/III above septa and perturbed the timing of responses to whisker stimuli. After BD, nearly all responses were decreased, and poststimulus latencies were increased. Circuit changes are proposed as an argument for how inputs arising from the spared whiskers project to the undeprived cortex and, via commissural fibers, could upregulate septal responses after UD. Following BD, more global neural deficits create a signature difference in the outcome of UD and BD in rat barrel cortex.

Sparse and powerful cortical spikes

Activity in cortical networks is heterogeneous, sparse and often precisely timed. The functional significance of sparseness and precise spike timing is debated, but our understanding of the developmental and synaptic mechanisms that shape neuronal discharge patterns has improved. Evidence for highly specialized, selective and abstract cortical response properties is accumulating. Singe-cell stimulation experiments demonstrate a high sensitivity of cortical networks to the action potentials of some, but not all, single neurons. It is unclear how this sensitivity of cortical networks to small perturbations comes about and whether it is a generic property of cortex. The unforeseen sensitivity to cortical spikes puts serious constraints on the nature of neural coding schemes.

Response sensitivity of barrel neuron subpopulations to simulated thalamic input

Our goal is to examine the relationship between neuron- and network-level processing in the context of a well-studied cortical function, the processing of thalamic input by whisker-barrel circuits in rodent neocortex. Here we focus on neuron-level processing and investigate the responses of excitatory and inhibitory barrel neurons to simulated thalamic inputs applied using the dynamic clamp method in brain slices. Simulated inputs are modeled after real thalamic inputs recorded in vivo in response to brief whisker deflections. Our results suggest that inhibitory neurons require more input to reach firing threshold, but then fire earlier, with less variability, and respond to a broader range of inputs than do excitatory neurons. Differences in the responses of barrel neuron subtypes depend on their intrinsic membrane properties. Neurons with a low input resistance require more input to reach threshold but then fire earlier than neurons with a higher input resistance, regardless of the neuron's classification. Our results also suggest that the response properties of excitatory versus inhibitory barrel neurons are consistent with the response sensitivities of the ensemble barrel network. The short response latency of inhibitory neurons may serve to suppress ensemble barrel responses to asynchronous thalamic input. Correspondingly, whereas neurons acting as part of the barrel circuit in vivo are highly selective for temporally correlated thalamic input, excitatory barrel neurons acting alone in vitro are less so. These data suggest that network-level processing of thalamic input in barrel cortex depends on neuron-level processing of the same input by excitatory and inhibitory barrel neurons.

Response properties of neurons in primary somatosensory cortex of owl monkeys reflect widespread spatiotemporal integration

Receptive fields of neurons in somatosensory area 3b of monkeys are typically described as restricted to part of a single digit or palm pad. However, such neurons are likely involved in integrating stimulus information from across the hand. To evaluate this possibility, we recorded from area 3b neurons in anesthetized owl monkeys with 100-electrode arrays, stimulating two hand locations with electromechanical probes simultaneously or asynchronously. Response magnitudes and latencies of single- and multiunits varied with stimulus conditions, and multiunit responses were similar to single-unit responses. The mean peak firing rate for single neurons stimulated within the preferred location was estimated to be ∼26 spike/s. Simultaneous stimulation with a second probe outside the preferred location slightly decreased peak firing rates to ∼22 spike/s. When the nonpreferred stimulus preceded the preferred stimulus by 10-500 ms, peak firing rates were suppressed with greatest suppression when the nonpreferred stimulus preceded by 30 ms (∼7 spike/s). The mean latency for single neurons stimulated within the preferred location was ∼23 ms, and latency was little affected by simultaneous paired stimulation. However, when the nonpreferred stimulus preceded the preferred stimulus by 10 ms, latencies shortened to ∼16 ms. Response suppression occurred even when stimuli were separated by long distances (nonadjacent digits) or long times (500 ms onset asynchrony). Facilitation, though rare, occurred most often when the stimulus onsets were within 0-30 ms of each other. These findings quantify spatiotemporal interactions and support the hypothesis that area 3b is involved in widespread stimulus integration.

The Matrix: a new tool for probing the whisker-to-barrel system with natural stimuli

The whisker to barrel system in rodents has become one of the major models for the study of sensory processing. Several tens of whiskers (or vibrissae) are distributed in a regular manner on both sides of the snout. Many tactile discrimination tasks using this system need multiple contacts with more than one whisker to be solved. With the aim of mimicking those multi-whisker stimuli during electrophysiological recordings, we developed a novel mechanical stimulator composed of 24 independent multi-directional piezoelectric benders adapted to the five rows and the five caudal arcs of the rat whisker pad. The most widely used technology for producing mechanical deflections of the whiskers is based on piezoelectric benders that display a non-linear behavior when driven with high frequency input commands and, if not compensated, show high unwanted ringing at particular resonance frequencies. If not corrected, this non-linear behavior precludes the application of high frequency deflections and the study of cortical responses to behaviorally relevant stimuli. To cope with the ringing problem, a mechanical and a software based solutions have been developed. With these corrections, the upper bound of the linear range of the bender is increased to 1 kHz. This new device allows the controlled delivery of large scale natural patterns of whisker deflections characterized by rapid high frequency vibrations of multiple whiskers.

The functional properties of barrel cortex neurons projecting to the primary motor cortex

Nearby neurons, sharing the same locations within the mouse whisker map, can have dramatically distinct response properties. To understand the significance of this diversity, we studied the relationship between the responses of individual neurons and their projection targets in the mouse barrel cortex. Neurons projecting to primary motor cortex (MI) or secondary somatosensory area (SII) were labeled with red fluorescent protein (RFP) using retrograde viral infection. We used in vivo two-photon Ca(2+) imaging to map the responses of RFP-positive and neighboring L2/3 neurons to whisker deflections. Neurons projecting to MI displayed larger receptive fields compared with other neurons, including those projecting to SII. Our findings support the view that intermingled neurons in primary sensory areas send specific stimulus features to different parts of the brain.

Activity in the barrel cortex during active behavior and sleep

The rate at which neurons fire has wide-reaching implications for the coding schemes used by neural systems. Despite the extensive use of the barrel cortex as a model system, relatively few studies have examined the rate of sensory activity in single neurons in freely moving animals. We examined the activity of barrel cortex neurons in behaving animals during sensory cue interaction, during non-stimulus-related activity, during various states of sleep, and during the administration of isoflurane. The activity of regular-spiking units (RSUs: predominantly excitatory neurons) and fast spiking units (FSUs: a subtype of inhibitory interneurons) was examined separately. We characterized activity by calculating neural firing rates, because several reports have emphasized the low firing rates in this system, reporting that both baseline activity and stimulus evoked activity is <1 Hz. We report that, during sensory cue interaction or non-stimulus-related activity, the majority of RSUs in rat barrel cortex fired at rates significantly >1 Hz, with 27.4% showing rates above 10 Hz during cue interaction. Even during slow wave sleep, which had the lowest mean and median firing rates of any nonanesthetized state observed, 80.0% of RSUs fired above 1 Hz. During all of the nonanesthetized states observed 100% of the FSUs fired well above 1 Hz. When rats were administered isoflurane and at a depth of anesthesia used in standard in vivo electrophysiological preparations, all of the RSUs fired below 1 Hz. We also found that >80% of RSUs either upmodulated or downmodulated their firing during cue interaction. These data suggest that low firing rates do not typify the output of the barrel cortex during awake activity and during sleep and indicate that sensory coding at both the individual and population levels may be nonsparse.