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Kijlstra JD, Hu D, Mittal N, Kausel E, van der Meer P, Garakani A, Domian IJ. Integrated Analysis of Contractile Kinetics, Force Generation, and Electrical Activity in Single Human Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes. Stem Cell Reports 2015; 5:1226-1238. [PMID: 26626178 PMCID: PMC4682285 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The quantitative analysis of cardiomyocyte function is essential for stem cell-based approaches for the in vitro study of human cardiac physiology and pathophysiology. We present a method to comprehensively assess the function of single human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte (hPSC-CMs) through simultaneous quantitative analysis of contraction kinetics, force generation, and electrical activity. We demonstrate that statistical analysis of movies of contracting hPSC-CMs can be used to quantify changes in cellular morphology over time and compute contractile kinetics. Using a biomechanical model that incorporates substrate stiffness, we calculate cardiomyocyte force generation at single-cell resolution and validate this approach with conventional traction force microscopy. The addition of fluorescent calcium indicators or membrane potential dyes allows the simultaneous analysis of contractility and calcium handling or action potential morphology. Accordingly, our approach has the potential for broad application in the study of cardiac disease, drug discovery, and cardiotoxicity screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan David Kijlstra
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, 9713 GZ, the Netherlands
| | - Dongjian Hu
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Nikhil Mittal
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 138669 Singapore
| | - Eduardo Kausel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Peter van der Meer
- University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, 9713 GZ, the Netherlands
| | | | - Ibrahim J Domian
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Denning C, Borgdorff V, Crutchley J, Firth KSA, George V, Kalra S, Kondrashov A, Hoang MD, Mosqueira D, Patel A, Prodanov L, Rajamohan D, Skarnes WC, Smith JGW, Young LE. Cardiomyocytes from human pluripotent stem cells: From laboratory curiosity to industrial biomedical platform. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2015; 1863:1728-48. [PMID: 26524115 PMCID: PMC5221745 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cardiomyocytes from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs-CMs) could revolutionise biomedicine. Global burden of heart failure will soon reach USD $90bn, while unexpected cardiotoxicity underlies 28% of drug withdrawals. Advances in hPSC isolation, Cas9/CRISPR genome engineering and hPSC-CM differentiation have improved patient care, progressed drugs to clinic and opened a new era in safety pharmacology. Nevertheless, predictive cardiotoxicity using hPSC-CMs contrasts from failure to almost total success. Since this likely relates to cell immaturity, efforts are underway to use biochemical and biophysical cues to improve many of the ~30 structural and functional properties of hPSC-CMs towards those seen in adult CMs. Other developments needed for widespread hPSC-CM utility include subtype specification, cost reduction of large scale differentiation and elimination of the phenotyping bottleneck. This review will consider these factors in the evolution of hPSC-CM technologies, as well as their integration into high content industrial platforms that assess structure, mitochondrial function, electrophysiology, calcium transients and contractility. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cardiomyocyte Biology: Integration of Developmental and Environmental Cues in the Heart edited by Marcus Schaub and Hughes Abriel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Denning
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
| | - Viola Borgdorff
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - James Crutchley
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Karl S A Firth
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Vinoj George
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Spandan Kalra
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Kondrashov
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Minh Duc Hoang
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Diogo Mosqueira
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Asha Patel
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Ljupcho Prodanov
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Divya Rajamohan
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - William C Skarnes
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - James G W Smith
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Lorraine E Young
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
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104
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Feaster TK, Cadar AG, Wang L, Williams CH, Chun YW, Hempel JE, Bloodworth N, Merryman WD, Lim CC, Wu JC, Knollmann BC, Hong CC. Matrigel Mattress: A Method for the Generation of Single Contracting Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes. Circ Res 2015; 117:995-1000. [PMID: 26429802 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.115.307580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The lack of measurable single-cell contractility of human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac myocytes (hiPSC-CMs) currently limits the utility of hiPSC-CMs for evaluating contractile performance for both basic research and drug discovery. OBJECTIVE To develop a culture method that rapidly generates contracting single hiPSC-CMs and allows quantification of cell shortening with standard equipment used for studying adult CMs. METHODS AND RESULTS Single hiPSC-CMs were cultured for 5 to 7 days on a 0.4- to 0.8-mm thick mattress of undiluted Matrigel (mattress hiPSC-CMs) and compared with hiPSC-CMs maintained on a control substrate (<0.1-mm thick 1:60 diluted Matrigel, control hiPSC-CMs). Compared with control hiPSC-CMs, mattress hiPSC-CMs had more rod-shape morphology and significantly increased sarcomere length. Contractile parameters of mattress hiPSC-CMs measured with video-based edge detection were comparable with those of freshly isolated adult rabbit ventricular CMs. Morphological and contractile properties of mattress hiPSC-CMs were consistent across cryopreserved hiPSC-CMs generated independently at another institution. Unlike control hiPSC-CMs, mattress hiPSC-CMs display robust contractile responses to positive inotropic agents, such as myofilament calcium sensitizers. Mattress hiPSC-CMs exhibit molecular changes that include increased expression of the maturation marker cardiac troponin I and significantly increased action potential upstroke velocity because of a 2-fold increase in sodium current (INa). CONCLUSIONS The Matrigel mattress method enables the rapid generation of robustly contracting hiPSC-CMs and enhances maturation. This new method allows quantification of contractile performance at the single-cell level, which should be valuable to disease modeling, drug discovery, and preclinical cardiotoxicity testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tromondae K Feaster
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Adrian G Cadar
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Lili Wang
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Charles H Williams
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Young Wook Chun
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Jonathan E Hempel
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Nathaniel Bloodworth
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - W David Merryman
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Chee Chew Lim
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Joseph C Wu
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.)
| | - Björn C Knollmann
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.).
| | - Charles C Hong
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (T.K.F.), Cardiovascular Medicine (Y.W.C., J.E.H., C.C.L., C.C.H.), and Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiovascular Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology, Oates Institute for Experimental Therapeutics (L.W., B.C.K.), Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics (A.G.C.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN; Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology (C.H.W.) and Biomedical Engineering (N.B., W.D.M.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; Research Medicine, Veterans Affairs TVHS, Nashville, TN (C.C.H.); and Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (J.C.W.).
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Zhao Y, Feric NT, Thavandiran N, Nunes SS, Radisic M. The role of tissue engineering and biomaterials in cardiac regenerative medicine. Can J Cardiol 2014; 30:1307-22. [PMID: 25442432 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjca.2014.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the development of 3-dimensional engineered heart tissue (EHT) has made large strides forward because of advances in stem cell biology, materials science, prevascularization strategies, and nanotechnology. As a result, the role of tissue engineering in cardiac regenerative medicine has become multifaceted as new applications become feasible. Cardiac tissue engineering has long been established to have the potential to partially or fully restore cardiac function after cardiac injury. However, EHTs may also serve as surrogate human cardiac tissue for drug-related toxicity screening. Cardiotoxicity remains a major cause of drug withdrawal in the pharmaceutical industry. Unsafe drugs reach the market because preclinical evaluation is insufficient to weed out cardiotoxic drugs in all their forms. Bioengineering methods could provide functional and mature human myocardial tissues, ie, physiologically relevant platforms, for screening the cardiotoxic effects of pharmaceutical agents and facilitate the discovery of new therapeutic agents. Finally, advances in induced pluripotent stem cells have made patient-specific EHTs possible, which opens up the possibility of personalized medicine. Herein, we give an overview of the present state of the art in cardiac tissue engineering, the challenges to the field, and future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimu Zhao
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicole T Feric
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nimalan Thavandiran
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sara S Nunes
- Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Milica Radisic
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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109
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Yang X, Rodriguez M, Pabon L, Fischer KA, Reinecke H, Regnier M, Sniadecki NJ, Ruohola-Baker H, Murry CE. Tri-iodo-l-thyronine promotes the maturation of human cardiomyocytes-derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2014; 72:296-304. [PMID: 24735830 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiomyocytes derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC-CMs) have great potential as a cell source for therapeutic applications such as regenerative medicine, disease modeling, drug screening, and toxicity testing. This potential is limited, however, by the immature state of the cardiomyocytes acquired using current protocols. Tri-iodo-l-thyronine (T3) is a growth hormone that is essential for optimal heart growth. In this study, we investigated the effect of T3 on hiPSC-CM maturation. METHODS AND RESULTS A one-week treatment with T3 increased cardiomyocyte size, anisotropy, and sarcomere length. T3 treatment was associated with reduced cell cycle activity, manifest as reduced DNA synthesis and increased expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. Contractile force analyses were performed on individual cardiomyocytes using arrays of microposts, revealing an almost two-fold higher force per-beat after T3 treatment and also an enhancement in contractile kinetics. This improvement in force generation was accompanied by an increase in rates of calcium release and reuptake, along with a significant increase in sarcoendoplasmic reticulum ATPase expression. Finally, although mitochondrial genomes were not numerically increased, extracellular flux analysis showed a significant increase in maximal mitochondrial respiratory capacity and respiratory reserve capability after T3 treatment. CONCLUSIONS Using a broad spectrum of morphological, molecular, and functional parameters, we conclude that T3 is a driver for hiPSC-CM maturation. T3 treatment may enhance the utility of hiPSC-CMs for therapy, disease modeling, or drug/toxicity screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiulan Yang
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Marita Rodriguez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Lil Pabon
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Karin A Fischer
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Hans Reinecke
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Michael Regnier
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Nathan J Sniadecki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | | | - Charles E Murry
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Medicine/Cardiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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