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Molecular Analysis of Pfs47-Mediated Plasmodium Evasion of Mosquito Immunity. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0168279. [PMID: 27992481 PMCID: PMC5167319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium falciparum parasites that is transmitted through the bites of infected anopheline mosquitoes. P. falciparum dispersal from Africa, as a result of human migration, required adaptation of the parasite to several different indigenous anopheline species. The mosquito immune system can greatly limit infection and P. falciparum evolved a strategy to evade these responses that is mediated by the Pfs47 gene. Pfs47 is a polymorphic gene with signatures of diversifying selection and a strong geographic genetic structure at a continental level. Here, we investigated the role of single four amino acid differences between the Pfs47 gene from African (GB4 and NF54) and a New World (7G8) strains that differ drastically in their ability to evade the immune system of A. gambiae L35 refractory mosquitoes. Wild type NF54 and GB4 parasites can survive in this mosquito strain, while 7G8 parasites are eliminated. Our studies indicate that replacement in any of these four single amino acids in Pfs47 from the NF54 strain by those present in 7G8, completely disrupts the ability of NF54 parasites to hide from the mosquito immune system. One of these amino acid replacements had the opposite effect on A. albimanus mosquitoes, and enhanced infection. We conclude that malaria transmission involves a complex interplay between the genetic background of the parasite and the mosquito and that Pfs47 can be critical in this interaction as it mediates Plasmodium immune evasion through molecular interactions that need to be precise in some parasite/vector combinations.
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102
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Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis (N67) Is a Robust Animal Model to Study Malaria Transmission by South American Anopheline Mosquitoes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167178. [PMID: 27911924 PMCID: PMC5135088 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is endemic in the American continent and the Amazonian rainforest is the region with the highest risk of transmission. However, the lack of suitable experimental models to infect malaria vectors from the Americas has limited the progress to understand the biology of transmission in this region. Anopheles aquasalis, a major vector in coastal areas of South America, was found to be highly refractory to infection with two strains of Plasmodium falciparum (NF54 and 7G8) and with Plasmodium berghei (mouse malaria), even when the microbiota was eliminated with antibiotics and oxidative stress was reduced with uric acid. In contrast, An. aquasalis females treated with antibiotics and uric acid are susceptible to infection with a second murine parasite, Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis N67 (PyN67). Anopheles albimanus, one of the main malaria vectors in Central America, Southern Mexico and the Caribbean, was more susceptible to infection with PyN67 than An. aquasalis, even in the absence of any pre-treatment, but was still less susceptible than Anopheles stephensi. Disruption of the complement-like system in An. albimanus significantly enhanced PyN67 infection, indicating that the mosquito immune system is mounting effective antiplasmodial responses. PyN67 has the ability to infect a broad range of anophelines and is an excellent model to study malaria transmission by South American vectors.
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103
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Selective sweep suggests transcriptional regulation may underlie Plasmodium vivax resilience to malaria control measures in Cambodia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E8096-E8105. [PMID: 27911780 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1608828113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cambodia, in which both Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum are endemic, has been the focus of numerous malaria-control interventions, resulting in a marked decline in overall malaria incidence. Despite this decline, the number of P vivax cases has actually increased. To understand better the factors underlying this resilience, we compared the genetic responses of the two species to recent selective pressures. We sequenced and studied the genomes of 70 P vivax and 80 P falciparum isolates collected between 2009 and 2013. We found that although P falciparum has undergone population fracturing, the coendemic P vivax population has grown undisrupted, resulting in a larger effective population size, no discernable population structure, and frequent multiclonal infections. Signatures of selection suggest recent, species-specific evolutionary differences. Particularly, in contrast to P falciparum, P vivax transcription factors, chromatin modifiers, and histone deacetylases have undergone strong directional selection, including a particularly strong selective sweep at an AP2 transcription factor. Together, our findings point to different population-level adaptive mechanisms used by P vivax and P falciparum parasites. Although population substructuring in P falciparum has resulted in clonal outgrowths of resistant parasites, P vivax may use a nuanced transcriptional regulatory approach to population maintenance, enabling it to preserve a larger, more diverse population better suited to facing selective threats. We conclude that transcriptional control may underlie P vivax's resilience to malaria control measures. Novel strategies to target such processes are likely required to eradicate P vivax and achieve malaria elimination.
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104
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The s48/45 six-cysteine proteins: mediators of interaction throughout the Plasmodium life cycle. Int J Parasitol 2016; 47:409-423. [PMID: 27899328 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
During their life cycle Plasmodium parasites rely upon an arsenal of proteins that establish key interactions with the host and vector, and between the parasite sexual stages, with the purpose of ensuring infection, reproduction and proliferation. Among these is a group of secreted or membrane-anchored proteins known as the six-cysteine (6-cys) family. This is a small but important family with only 14 members thus far identified, each stage-specifically expressed during the parasite life cycle. 6-cys proteins often localise at the parasite surface or interface with the host and vector, and are conserved in different Plasmodium species. The unifying feature of the family is the s48/45 domain, presumably involved in adhesion and structurally related to Ephrins, the ligands of Eph receptors. The most prominent s48/45 members are currently under functional investigation and are being pursued as vaccine candidates. In this review, we examine what is known about the 6-cys family, their structure and function, and discuss future research directions.
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105
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Abstract
This article attempts to draw together current knowledge on the biology of Plasmodium and experience gained from past control campaigns to interpret and guide current efforts to discover and develop exciting new strategies targeting the parasite with the objective of interrupting transmission. Particular note is made of the advantages of targeting often unappreciated small, yet vital, bottleneck populations to enhance both the impact and the useful lifetime of hard-won interventions. A case is made for the standardization of methods to measure transmission blockade to permit the rational comparison of how diverse interventions (drugs, vaccines, insecticides, Genetically Modified technologies) targeting disparate aspects of parasite biology may impact upon the commonly used parameter of parasite prevalence in the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- The Jenner Institute, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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106
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Saraiva RG, Kang S, Simões ML, Angleró-Rodríguez YI, Dimopoulos G. Mosquito gut antiparasitic and antiviral immunity. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 64:53-64. [PMID: 26827888 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of diseases with a serious impact on global human health, such as malaria and dengue. All mosquito-transmitted pathogens complete part of their life cycle in the insect gut, where they are exposed to mosquito-encoded barriers and active factors that can limit their development. Here we present the current understanding of mosquito gut immunity against malaria parasites, filarial worms, and viruses such as dengue, Chikungunya, and West Nile. The most recently proposed immune mediators involved in intestinal defenses are discussed, as well as the synergies identified between the recognition of gut microbiota and the mounting of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl G Saraiva
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Seokyoung Kang
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Maria L Simões
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yesseinia I Angleró-Rodríguez
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - George Dimopoulos
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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107
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Paul NH, Vengesai A, Mduluza T, Chipeta J, Midzi N, Bansal GP, Kumar N. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum transmission reducing immunity among primary school children in a malaria moderate transmission region in Zimbabwe. Acta Trop 2016; 163:103-8. [PMID: 27491342 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to cause alarming morbidity and mortality in more than 100 countries worldwide. Antigens in the various life cycle stages of malaria parasites are presented to the immune system during natural infection and it is widely recognized that after repeated malaria exposure, adults develop partially protective immunity. Specific antigens of natural immunity represent among the most important targets for the development of malaria vaccines. Immunity against the transmission stages of the malaria parasite represents an important approach to reduce malaria transmission and is believed to become an important tool for gradual elimination of malaria. Development of immunity against Plasmodium falciparum sexual stages was evaluated in primary school children aged 6-16 years in Makoni district of Zimbabwe, an area of low to modest malaria transmission. Malaria infection was screened by microscopy, rapid diagnostic tests and finally using nested PCR. Plasma samples were tested for antibodies against recombinant Pfs48/45 and Pfs47 by ELISA. Corresponding serum samples were used to test for P. falciparum transmission reducing activity in Anopheles stephensi and An. gambiae mosquitoes using the membrane feeding assay. The prevalence of malaria diagnosed by rapid diagnostic test kit (Paracheck)™ was 1.7%. However, of the randomly tested blood samples, 66% were positive by nested PCR. ELISA revealed prevalence (64% positivity at 1:500 dilution, in randomly selected 66 plasma samples) of antibodies against recombinant Pfs48/45 (mean A 405nm=0.53, CI=0.46-0.60) and Pfs47 (mean A405nm=0.91, CI=0.80-1.02); antigens specific to the sexual stages. The mosquito membrane feeding assay demonstrated measurable transmission reducing ability of the samples that were positive for Pfs48/45 antibodies by ELISA. Interestingly, 3 plasma samples revealed enhancement of infectivity of P. falciparum in An. stephensi mosquitoes. These studies revealed the presence of antibodies with transmission reducing immunity in school age children from a moderate transmission area of malaria, and provide further support to exploit target antigens such as Pfs48/45 for further development of a malaria transmission blocking vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah H Paul
- Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre, Food and Biomedical Technology Institute, 1574 Alpes Rd., P O Box 6640, Hatcliffe, Harare, Zimbabwe; University of Zimbabwe, Biochemistry Department, P O Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Arthur Vengesai
- University of Zimbabwe, Biochemistry Department, P O Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Takafira Mduluza
- University of Zimbabwe, Biochemistry Department, P O Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe; School of Laboratory Medicine & Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - James Chipeta
- University of Zambia School of Medicine and University Teaching Hospital, Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, P.O. Box 50110, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Nicholas Midzi
- University of Zimbabwe, College of Health Sciences Department of Community Medicine, P O Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Geetha P Bansal
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and Vector Borne Infectious Diseases Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Nirbhay Kumar
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and Vector Borne Infectious Diseases Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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108
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Molina-Cruz A, Zilversmit MM, Neafsey DE, Hartl DL, Barillas-Mury C. Mosquito Vectors and the Globalization of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria. Annu Rev Genet 2016; 50:447-465. [PMID: 27732796 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120215-035211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria remains a devastating public health problem. Recent discoveries have shed light on the origin and evolution of Plasmodium parasites and their interactions with their vertebrate and mosquito hosts. P. falciparum malaria originated in Africa from a single horizontal transfer between an infected gorilla and a human, and became global as the result of human migration. Today, P. falciparum malaria is transmitted worldwide by more than 70 different anopheline mosquito species. Recent studies indicate that the mosquito immune system can be a barrier to malaria transmission and that the P. falciparum Pfs47 gene allows the parasite to evade mosquito immune detection. Here, we review the origin and globalization of P. falciparum and integrate this history with analysis of the biology, evolution, and dispersal of the main mosquito vectors. This new perspective broadens our understanding of P. falciparum population structure and the dispersal of important parasite genetic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Molina-Cruz
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852;
| | - Martine M Zilversmit
- Richard Guilder Graduate School and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024
| | - Daniel E Neafsey
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - Daniel L Hartl
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
| | - Carolina Barillas-Mury
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852;
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109
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Alzan HF, Lau AOT, Knowles DP, Herndon DR, Ueti MW, Scoles GA, Kappmeyer LS, Suarez CE. Expression of 6-Cys Gene Superfamily Defines Babesia bovis Sexual Stage Development within Rhipicephalus microplus. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163791. [PMID: 27668751 PMCID: PMC5036836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Babesia bovis, an intra-erythrocytic tick-borne apicomplexan protozoan, is one of the causative agents of bovine babesiosis. Its life cycle includes sexual reproduction within cattle fever ticks, Rhipicephalus spp. Six B. bovis 6-Cys gene superfamily members were previously identified (A, B, C, D, E, F) where their orthologues in Plasmodium parasite have been shown to encode for proteins required for the development of sexual stages. The current study identified four additional 6-Cys genes (G, H, I, J) in the B. bovis genome. These four genes are described in the context of the complete ten 6-Cys gene superfamily. The proteins expressed by this gene family are predicted to be secreted or surface membrane directed. Genetic analysis comparing the 6-Cys superfamily among five distinct B. bovis strains shows limited sequence variation. Additionally, A, B, E, H, I and J genes were transcribed in B. bovis infected tick midgut while genes A, B and E were also transcribed in the subsequent B. bovis kinete stage. Transcription of gene C was found exclusively in the kinete. In contrast, transcription of genes D, F and G in either B. bovis infected midguts or kinetes was not detected. None of the 6-Cys transcripts were detected in B. bovis blood stages. Subsequent protein analysis of 6-Cys A and B is concordant with their transcript profile. The collective data indicate as in Plasmodium parasite, certain B. bovis 6-Cys family members are uniquely expressed during sexual stages and therefore, they are likely required for parasite reproduction. Within B. bovis specifically, proteins encoded by 6-Cys genes A and B are markers for sexual stages and candidate antigens for developing novel vaccines able to interfere with the development of B. bovis within the tick vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba F. Alzan
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Parasitology and Animal Diseases Department, National Research Center, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Audrey O. T. Lau
- The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 5601 Fishers Lane, MSC 9823, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
| | - Donald P. Knowles
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
| | - David R. Herndon
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
| | - Massaro W. Ueti
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
| | - Glen A. Scoles
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
| | - Lowell S. Kappmeyer
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
| | - Carlos E. Suarez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agricultural—Agricultural Research Service, Pullman, WA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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110
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Abstract
Malaria continues to impose a significant disease burden on low- and middle-income countries in the tropics. However, revolutionary progress over the last 3 years in nucleic acid sequencing, reverse genetics, and post-genome analyses has generated step changes in our understanding of malaria parasite (Plasmodium spp.) biology and its interactions with its host and vector. Driven by the availability of vast amounts of genome sequence data from Plasmodium species strains, relevant human populations of different ethnicities, and mosquito vectors, researchers can consider any biological component of the malarial process in isolation or in the interactive setting that is infection. In particular, considerable progress has been made in the area of population genomics, with Plasmodium falciparum serving as a highly relevant model. Such studies have demonstrated that genome evolution under strong selective pressure can be detected. These data, combined with reverse genetics, have enabled the identification of the region of the P. falciparum genome that is under selective pressure and the confirmation of the functionality of the mutations in the kelch13 gene that accompany resistance to the major frontline antimalarial, artemisinin. Furthermore, the central role of epigenetic regulation of gene expression and antigenic variation and developmental fate in P. falciparum is becoming ever clearer. This review summarizes recent exciting discoveries that genome technologies have enabled in malaria research and highlights some of their applications to healthcare. The knowledge gained will help to develop surveillance approaches for the emergence or spread of drug resistance and to identify new targets for the development of antimalarial drugs and perhaps vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kirchner
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - B Joanne Power
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Andrew P Waters
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
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111
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Hupalo DN, Luo Z, Melnikov A, Sutton PL, Rogov P, Escalante A, Vallejo AF, Herrera S, Arévalo-Herrera M, Fan Q, Wang Y, Cui L, Lucas CM, Durand S, Sanchez JF, Baldeviano GC, Lescano AG, Laman M, Barnadas C, Barry A, Mueller I, Kazura JW, Eapen A, Kanagaraj D, Valecha N, Ferreira MU, Roobsoong W, Nguitragool W, Sattabonkot J, Gamboa D, Kosek M, Vinetz JM, González-Cerón L, Birren BW, Neafsey DE, Carlton JM. Population genomics studies identify signatures of global dispersal and drug resistance in Plasmodium vivax. Nat Genet 2016; 48:953-8. [PMID: 27348298 PMCID: PMC5347536 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium vivax is a major public health burden, responsible for the majority of malaria infections outside Africa. We explored the impact of demographic history and selective pressures on the P. vivax genome by sequencing 182 clinical isolates sampled from 11 countries across the globe, using hybrid selection to overcome human DNA contamination. We confirmed previous reports of high genomic diversity in P. vivax relative to the more virulent Plasmodium falciparum species; regional populations of P. vivax exhibited greater diversity than the global P. falciparum population, indicating a large and/or stable population. Signals of natural selection suggest that P. vivax is evolving in response to antimalarial drugs and is adapting to regional differences in the human host and the mosquito vector. These findings underline the variable epidemiology of this parasite species and highlight the breadth of approaches that may be required to eliminate P. vivax globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel N Hupalo
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Zunping Luo
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Patrick L Sutton
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Peter Rogov
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ananias Escalante
- Institute for Genomics and Evolutionary Medicine, Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - Myriam Arévalo-Herrera
- Caucaseco Scientific Research Center, Cali, Colombia
- Faculty of Health, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia
| | - Qi Fan
- Dalian Institute of Biotechnology, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Third Military Medical University, Shapingba, Chongqing, China
| | - Liwang Cui
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Moses Laman
- Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, Madang, Papua, New Guinea
| | - Celine Barnadas
- Vector Borne Diseases Unit, Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, Goroka, Papua New Guinea
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Walter &Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Australia
| | - Alyssa Barry
- Division of Population Health and Immunity, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ivo Mueller
- Division of Population Health and Immunity, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Institute of Global Health (ISGLOBAL), Barcelona, Spain
| | - James W Kazura
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Alex Eapen
- National Institute of Malaria Research Field Unit, Indian Council of Medical Research, National Institute of Epidemiology Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Deena Kanagaraj
- National Institute of Malaria Research Field Unit, Indian Council of Medical Research, National Institute of Epidemiology Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Neena Valecha
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Marcelo U Ferreira
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wanlapa Roobsoong
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wang Nguitragool
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Sattabonkot
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Dionicia Gamboa
- Instituto de Medicine Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Departamento de Ciencias Celulares y Moleculares, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Margaret Kosek
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Joseph M Vinetz
- Instituto de Medicine Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Departamento de Ciencias Celulares y Moleculares, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Lilia González-Cerón
- Regional Centre for Research in Public Health, National Institute for Public Health, Tapachula, Chiapas, México
| | - Bruce W Birren
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Daniel E Neafsey
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jane M Carlton
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
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112
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Caljon G, De Muylder G, Durnez L, Jennes W, Vanaerschot M, Dujardin JC. Alice in microbes' land: adaptations and counter-adaptations of vector-borne parasitic protozoa and their hosts. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2016; 40:664-85. [PMID: 27400870 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuw018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present review, we aim to provide a general introduction to different facets of the arms race between pathogens and their hosts/environment, emphasizing its evolutionary aspects. We focus on vector-borne parasitic protozoa, which have to adapt to both invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. Using Leishmania, Trypanosoma and Plasmodium as main models, we review successively (i) the adaptations and counter-adaptations of parasites and their invertebrate host, (ii) the adaptations and counter-adaptations of parasites and their vertebrate host and (iii) the impact of human interventions (chemotherapy, vaccination, vector control and environmental changes) on these adaptations. We conclude by discussing the practical impact this knowledge can have on translational research and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Caljon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium University of Antwerp, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Health, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Géraldine De Muylder
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lies Durnez
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Wim Jennes
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Manu Vanaerschot
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Fidock Lab, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Jean-Claude Dujardin
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium University of Antwerp, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Health, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
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113
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Bennink S, Kiesow MJ, Pradel G. The development of malaria parasites in the mosquito midgut. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:905-18. [PMID: 27111866 PMCID: PMC5089571 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The mosquito midgut stages of malaria parasites are crucial for establishing an infection in the insect vector and to thus ensure further spread of the pathogen. Parasite development in the midgut starts with the activation of the intraerythrocytic gametocytes immediately after take-up and ends with traversal of the midgut epithelium by the invasive ookinetes less than 24 h later. During this time period, the plasmodia undergo two processes of stage conversion, from gametocytes to gametes and from zygotes to ookinetes, both accompanied by dramatic morphological changes. Further, gamete formation requires parasite egress from the enveloping erythrocytes, rendering them vulnerable to the aggressive factors of the insect gut, like components of the human blood meal. The mosquito midgut stages of malaria parasites are unprecedented objects to study a variety of cell biological aspects, including signal perception, cell conversion, parasite/host co-adaptation and immune evasion. This review highlights recent insights into the molecules involved in gametocyte activation and gamete formation as well as in zygote-to-ookinete conversion and ookinete midgut exit; it further discusses factors that can harm the extracellular midgut stages as well as the measures of the parasites to protect themselves from any damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Bennink
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Meike J Kiesow
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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114
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Aksoy E, Vigneron A, Bing X, Zhao X, O'Neill M, Wu YN, Bangs JD, Weiss BL, Aksoy S. Mammalian African trypanosome VSG coat enhances tsetse's vector competence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:6961-6. [PMID: 27185908 PMCID: PMC4922192 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1600304113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tsetse flies are biological vectors of African trypanosomes, the protozoan parasites responsible for causing human and animal trypanosomiases across sub-Saharan Africa. Currently, no vaccines are available for disease prevention due to antigenic variation of the Variant Surface Glycoproteins (VSG) that coat parasites while they reside within mammalian hosts. As a result, interference with parasite development in the tsetse vector is being explored to reduce disease transmission. A major bottleneck to infection occurs as parasites attempt to colonize tsetse's midgut. One critical factor influencing this bottleneck is the fly's peritrophic matrix (PM), a semipermeable, chitinous barrier that lines the midgut. The mechanisms that enable trypanosomes to cross this barrier are currently unknown. Here, we determined that as parasites enter the tsetse's gut, VSG molecules released from trypanosomes are internalized by cells of the cardia-the tissue responsible for producing the PM. VSG internalization results in decreased expression of a tsetse microRNA (mir-275) and interferes with the Wnt-signaling pathway and the Iroquois/IRX transcription factor family. This interference reduces the function of the PM barrier and promotes parasite colonization of the gut early in the infection process. Manipulation of the insect midgut homeostasis by the mammalian parasite coat proteins is a novel function and indicates that VSG serves a dual role in trypanosome biology-that of facilitating transmission through its mammalian host and insect vector. We detail critical steps in the course of trypanosome infection establishment that can serve as novel targets to reduce the tsetse's vector competence and disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emre Aksoy
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Aurélien Vigneron
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - XiaoLi Bing
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Michelle O'Neill
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Yi-Neng Wu
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - James D Bangs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo (SUNY), Buffalo, NY 14214
| | - Brian L Weiss
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520;
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520;
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115
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Fairhurst RM, Dondorp AM. Artemisinin-Resistant Plasmodium falciparum Malaria. Microbiol Spectr 2016; 4:10.1128/microbiolspec.EI10-0013-2016. [PMID: 27337450 PMCID: PMC4992992 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.ei10-0013-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
For more than five decades, Southeast Asia (SEA) has been fertile ground for the emergence of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. After generating parasites resistant to chloroquine, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, quinine, and mefloquine, this region has now spawned parasites resistant to artemisinins, the world's most potent antimalarial drugs. In areas where artemisinin resistance is prevalent, artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs)-the first-line treatments for malaria-are failing fast. This worrisome development threatens to make malaria practically untreatable in SEA, and threatens to compromise global endeavors to eliminate this disease. A recent series of clinical, in vitro, genomics, and transcriptomics studies in SEA have defined in vivo and in vitro phenotypes of artemisinin resistance, identified its causal genetic determinant, explored its molecular mechanism, and assessed its clinical impact. Specifically, these studies have established that artemisinin resistance manifests as slow parasite clearance in patients and increased survival of early-ring-stage parasites in vitro; is caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms in the parasite's K13 gene, is associated with an upregulated "unfolded protein response" pathway that may antagonize the pro-oxidant activity of artemisinins, and selects for partner drug resistance that rapidly leads to ACT failures. In SEA, clinical studies are urgently needed to monitor ACT efficacy where K13 mutations are prevalent, test whether new combinations of currently available drugs cure ACT failures, and advance new antimalarial compounds through preclinical pipelines and into clinical trials. Intensifying these efforts should help to forestall the spread of artemisinin and partner drug resistance from SEA to sub-Saharan Africa, where the world's malaria transmission, morbidity, and mortality rates are highest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick M. Fairhurst
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, United States of America
| | - Arjen M. Dondorp
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
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116
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Abstract
For more than five decades, Southeast Asia (SEA) has been fertile ground for the emergence of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria. After generating parasites resistant to chloroquine, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, quinine, and mefloquine, this region has now spawned parasites resistant to artemisinins, the world's most potent antimalarial drugs. In areas where artemisinin resistance is prevalent, artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs)-the first-line treatments for malaria-are failing fast. This worrisome development threatens to make malaria practically untreatable in SEA, and threatens to compromise global endeavors to eliminate this disease. A recent series of clinical, in vitro, genomics, and transcriptomics studies in SEA have defined in vivo and in vitro phenotypes of artemisinin resistance, identified its causal genetic determinant, explored its molecular mechanism, and assessed its clinical impact. Specifically, these studies have established that artemisinin resistance manifests as slow parasite clearance in patients and increased survival of early-ring-stage parasites in vitro; is caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms in the parasite's K13 gene, is associated with an upregulated "unfolded protein response" pathway that may antagonize the pro-oxidant activity of artemisinins, and selects for partner drug resistance that rapidly leads to ACT failures. In SEA, clinical studies are urgently needed to monitor ACT efficacy where K13 mutations are prevalent, test whether new combinations of currently available drugs cure ACT failures, and advance new antimalarial compounds through preclinical pipelines and into clinical trials. Intensifying these efforts should help to forestall the spread of artemisinin and partner drug resistance from SEA to sub-Saharan Africa, where the world's malaria transmission, morbidity, and mortality rates are highest.
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117
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Gunalan K, Lo E, Hostetler JB, Yewhalaw D, Mu J, Neafsey DE, Yan G, Miller LH. Role of Plasmodium vivax Duffy-binding protein 1 in invasion of Duffy-null Africans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:6271-6. [PMID: 27190089 PMCID: PMC4896682 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1606113113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of the malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax to invade erythrocytes is dependent on the expression of the Duffy blood group antigen on erythrocytes. Consequently, Africans who are null for the Duffy antigen are not susceptible to P. vivax infections. Recently, P. vivax infections in Duffy-null Africans have been documented, raising the possibility that P. vivax, a virulent pathogen in other parts of the world, may expand malarial disease in Africa. P. vivax binds the Duffy blood group antigen through its Duffy-binding protein 1 (DBP1). To determine if mutations in DBP1 resulted in the ability of P. vivax to bind Duffy-null erythrocytes, we analyzed P. vivax parasites obtained from two Duffy-null individuals living in Ethiopia where Duffy-null and -positive Africans live side-by-side. We determined that, although the DBP1s from these parasites contained unique sequences, they failed to bind Duffy-null erythrocytes, indicating that mutations in DBP1 did not account for the ability of P. vivax to infect Duffy-null Africans. However, an unusual DNA expansion of DBP1 (three and eight copies) in the two Duffy-null P. vivax infections suggests that an expansion of DBP1 may have been selected to allow low-affinity binding to another receptor on Duffy-null erythrocytes. Indeed, we show that Salvador (Sal) I P. vivax infects Squirrel monkeys independently of DBP1 binding to Squirrel monkey erythrocytes. We conclude that P. vivax Sal I and perhaps P. vivax in Duffy-null patients may have adapted to use new ligand-receptor pairs for invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthigayan Gunalan
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | - Eugenia Lo
- Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Jessica B Hostetler
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852; Malaria Programme, Wellcome Trust, Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Delenasaw Yewhalaw
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences and Pathology, College of Health Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma 5195, Ethiopia; Tropical and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Jimma University, Jimma 5195, Ethiopia
| | - Jianbing Mu
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | | | - Guiyun Yan
- Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Louis H Miller
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852;
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118
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Carvalho TG, Morahan B, John von Freyend S, Boeuf P, Grau G, Garcia-Bustos J, Doerig C. The ins and outs of phosphosignalling in Plasmodium: Parasite regulation and host cell manipulation. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2016; 208:2-15. [PMID: 27211241 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Signal transduction and kinomics have been rapidly expanding areas of investigation within the malaria research field. Here, we provide an overview of phosphosignalling pathways that operate in all stages of the Plasmodium life cycle. We review signalling pathways in the parasite itself, in the cells it invades, and in other cells of the vertebrate host with which it interacts. We also discuss the potential of these pathways as novel targets for antimalarial intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Gil Carvalho
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Belinda Morahan
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Simona John von Freyend
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Philippe Boeuf
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia; The University of Melbourne, Department of Medicine, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia; Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Georges Grau
- Vascular Immunology Unit, Department of Pathology, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Jose Garcia-Bustos
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Christian Doerig
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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119
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Ramiro RS, Khan SM, Franke-Fayard B, Janse CJ, Obbard DJ, Reece SE. Hybridization and pre-zygotic reproductive barriers in Plasmodium. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20143027. [PMID: 25854886 PMCID: PMC4426616 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.3027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual reproduction is an obligate step in the life cycle of many parasites, including the causative agents of malaria (Plasmodium). Mixed-species infections are common in nature and consequently, interactions between heterospecific gametes occur. Given the importance of managing gene flow across parasite populations, remarkably little is understood about how reproductive isolation between species is maintained. We use the rodent malaria parasites P. berghei and P. yoelii to investigate the ecology of mixed-species mating groups, identify proteins involved in pre-zygotic barriers, and examine their evolution. Specifically, we show that (i) hybridization occurs, but at low frequency; (ii) hybridization reaches high levels when female gametes lack the surface proteins P230 or P48/45, demonstrating that these proteins are key for pre-zygotic reproductive isolation; (iii) asymmetric reproductive interference occurs, where the fertility of P. berghei gametes is reduced in the presence of P. yoelii and (iv) as expected for gamete recognition proteins, strong positive selection acts on a region of P230 and P47 (P48/45 paralogue). P230 and P48/45 are leading candidates for interventions to block malaria transmission. Our results suggest that depending on the viability of hybrids, applying such interventions to populations where mixed-species infections occur could either facilitate or hinder malaria control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo S Ramiro
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Shahid M Khan
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden Malaria Research Group, LUMC, Albinusdreef 2, ZA Leiden 2333, The Netherlands
| | - Blandine Franke-Fayard
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden Malaria Research Group, LUMC, Albinusdreef 2, ZA Leiden 2333, The Netherlands
| | - Chris J Janse
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden Malaria Research Group, LUMC, Albinusdreef 2, ZA Leiden 2333, The Netherlands
| | - Darren J Obbard
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK
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120
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Genomes of cryptic chimpanzee Plasmodium species reveal key evolutionary events leading to human malaria. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11078. [PMID: 27002652 PMCID: PMC4804174 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
African apes harbour at least six Plasmodium species of the subgenus Laverania, one of which gave rise to human Plasmodium falciparum. Here we use a selective amplification strategy to sequence the genome of chimpanzee parasites classified as Plasmodium reichenowi and Plasmodium gaboni based on the subgenomic fragments. Genome-wide analyses show that these parasites indeed represent distinct species, with no evidence of cross-species mating. Both P. reichenowi and P. gaboni are 10-fold more diverse than P. falciparum, indicating a very recent origin of the human parasite. We also find a remarkable Laverania-specific expansion of a multigene family involved in erythrocyte remodelling, and show that a short region on chromosome 4, which encodes two essential invasion genes, was horizontally transferred into a recent P. falciparum ancestor. Our results validate the selective amplification strategy for characterizing cryptic pathogen species, and reveal evolutionary events that likely predisposed the precursor of P. falciparum to colonize humans. African apes harbour six Plasmodium species, one of which gave rise to the human malaria parasite. Here, Sundaraman et al. use selective whole-genome amplification to determine genome sequences from two chimpanzee Plasmodium species, shedding light on the evolutionary origin of the human parasite.
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121
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Variation in susceptibility of African Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites to TEP1 mediated killing in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20440. [PMID: 26861587 PMCID: PMC4748223 DOI: 10.1038/srep20440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Anopheles gambiae s.s. mosquitoes are efficient vectors for Plasmodium falciparum, although variation exists in their susceptibility to infection. This variation depends partly on the thioester-containing protein 1 (TEP1) and TEP depletion results in significantly elevated numbers of oocysts in susceptible and resistant mosquitoes. Polymorphism in the Plasmodium gene coding for the surface protein Pfs47 modulates resistance of some parasite laboratory strains to TEP1-mediated killing. Here, we examined resistance of P. falciparum isolates of African origin (NF54, NF165 and NF166) to TEP1-mediated killing in a susceptible Ngousso and a refractory L3–5 strain of A. gambiae. All parasite clones successfully developed in susceptible mosquitoes with limited evidence for an impact of TEP1 on transmission efficiency. In contrast, NF166 and NF165 oocyst densities were strongly reduced in refractory mosquitoes and TEP1 silencing significantly increased oocyst densities. Our results reveal differences between African P. falciparum strains in their capacity to evade TEP1-mediated killing in resistant mosquitoes. There was no significant correlation between Pfs47 genotype and resistance of a given P. falciparum isolate for TEP1 killing. These data suggest that polymorphisms in this locus are not the sole mediators of immune evasion of African malaria parasites.
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122
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Mideo N, Bailey JA, Hathaway NJ, Ngasala B, Saunders DL, Lon C, Kharabora O, Jamnik A, Balasubramanian S, Björkman A, Mårtensson A, Meshnick SR, Read AF, Juliano JJ. A deep sequencing tool for partitioning clearance rates following antimalarial treatment in polyclonal infections. EVOLUTION MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2016; 2016:21-36. [PMID: 26817485 PMCID: PMC4753362 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eov036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Current tools struggle to detect drug-resistant malaria parasites when infections contain multiple parasite clones, which is the norm in high transmission settings in Africa. Our aim was to develop and apply an approach for detecting resistance that overcomes the challenges of polyclonal infections without requiring a genetic marker for resistance. METHODOLOGY Clinical samples from patients treated with artemisinin combination therapy were collected from Tanzania and Cambodia. By deeply sequencing a hypervariable locus, we quantified the relative abundance of parasite subpopulations (defined by haplotypes of that locus) within infections and revealed evolutionary dynamics during treatment. Slow clearance is a phenotypic, clinical marker of artemisinin resistance; we analyzed variation in clearance rates within infections by fitting parasite clearance curves to subpopulation data. RESULTS In Tanzania, we found substantial variation in clearance rates within individual patients. Some parasite subpopulations cleared as slowly as resistant parasites observed in Cambodia. We evaluated possible explanations for these data, including resistance to drugs. Assuming slow clearance was a stable phenotype of subpopulations, simulations predicted that modest increases in their frequency could substantially increase time to cure. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS By characterizing parasite subpopulations within patients, our method can detect rare, slow clearing parasites in vivo whose phenotypic effects would otherwise be masked. Since our approach can be applied to polyclonal infections even when the genetics underlying resistance are unknown, it could aid in monitoring the emergence of artemisinin resistance. Our application to Tanzanian samples uncovers rare subpopulations with worrying phenotypes for closer examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Mideo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada;
| | - Jeffrey A Bailey
- Division of Transfusion Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA; Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Nicholas J Hathaway
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Billy Ngasala
- Department of Parasitology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - David L Saunders
- Division of Immunology and Medicine, USAMC Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chanthap Lon
- US Army Medical Component, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Oksana Kharabora
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew Jamnik
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sujata Balasubramanian
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Anders Björkman
- Malaria Research, Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andreas Mårtensson
- Malaria Research, Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Centre for Clinical Research Sörmland, Uppsala University, Sweden; Department of Women's and Children's Health, International Maternal and Child Health (IMCH), Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Steven R Meshnick
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew F Read
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology and Entomology, the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA and
| | - Jonathan J Juliano
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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123
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Dinko B, Pradel G. Immune evasion by <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> parasites: converting a host protection mechanism for the parasite′s benefit. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.4236/aid.2016.62011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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124
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Kennedy AT, Schmidt CQ, Thompson JK, Weiss GE, Taechalertpaisarn T, Gilson PR, Barlow PN, Crabb BS, Cowman AF, Tham WH. Recruitment of Factor H as a Novel Complement Evasion Strategy for Blood-Stage Plasmodium falciparum Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 196:1239-48. [PMID: 26700768 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The human complement system is the frontline defense mechanism against invading pathogens. The coexistence of humans and microbes throughout evolution has produced ingenious molecular mechanisms by which microorganisms escape complement attack. A common evasion strategy used by diverse pathogens is the hijacking of soluble human complement regulators to their surfaces to afford protection from complement activation. One such host regulator is factor H (FH), which acts as a negative regulator of complement to protect host tissues from aberrant complement activation. In this report, we show that Plasmodium falciparum merozoites, the invasive form of the malaria parasites, actively recruit FH and its alternative spliced form FH-like protein 1 when exposed to human serum. We have mapped the binding site in FH that recognizes merozoites and identified Pf92, a member of the six-cysteine family of Plasmodium surface proteins, as its direct interaction partner. When bound to merozoites, FH retains cofactor activity, a key function that allows it to downregulate the alternative pathway of complement. In P. falciparum parasites that lack Pf92, we observed changes in the pattern of C3b cleavage that are consistent with decreased regulation of complement activation. These results also show that recruitment of FH affords P. falciparum merozoites protection from complement-mediated lysis. Our study provides new insights on mechanisms of immune evasion of malaria parasites and highlights the important function of surface coat proteins in the interplay between complement regulation and successful infection of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander T Kennedy
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Christoph Q Schmidt
- Institute of Pharmacology of Natural Products and Clinical Pharmacology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Jennifer K Thompson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Greta E Weiss
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
| | | | - Paul R Gilson
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia; Department of Immunology, Monash University, Victoria 3004, Australia
| | - Paul N Barlow
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, United Kingdom; School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Brendan S Crabb
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia; Department of Immunology, Monash University, Victoria 3004, Australia; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alan F Cowman
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Wai-Hong Tham
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia;
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Mitri C, Bischoff E, Takashima E, Williams M, Eiglmeier K, Pain A, Guelbeogo WM, Gneme A, Brito-Fravallo E, Holm I, Lavazec C, Sagnon N, Baxter RH, Riehle MM, Vernick KD. An Evolution-Based Screen for Genetic Differentiation between Anopheles Sister Taxa Enriches for Detection of Functional Immune Factors. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005306. [PMID: 26633695 PMCID: PMC4669117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide variation patterns across species are shaped by the processes of natural selection, including exposure to environmental pathogens. We examined patterns of genetic variation in two sister species, Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii, both efficient natural vectors of human malaria in West Africa. We used the differentiation signature displayed by a known coordinate selective sweep of immune genes APL1 and TEP1 in A. coluzzii to design a population genetic screen trained on the sweep, classified a panel of 26 potential immune genes for concordance with the signature, and functionally tested their immune phenotypes. The screen results were strongly predictive for genes with protective immune phenotypes: genes meeting the screen criteria were significantly more likely to display a functional phenotype against malaria infection than genes not meeting the criteria (p = 0.0005). Thus, an evolution-based screen can efficiently prioritize candidate genes for labor-intensive downstream functional testing, and safely allow the elimination of genes not meeting the screen criteria. The suite of immune genes with characteristics similar to the APL1-TEP1 selective sweep appears to be more widespread in the A. coluzzii genome than previously recognized. The immune gene differentiation may be a consequence of adaptation of A. coluzzii to new pathogens encountered in its niche expansion during the separation from A. gambiae, although the role, if any of natural selection by Plasmodium is unknown. Application of the screen allowed identification of new functional immune factors, and assignment of new functions to known factors. We describe biochemical binding interactions between immune proteins that underlie functional activity for malaria infection, which highlights the interplay between pathogen specificity and the structure of immune complexes. We also find that most malaria-protective immune factors display phenotypes for either human or rodent malaria, with broad specificity a rarity. Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii are the primary mosquito vectors of human malaria in West Africa. Both of these closely related species efficiently transmit the disease, although they display ecological differences. Previous work showed that A. coluzzii displays distinct genetic patterns in genes important for mosquito immunity. Here, we use this genetic pattern as a filter to examine a panel of potential immune genes, and show that the genetic pattern is strongly predictive for genes that play a functional role in immunity when tested with malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Mitri
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Bischoff
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Eizo Takashima
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Marni Williams
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Karin Eiglmeier
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Adrien Pain
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | | | - Awa Gneme
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Burkina Faso
| | - Emma Brito-Fravallo
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Inge Holm
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - Catherine Lavazec
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
| | - N’Fale Sagnon
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Burkina Faso
| | - Richard H. Baxter
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Michelle M. Riehle
- Department of Microbiology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Kenneth D. Vernick
- Institut Pasteur, Unit of Insect Vector Genetics and Genomics, Department of Parasites and Insect Vectors, Paris, France
- CNRS, Unit of Hosts, Vectors and Pathogens (URA3012), Paris, France
- Department of Microbiology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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126
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Plasmodium evasion of mosquito immunity and global malaria transmission: The lock-and-key theory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:15178-83. [PMID: 26598665 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1520426112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum malaria originated in Africa and became global as humans migrated to other continents. During this journey, parasites encountered new mosquito species, some of them evolutionarily distant from African vectors. We have previously shown that the Pfs47 protein allows the parasite to evade the mosquito immune system of Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Here, we investigated the role of Pfs47-mediated immune evasion in the adaptation of P. falciparum to evolutionarily distant mosquito species. We found that P. falciparum isolates from Africa, Asia, or the Americas have low compatibility to malaria vectors from a different continent, an effect that is mediated by the mosquito immune system. We identified 42 different haplotypes of Pfs47 that have a strong geographic population structure and much lower haplotype diversity outside Africa. Replacement of the Pfs47 haplotypes in a P. falciparum isolate is sufficient to make it compatible to a different mosquito species. Those parasites that express a Pfs47 haplotype compatible with a given vector evade antiplasmodial immunity and survive. We propose that Pfs47-mediated immune evasion has been critical for the globalization of P. falciparum malaria as parasites adapted to new vector species. Our findings predict that this ongoing selective force by the mosquito immune system could influence the dispersal of Plasmodium genetic traits and point to Pfs47 as a potential target to block malaria transmission. A new model, the "lock-and-key theory" of P. falciparum globalization, is proposed, and its implications are discussed.
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127
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St Laurent B, Miller B, Burton TA, Amaratunga C, Men S, Sovannaroth S, Fay MP, Miotto O, Gwadz RW, Anderson JM, Fairhurst RM. Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum clinical isolates can infect diverse mosquito vectors of Southeast Asia and Africa. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8614. [PMID: 26485448 PMCID: PMC4616032 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum parasites are rapidly spreading in Southeast Asia, yet nothing is known about their transmission. This knowledge gap and the possibility that these parasites will spread to Africa endanger global efforts to eliminate malaria. Here we produce gametocytes from parasite clinical isolates that displayed artemisinin resistance in patients and in vitro, and use them to infect native and non-native mosquito vectors. We show that contemporary artemisinin-resistant isolates from Cambodia develop and produce sporozoites in two Southeast Asian vectors, Anopheles dirus and Anopheles minimus, and the major African vector, Anopheles coluzzii (formerly Anopheles gambiae M). The ability of artemisinin-resistant parasites to infect such highly diverse Anopheles species, combined with their higher gametocyte prevalence in patients, may explain the rapid expansion of these parasites in Cambodia and neighbouring countries, and further compromise efforts to prevent their global spread. It is unknown whether artemisinin-resistant malaria parasites from Southeast Asia can infect any African species of Anopheles mosquitoes and thus spread to Africa. Here, St. Laurent et al. show that artemisinin-resistant isolates from Cambodia can indeed infect the major African vector, Anopheles coluzzii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandyce St Laurent
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Becky Miller
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Timothy A Burton
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Chanaki Amaratunga
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Sary Men
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Phnom Penh 12101, Cambodia
| | - Siv Sovannaroth
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Phnom Penh 12101, Cambodia
| | - Michael P Fay
- Biostatistics Research Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Olivo Miotto
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.,Malaria Programme, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK.,Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Genomics and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Robert W Gwadz
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Jennifer M Anderson
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
| | - Rick M Fairhurst
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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128
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Parker ML, Peng F, Boulanger MJ. The Structure of Plasmodium falciparum Blood-Stage 6-Cys Protein Pf41 Reveals an Unexpected Intra-Domain Insertion Required for Pf12 Coordination. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139407. [PMID: 26414347 PMCID: PMC4587554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is an apicomplexan parasite and the etiological agent of severe human malaria. The complex P. falciparum life cycle is supported by a diverse repertoire of surface proteins including the family of 6-Cys s48/45 antigens. Of these, Pf41 is localized to the surface of the blood-stage merozoite through its interaction with the glycophosphatidylinositol-anchored Pf12. Our recent structural characterization of Pf12 revealed two juxtaposed 6-Cys domains (D1 and D2). Pf41, however, contains an additional segment of 120 residues predicted to form a large spacer separating its two 6-Cys domains. To gain insight into the assembly mechanism and overall architecture of the Pf12-Pf41 complex, we first determined the 2.45 Å resolution crystal structure of Pf41 using zinc single-wavelength anomalous dispersion. Structural analysis revealed an unexpected domain organization where the Pf41 6-Cys domains are, in fact, intimately associated and the additional residues instead map predominately to an inserted domain-like region (ID) located between two β-strands in D1. Notably, the ID is largely proteolyzed in the final structure suggesting inherent flexibility. To assess the contribution of the ID to complex formation, we engineered a form of Pf41 where the ID was replaced by a short glycine-serine linker and showed by isothermal titration calorimetry that binding to Pf12 was abrogated. Finally, protease protection assays showed that the proteolytic susceptibility of the ID was significantly reduced in the complex, consistent with the Pf41 ID directly engaging Pf12. Collectively, these data establish the architectural organization of Pf41 and define an essential role for the Pf41 ID in promoting assembly of the Pf12-Pf41 heterodimeric complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L. Parker
- Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Fangni Peng
- Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin J. Boulanger
- Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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129
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Pompon J, Levashina EA. A New Role of the Mosquito Complement-like Cascade in Male Fertility in Anopheles gambiae. PLoS Biol 2015; 13:e1002255. [PMID: 26394016 PMCID: PMC4579081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Thioester-containing protein 1 (TEP1) is a key immune factor that determines mosquito resistance to a wide range of pathogens, including malaria parasites. Here we report a new allele-specific function of TEP1 in male fertility. We demonstrate that during spermatogenesis TEP1 binds to and removes damaged cells through the same complement-like cascade that kills malaria parasites in the mosquito midgut. Further, higher fertility rates are mediated by an allele that renders the mosquito susceptible to Plasmodium. By elucidating the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying TEP1 function in spermatogenesis, our study suggests that pleiotropic antagonism between reproduction and immunity may shape resistance of mosquito populations to malaria parasites. The complement-related protein TEP1, which helps kill malaria parasites, also labels damaged cells for removal during mosquito spermatogenesis and promotes male fertility in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. While Anopheline mosquitoes are the most efficient vectors of human malaria, they do have protective mechanisms directed against the causative parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Their immune system targets the invading parasites through activation of the mosquito complement-like system. A central component of this system, thioester-containing protein 1 (TEP1), is a highly polymorphic gene with four allelic classes. Although one class, called R1, mediates efficient parasite elimination, the other classes render the mosquitoes susceptible to Plasmodium infections. Until now, it was not clear how or why any of these susceptible TEP1 alleles were maintained in the population. Here we discover a new role of TEP1 in male fertility. We demonstrate that mosquitoes use the same mechanism—nitration of target surfaces—to flag both damaged sperm and Plasmodium cells. Binding of TEP1 to, and removal of, the aberrant sperm is critical to preserve high fertility rates. In the absence of TEP1, accumulation of damaged sperm degrades male fertility. Surprisingly, in spite of the common mechanism of TEP1 activation, distinct alleles of TEP1 mediate efficient removal of defective sperm and killing of malaria parasites. Our results suggest that pleiotropic function in immunity and reproduction is one of the mechanisms that maintain TEP1 polymorphism in mosquito populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Pompon
- CNRS UPR9022, Inserm U963, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Strasbourg, France
| | - Elena A. Levashina
- CNRS UPR9022, Inserm U963, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Strasbourg, France
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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130
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Molina-Cruz A, Barillas-Mury C. The remarkable journey of adaptation of the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite to New World anopheline mosquitoes. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 109:662-7. [PMID: 25185006 PMCID: PMC4156459 DOI: 10.1590/0074-0276130553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum originated in Africa, dispersed around the
world as a result of human migration and had to adapt to several different indigenous
anopheline mosquitoes. Anophelines from the New World are evolutionary distant form
African ones and this probably resulted in a more stringent selection of
Plasmodium as it adapted to these vectors. It is thought that
Plasmodium has been genetically selected by some anopheline species
through unknown mechanisms. The mosquito immune system can greatly limit infection
and P. falciparum evolved a strategy to evade these responses, at
least in part mediated by Pfs47, a highly polymorphic gene. We
propose that adaptation of P. falciparum to new vectors may require
evasion of their immune system. Parasites with a Pfs47 haplotype
compatible with the indigenous mosquito vector would be able to survive and be
transmitted. The mosquito antiplasmodial response could be an important determinant
of P. falciparum population structure and could affect malaria
transmission in the Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Molina-Cruz
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Carolina Barillas-Mury
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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131
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Smith RC, Vega-Rodríguez J, Jacobs-Lorena M. The Plasmodium bottleneck: malaria parasite losses in the mosquito vector. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015. [PMID: 25185005 PMCID: PMC4156458 DOI: 10.1590/0074-0276130597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nearly one million people are killed every year by the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Although the disease-causing forms of the parasite exist only in the human blood, mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles are the obligate vector for transmission. Here, we review the parasite life cycle in the vector and highlight the human and mosquito contributions that limit malaria parasite development in the mosquito host. We address parasite killing in its mosquito host and bottlenecks in parasite numbers that might guide intervention strategies to prevent transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Smith
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joel Vega-Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marcelo Jacobs-Lorena
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and Immunology, Baltimore, MD, USA
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132
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Lawniczak MK. Connecting genotypes to medically relevant phenotypes in major vector mosquitoes. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2015; 10:59-64. [PMID: 29588015 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Transmission of mosquito-borne human disease relies on vectors maintaining strong human host preference and continued susceptibility to disease-causing pathogens or parasites. These traits are affected by the genetics and the environments of all involved organisms, and genotypic interactions are common between parasite and vector, and between virus and vector. A recent study on Aedes host preference has exploited natural genetic variation to make great progress. Here I review our current understanding of the genetic basis of transmission-relevant traits in Anopheles and Aedes, highlighting additional research areas that would benefit from the integration of natural genetic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Kn Lawniczak
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Malaria Programme, Hinxton CB10 1SA, United Kingdom; Imperial College London, Department of Life Sciences, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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133
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Rowley AF, Smith AL, Davies CE. How does the dinoflagellate parasite Hematodinium outsmart the immune system of its crustacean hosts? PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004724. [PMID: 25951086 PMCID: PMC4423953 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew F. Rowley
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda L. Smith
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte E. Davies
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
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134
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Samad H, Coll F, Preston MD, Ocholla H, Fairhurst RM, Clark TG. Imputation-based population genetics analysis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005131. [PMID: 25928499 PMCID: PMC4415759 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Whole-genome sequencing technologies are being increasingly applied to Plasmodium falciparum clinical isolates to identify genetic determinants of malaria pathogenesis. However, genome-wide discovery methods, such as haplotype scans for signatures of natural selection, are hindered by missing genotypes in sequence data. Poor correlation between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the P. falciparum genome complicates efforts to apply established missing-genotype imputation methods that leverage off patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD). The accuracy of state-of-the-art, LD-based imputation methods (IMPUTE, Beagle) was assessed by measuring allelic r2 for 459 P. falciparum samples from malaria patients in 4 countries: Thailand, Cambodia, Gambia, and Malawi. In restricting our analysis to 86 k high-quality SNPs across the populations, we found that the complete-case analysis was restricted to 21k SNPs (24.5%), despite no single SNP having more than 10% missing genotypes. The accuracy of Beagle in filling in missing genotypes was consistently high across all populations (allelic r2, 0.87-0.96), but the performance of IMPUTE was mixed (allelic r2, 0.34-0.99) depending on reference haplotypes and population. Positive selection analysis using Beagle-imputed haplotypes identified loci involved in resistance to chloroquine (crt) in Thailand, Cambodia, and Gambia, sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (dhfr, dhps) in Cambodia, and artemisinin (kelch13) in Cambodia. Tajima's D-based analysis identified genes under balancing selection that encode well-characterized vaccine candidates: apical merozoite antigen 1 (ama1) and merozoite surface protein 1 (msp1). In contrast, the complete-case analysis failed to identify any well-validated drug resistance or candidate vaccine loci, except kelch13. In a setting of low LD and modest levels of missing genotypes, using Beagle to impute P. falciparum genotypes is a viable strategy for conducting accurate large-scale population genetics and association analyses, and supporting global surveillance for drug resistance markers and candidate vaccine antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanif Samad
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesc Coll
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mark D. Preston
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Harold Ocholla
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, Blantyre, Malawi and Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Rick M. Fairhurst
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Taane G. Clark
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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135
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Schmidt CQ, Kennedy AT, Tham WH. More than just immune evasion: Hijacking complement by Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Immunol 2015; 67:71-84. [PMID: 25816986 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the world's deadliest diseases. Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for the most severe and lethal form of human malaria. P. falciparum's life cycle involves two obligate hosts: human and mosquito. From initial entry into these hosts, malaria parasites face the onslaught of the first line of host defence, the complement system. In this review, we discuss the complex interaction between complement and malaria infection in terms of hosts immune responses, parasite survival and pathogenesis of severe forms of malaria. We will focus on the role of complement receptor 1 and its associated polymorphisms in malaria immune complex clearance, as a mediator of parasite rosetting and as an entry receptor for P. falciparum invasion. Complement evasion strategies of P. falciparum parasites will also be highlighted. The sexual forms of the malaria parasites recruit the soluble human complement regulator Factor H to evade complement-mediated killing within the mosquito host. A novel evasion strategy is the deployment of parasite organelles to divert complement attack from infective blood stage parasites. Finally we outline the future challenge to understand the implications of these exploitation mechanisms in the interplay between successful infection of the host and pathogenesis observed in severe malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Q Schmidt
- Institute of Pharmacology of Natural Products and Clinical Pharmacology, Ulm University, Helmholtzstraße 20, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Alexander T Kennedy
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne and Division of Infection and Immunity, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Wai-Hong Tham
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne and Division of Infection and Immunity, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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136
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Bouyou-Akotet MK, M'Bondoukwé NP, Mawili-Mboumba DP. Genetic polymorphism of merozoite surface protein-1 in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from patients with mild to severe malaria in Libreville, Gabon. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:12. [PMID: 25786326 PMCID: PMC4365293 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2015012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
We assessed Plasmodium (P.) falciparum allelic diversity based on clinical severity and age. The study was conducted from 2011 to 2012 in Libreville, Gabon where malaria prevalence was 24.5%. The polymorphism of the merozoite surface protein-1 (msp1) locus was analyzed in isolates from patients with complicated and uncomplicated malaria. Blood was collected on filter paper. After DNA extraction, genotyping of the msp1 gene was performed using nested PCR. The K1, Ro33, and Mad20 allelic families were detected in 71 (63%), 64 (57%), and 38 (34%) of the 112 analyzed samples, respectively. Overall, 17 K1 and 11 Mad20 alleles were detected. There was no association between msp1 allelic families and age. Mad20 allelic diversity increased with the severity of malaria. The number of K1 and Mad20 alleles decreased with age. The multiplicity of infection (MOI) was 1-6 genotypes and the complexity of infection (COI) 1.8 ± 1. The COI differed based on age: it was 1.9 (±1.1) in the isolates from adults, 1.8 (±1.1) in those from 0-5 year-old children, whereas it tended to be lower (1.6 ± 0.8) in those from 6-15 year-old children. Extensive genetic diversity is found in P. falciparum strains circulating in Libreville. The number of specific msp1 alleles increased with clinical severity, suggesting an association between the diversity and the severity of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marielle Karine Bouyou-Akotet
- Département de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université des Sciences de la Santé, Libreville, Gabon - Unité de Recherche Clinique et Opérationnelle sur le Paludisme, Hôpital Régional de Melen, BP 4009, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Noé Patrick M'Bondoukwé
- Département de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université des Sciences de la Santé, Libreville, Gabon - Unité de Recherche Clinique et Opérationnelle sur le Paludisme, Hôpital Régional de Melen, BP 4009, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Denise Patricia Mawili-Mboumba
- Département de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université des Sciences de la Santé, Libreville, Gabon - Unité de Recherche Clinique et Opérationnelle sur le Paludisme, Hôpital Régional de Melen, BP 4009, Libreville, Gabon
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137
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Biophysical analysis of anopheles gambiae leucine-rich repeat proteins APL1A1, APL1B [corrected] and APL1C and their interaction with LRIM1. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118911. [PMID: 25775123 PMCID: PMC4361550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural infection of Anopheles gambiae by malaria-causing Plasmodium parasites is significantly influenced by the APL1 genetic locus. The locus contains three closely related leucine-rich repeat (LRR) genes, APL1A, APL1B and APL1C. Multiple studies have reported the participation of APL1A-C in the immune response of A. gambiae to invasion by both rodent and human Plasmodium isolates. APL1C forms a heterodimer with the related LRR protein LRIM1 via a C-terminal coiled-coil domain that is also present in APL1A and APL1B. The LRIM1/APL1C heterodimer protects A. gambiae from infection by binding the complement-like protein TEP1 to form a stable and active immune complex. Here we report solution x-ray scatting data for the LRIM1/APL1C heterodimer, the oligomeric state of LRIM1/APL1 LRR domains in solution and the crystal structure of the APL1B LRR domain. The LRIM1/APL1C heterodimeric complex has a flexible and extended structure in solution. In contrast to the APL1A, APL1C and LRIM1 LRR domains, the APL1B LRR domain is a homodimer. The crystal structure of APL1B-LRR shows that the homodimer is formed by an N-terminal helix that complements for the absence of an N-terminal capping motif in APL1B, which is a unique distinction within the LRIM1/APL1 protein family. Full-length APL1A1 and APL1B form a stable complex with LRIM1. These results support a model in which APL1A1, APL1B and APL1C can all form an extended, flexible heterodimer with LRIM1, providing a repertoire of functional innate immune complexes to protect A. gambiae from a diverse array of pathogens.
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138
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Sinden RE. The cell biology of malaria infection of mosquito: advances and opportunities. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:451-66. [PMID: 25557077 PMCID: PMC4409862 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent reviews (Feachem et al.; Alonso et al.) have concluded that in order to have a sustainable impact on the global burden of malaria, it is essential that we knowingly reduce the global incidence of infected persons. To achieve this we must reduce the basic reproductive rate of the parasites to < 1 in diverse epidemiological settings. This can be achieved by impacting combinations of the following parameters: the number of mosquitoes relative to the number of persons, the mosquito/human biting rate, the proportion of mosquitoes carrying infectious sporozoites, the daily survival rate of the infectious mosquito and the ability of malaria-infected persons to infect mosquito vectors. This paper focuses on our understanding of parasite biology underpinning the last of these terms: infection of the mosquito. The article attempts to highlight central issues that require further study to assist in the discovery of useful transmission-blocking measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London and the Jenner Institute, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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139
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Profile of Carolina Barillas-Mury. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:1245-7. [PMID: 25552562 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1423225112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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140
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Ramphul UN, Garver LS, Molina-Cruz A, Canepa GE, Barillas-Mury C. Plasmodium falciparum evades mosquito immunity by disrupting JNK-mediated apoptosis of invaded midgut cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:1273-80. [PMID: 25552553 PMCID: PMC4321252 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1423586112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite, Plasmodium, must survive and develop in the mosquito vector to be successfully transmitted to a new host. The Plasmodium falciparum Pfs47 gene is critical for malaria transmission. Parasites that express Pfs47 (NF54 WT) evade mosquito immunity and survive, whereas Pfs47 knockouts (KO) are efficiently eliminated by the complement-like system. Two alternative approaches were used to investigate the mechanism of action of Pfs47 on immune evasion. First, we examined whether Pfs47 affected signal transduction pathways mediating mosquito immune responses, and show that the Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is a key mediator of Anopheles gambiae antiplasmodial responses to P. falciparum infection and that Pfs47 disrupts JNK signaling. Second, we used microarrays to compare the global transcriptional responses of A. gambiae midguts to infection with WT and KO parasites. The presence of Pfs47 results in broad and profound changes in gene expression in response to infection that are already evident 12 h postfeeding, but become most prominent at 26 h postfeeding, the time when ookinetes invade the mosquito midgut. Silencing of 15 differentially expressed candidate genes identified caspase-S2 as a key effector of Plasmodium elimination in parasites lacking Pfs47. We provide experimental evidence that JNK pathway regulates activation of caspases in Plasmodium-invaded midgut cells, and that caspase activation is required to trigger midgut epithelial nitration. Pfs47 alters the cell death pathway of invaded midgut cells by disrupting JNK signaling and prevents the activation of several caspases, resulting in an ineffective nitration response that makes the parasite undetectable by the mosquito complement-like system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urvashi N Ramphul
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | - Lindsey S Garver
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | - Alvaro Molina-Cruz
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | - Gaspar E Canepa
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
| | - Carolina Barillas-Mury
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852
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141
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Pimenta PFP, Orfano AS, Bahia AC, Duarte APM, Ríos-Velásquez CM, Melo FF, Pessoa FAC, Oliveira GA, Campos KMM, Villegas LM, Rodrigues NB, Nacif-Pimenta R, Simões RC, Monteiro WM, Amino R, Traub-Cseko YM, Lima JBP, Barbosa MGV, Lacerda MVG, Tadei WP, Secundino NFC. An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:23-47. [PMID: 25742262 PMCID: PMC4371216 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760140266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Anopheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo FP Pimenta
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | | | - Ana C Bahia
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Ana PM Duarte
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
| | | | - Fabrício F Melo
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou-Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG,
Brasil
| | | | | | - Keillen MM Campos
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | | | | | | | - Rejane C Simões
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - Wuelton M Monteiro
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | - Rogerio Amino
- Unité de Biologie et Génétique du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris,
France
| | | | - José BP Lima
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Maria GV Barbosa
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
| | - Marcus VG Lacerda
- Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, AM,
Brasil
- Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane-Fiocruz, Manaus, AM, Brasil
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142
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Malaria parasite Pfs47 disrupts JNK signaling to escape mosquito immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:1250-1. [PMID: 25617364 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1424227112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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143
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Nikolaeva D, Draper SJ, Biswas S. Toward the development of effective transmission-blocking vaccines for malaria. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:653-80. [PMID: 25597923 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.993383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The continued global burden of malaria can in part be attributed to a complex lifecycle, with both human hosts and mosquito vectors serving as transmission reservoirs. In preclinical models of vaccine-induced immunity, antibodies to parasite sexual-stage antigens, ingested in the mosquito blood meal, can inhibit parasite survival in the insect midgut as judged by ex vivo functional studies such as the membrane feeding assay. In an era of renewed political momentum for malaria elimination and eradication campaigns, such observations have fueled support for the development and implementation of so-called transmission-blocking vaccines. While leading candidates are being evaluated using a variety of promising vaccine platforms, the field is also beginning to capitalize on global '-omics' data for the rational genome-based selection and unbiased characterization of parasite and mosquito proteins to expand the candidate list. This review covers the progress and prospects of these recent developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Nikolaeva
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
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144
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Stone WJR, Bousema T. The Standard Membrane Feeding Assay: Advances Using Bioluminescence. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1325:101-12. [PMID: 26450383 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2815-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In preclinical development, the efficacy of agents with putative effects on Plasmodium transmission is determined using the standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA). Because the end-point of the SMFA is normally the enumeration of oocysts on the mosquito midgut, the assays reliance on mosquito dissections and microscopy makes it slow, labor-intensive, and subjective. Below, we describe a novel method of assessing the transmission of a Plasmodium falciparum strain expressing the firefly luciferase protein in the SMFA. The use of a transgenic parasite strain allows for the elimination of mosquito dissections in favor of a simple approach where whole mosquitoes are homogenized and examined directly for luciferase activity. Measuring the mean luminescence intensity of groups of individual or pooled mosquitoes provides comparable estimates of transmission reducing activity at 5-10-fold the throughput capacity of the standard microscopy based SMFA. This high efficiency protocol may be of interest to groups screening novel drug compounds, vaccine candidates, or sera from malaria exposed individuals for transmission reducing activity (TRA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Will J R Stone
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, GA 6525, The Netherlands
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, GA 6525, The Netherlands. .,Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
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145
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Bousema T, Okell L, Felger I, Drakeley C. Asymptomatic malaria infections: detectability, transmissibility and public health relevance. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:833-40. [PMID: 25329408 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 447] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Most Plasmodium falciparum infections that are detected in community surveys are characterized by low-density parasitaemia and the absence of clinical symptoms. Molecular diagnostics have shown that this asymptomatic parasitic reservoir is more widespread than previously thought, even in low-endemic areas. In this Opinion article, we describe the detectability of asymptomatic malaria infections and the relevance of submicroscopic infections for parasite transmission to mosquitoes and for community interventions that aim at reducing transmission. We argue that wider deployment of molecular diagnostic tools is needed to provide adequate insight into the epidemiology of malaria and infection dynamics to aid elimination efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teun Bousema
- 1] London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK. [2] Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Lucy Okell
- Imperial College, London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | | | - Chris Drakeley
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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146
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Wang Y, Ma A, Chen SB, Yang YC, Chen JH, Yin MB. Genetic diversity and natural selection of three blood-stage 6-Cys proteins in Plasmodium vivax populations from the China-Myanmar endemic border. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2014; 28:167-74. [PMID: 25266249 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pv12, Pv38 and Pv41, the three 6-Cys family proteins which are expressed in the blood-stage of vivax malaria, might be involved in merozoite invasion activity and thus be potential vaccine candidate antigens of Plasmodium vivax. However, little information is available concerning the genetic diversity and natural selection of these three proteins. In the present study, we analyzed the amino acid sequences of P. vivax blood-stage 6-Cys family proteins in comparison with the homologue proteins of Plasmodium cynomolgi strain B using bioinformatic methods. We also investigated genetic polymorphisms and natural selection of these three genes in P. vivax populations from the China-Myanmar endemic border. The three P. vivax blood-stage 6-Cys proteins were shown to possess a signal peptide at the N-terminus, containing two s48/45 domains, and Pv12 and Pv38 have a GPI-anchor motif at the C-terminus. Then, 22, 21 and 29 haplotypes of pv12, pv38 and pv41 were identified out of 45, 38 and 40 isolates, respectively. The dN/dS values for Domain II of pv38 and pv41 were 3.33880 and 5.99829, respectively, suggesting positive balancing selection for these regions. Meanwhile, the C-terminus of pv41 showed high nucleotide diversity, and Tajima's D test suggested that this fragment could be under positive balancing selection. Overall, our results have significant implications, providing a genetic basis for blood-stage malaria vaccine development based on these three 6-Cys proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - An Ma
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou 310013, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Shen-Bo Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Center for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, Shanghai 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying-Chao Yang
- Division of Parasitic Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun-Hu Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of the Chinese Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Center for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, Shanghai 200025, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ming-Bo Yin
- Coastal Ecosystems Research Station of Yangtze River Estuary, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Biodiversity Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China.
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147
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Abstract
Host immunity is a major driver of pathogen evolution and thus a major determinant of pathogen diversity. Explanations for pathogen diversity traditionally assume simple interactions between pathogens and the immune system, a view encapsulated by the susceptible-infected-recovered (SIR) model. However, there is growing evidence that the complexity of many host-pathogen interactions is dynamically important. This revised perspective requires broadening the definition of a pathogen's immunological phenotype, or what can be thought of as its immunological niche. After reviewing evidence that interactions between pathogens and host immunity drive much of pathogen evolution, I introduce the concept of a pathogen's immunological phenotype. Models that depart from the SIR paradigm demonstrate the utility of this perspective and show that it is particularly useful in understanding vaccine-induced evolution. This paper highlights questions in immunology, evolution, and ecology that must be answered to advance theories of pathogen diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Cobey
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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148
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Moreno-García M, Recio-Tótoro B, Claudio-Piedras F, Lanz-Mendoza H. Injury and immune response: applying the danger theory to mosquitoes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:451. [PMID: 25250040 PMCID: PMC4158974 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The insect immune response can be activated by the recognition of both non-self and molecular by-products of tissue damage. Since pathogens and tissue damage usually arise at the same time during infection, the specific mechanisms of the immune response to microorganisms, and to tissue damage have not been unraveled. Consequently, some aspects of damage caused by microorganisms in vector-borne arthropods have been neglected. We herein reassess the Anopheles-Plasmodium interaction, incorporating Matzinger's danger/damage hypothesis and George Salt's injury assumptions. The invasive forms of the parasite cross the peritrophic matrix and midgut epithelia to reach the basal lamina and differentiate into an oocyst. The sporozoites produced in the oocyst are released into the hemolymph, and from there enter the salivary gland. During parasite development, wounds to midgut tissue and the basement membrane are produced. We describe the response of the different compartments where the parasite interacts with the mosquito. In the midgut, the response includes the expression of antimicrobial peptides, production of reactive oxygen species, and possible activation of midgut regenerative cells. In the basal membrane, wound repair mainly involves the production of molecules and the recruitment of hemocytes. We discuss the susceptibility to damage in tissues, and how the place and degree of damage may influence the differential response and the expression of damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Knowledge about damage caused by parasites may lead to a deeper understanding of the relevance of tissue damage and the immune response it generates, as well as the origins and progression of infection in this insect-parasite interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Moreno-García
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud PúblicaCuernavaca, México
| | - Benito Recio-Tótoro
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud PúblicaCuernavaca, México
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Posgrado en Ciencias Bioquímicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoCuernavaca, México
| | - Fabiola Claudio-Piedras
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud PúblicaCuernavaca, México
- Facultad de Medicina, Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMéxico City, México
| | - Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud PúblicaCuernavaca, México
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149
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Severo MS, Levashina EA. Mosquito defenses against Plasmodium parasites. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 3:30-36. [PMID: 32846668 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Malaria, the human infectious disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, is transmitted by the bite of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Mosquitoes actively detect Plasmodium and mount efficient responses that eliminate the majority of invading parasites. Such responses include hemocyte-mediated defenses, activation of the complement-like system, melanization, and immune signaling cascades. This review aims to summarize our current knowledge of the mosquito immune responses to Plasmodium and to highlight the remaining gaps in our understanding of these events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maiara S Severo
- Vector Biology Unit, Max-Planck-Institut für Infektionsbiologie, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Elena A Levashina
- Vector Biology Unit, Max-Planck-Institut für Infektionsbiologie, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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150
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Culleton RL, Abkallo HM. Malaria parasite genetics: doing something useful. Parasitol Int 2014; 64:244-53. [PMID: 25073068 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Genetics has informed almost every aspect of the study of malaria parasites, and remains a key component of much of the research that aims to reduce the burden of the disease they cause. We describe the history of genetic studies of malaria parasites and give an overview of the utility of the discipline to malariology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Culleton
- Malaria Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.
| | - Hussein M Abkallo
- Malaria Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
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