101
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Lennox RJ, Chapman JM, Souliere CM, Tudorache C, Wikelski M, Metcalfe JD, Cooke SJ. Conservation physiology of animal migration. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 4:cov072. [PMID: 27293751 PMCID: PMC4772791 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cov072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Migration is a widespread phenomenon among many taxa. This complex behaviour enables animals to exploit many temporally productive and spatially discrete habitats to accrue various fitness benefits (e.g. growth, reproduction, predator avoidance). Human activities and global environmental change represent potential threats to migrating animals (from individuals to species), and research is underway to understand mechanisms that control migration and how migration responds to modern challenges. Focusing on behavioural and physiological aspects of migration can help to provide better understanding, management and conservation of migratory populations. Here, we highlight different physiological, behavioural and biomechanical aspects of animal migration that will help us to understand how migratory animals interact with current and future anthropogenic threats. We are in the early stages of a changing planet, and our understanding of how physiology is linked to the persistence of migratory animals is still developing; therefore, we regard the following questions as being central to the conservation physiology of animal migrations. Will climate change influence the energetic costs of migration? Will shifting temperatures change the annual clocks of migrating animals? Will anthropogenic influences have an effect on orientation during migration? Will increased anthropogenic alteration of migration stopover sites/migration corridors affect the stress physiology of migrating animals? Can physiological knowledge be used to identify strategies for facilitating the movement of animals? Our synthesis reveals that given the inherent challenges of migration, additional stressors derived from altered environments (e.g. climate change, physical habitat alteration, light pollution) or interaction with human infrastructure (e.g. wind or hydrokinetic turbines, dams) or activities (e.g. fisheries) could lead to long-term changes to migratory phenotypes. However, uncertainty remains because of the complexity of biological systems, the inherently dynamic nature of the environment and the scale at which many migrations occur and associated threats operate, necessitating improved integration of physiological approaches to the conservation of migratory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Lennox
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Jacqueline M. Chapman
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Christopher M. Souliere
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Christian Tudorache
- The Sylvius Laboratory, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, Leiden 2333 BE, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Department of Migration and Immuno-ecology, Max-Planck Institute for Ornithology, Radolfzell, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Julian D. Metcalfe
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Lowestoft Laboratory, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK
| | - Steven J. Cooke
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
- Institute of Environmental Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
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102
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Shafer ABA, Northrup JM, Wikelski M, Wittemyer G, Wolf JBW. Forecasting Ecological Genomics: High-Tech Animal Instrumentation Meets High-Throughput Sequencing. PLoS Biol 2016; 14:e1002350. [PMID: 26745372 PMCID: PMC4712824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in animal tracking technology and high-throughput sequencing are rapidly changing the questions and scope of research in the biological sciences. The integration of genomic data with high-tech animal instrumentation comes as a natural progression of traditional work in ecological genetics, and we provide a framework for linking the separate data streams from these technologies. Such a merger will elucidate the genetic basis of adaptive behaviors like migration and hibernation and advance our understanding of fundamental ecological and evolutionary processes such as pathogen transmission, population responses to environmental change, and communication in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph M. Northrup
- Colorado State University, Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Radolfzell, Germany
- University of Konstanz, Biology, Konstanz, Germany
| | - George Wittemyer
- Colorado State University, Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Jochen B. W. Wolf
- Uppsala University, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala, Sweden
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103
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Hernández-Pliego J, Rodríguez C, Bustamante J. Why Do Kestrels Soar? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145402. [PMID: 26689780 DOI: 10.5441/001/1.sj8t3r11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals allocate considerable amounts of energy to movement, which ultimately affects their ability to survive and reproduce. Birds fly by flapping their wings, which is dependent on the chemical energy produced by muscle work, or use soaring-gliding flight, in which chemical energy is replaced with energy harvested from moving air masses, such as thermals. Flapping flight requires more energy than soaring-gliding flight, and this difference in the use of energy increases with body mass. However, soaring-gliding results in lower speeds than flapping, especially for small species. Birds therefore face a trade-off between energy and time costs when deciding which flight strategy to use. Raptors are a group of large birds that typically soar. As relatively light weight raptors, falcons can either soar on weak thermals or fly by flapping with low energy costs. In this paper, we study the flight behavior of the insectivorous lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) during foraging trips and the influence of solar radiation, which we have adopted as a proxy for thermal formation, on kestrel flight variables. We tracked 35 individuals from two colonies using high frequency GPS-dataloggers over four consecutive breeding seasons. Contrary to expectations, kestrels relied heavily on thermal soaring when foraging, especially during periods of high solar radiation. This produced a circadian pattern in the kestrel flight strategy that led to a spatial segregation of foraging areas. Kestrels flapped towards foraging areas close to the colony when thermals were not available. However, as soon as thermals were formed, they soared on them towards foraging areas far from the colony, especially when they were surrounded by poor foraging habitats. This reduced the chick provisioning rate at the colony. Given that lesser kestrels have a preference for feeding on large insects, and considering the average distance they cover to capture them during foraging trips, to commute using flapping flight would result in a negative energy balance for the family group. Our results show that lesser kestrels prioritize saving energy when foraging, suggesting that kestrels are more energy than time-constrained during the breeding season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Hernández-Pliego
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Carlos Rodríguez
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Javier Bustamante
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
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104
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Hernández-Pliego J, Rodríguez C, Bustamante J. Why Do Kestrels Soar? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145402. [PMID: 26689780 PMCID: PMC4687047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals allocate considerable amounts of energy to movement, which ultimately affects their ability to survive and reproduce. Birds fly by flapping their wings, which is dependent on the chemical energy produced by muscle work, or use soaring-gliding flight, in which chemical energy is replaced with energy harvested from moving air masses, such as thermals. Flapping flight requires more energy than soaring-gliding flight, and this difference in the use of energy increases with body mass. However, soaring-gliding results in lower speeds than flapping, especially for small species. Birds therefore face a trade-off between energy and time costs when deciding which flight strategy to use. Raptors are a group of large birds that typically soar. As relatively light weight raptors, falcons can either soar on weak thermals or fly by flapping with low energy costs. In this paper, we study the flight behavior of the insectivorous lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) during foraging trips and the influence of solar radiation, which we have adopted as a proxy for thermal formation, on kestrel flight variables. We tracked 35 individuals from two colonies using high frequency GPS-dataloggers over four consecutive breeding seasons. Contrary to expectations, kestrels relied heavily on thermal soaring when foraging, especially during periods of high solar radiation. This produced a circadian pattern in the kestrel flight strategy that led to a spatial segregation of foraging areas. Kestrels flapped towards foraging areas close to the colony when thermals were not available. However, as soon as thermals were formed, they soared on them towards foraging areas far from the colony, especially when they were surrounded by poor foraging habitats. This reduced the chick provisioning rate at the colony. Given that lesser kestrels have a preference for feeding on large insects, and considering the average distance they cover to capture them during foraging trips, to commute using flapping flight would result in a negative energy balance for the family group. Our results show that lesser kestrels prioritize saving energy when foraging, suggesting that kestrels are more energy than time-constrained during the breeding season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Hernández-Pliego
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Carlos Rodríguez
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Javier Bustamante
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), c/Américo Vespucio s/n, 41092 Seville, Spain
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105
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Sightings, edited by Erik R. Swenson and Peter Bärtsch. High Alt Med Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1089/ham.2015.29008.stg] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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106
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Scott GR, Hawkes LA, Frappell PB, Butler PJ, Bishop CM, Milsom WK. How bar-headed geese fly over the Himalayas. Physiology (Bethesda) 2015; 30:107-15. [PMID: 25729056 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00050.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bar-headed geese cross the Himalayas on one of the most iconic high-altitude migrations in the world. Heart rates and metabolic costs of flight increase with elevation and can be near maximal during steep climbs. Their ability to sustain the high oxygen demands of flight in air that is exceedingly oxygen-thin depends on the unique cardiorespiratory physiology of birds in general along with several evolved specializations across the O2 transport cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham R Scott
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada;
| | - Lucy A Hawkes
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, United Kingdom
| | - Peter B Frappell
- Office of Dean of Graduate Research, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay Campus, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Patrick J Butler
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Charles M Bishop
- School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom; and
| | - William K Milsom
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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107
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Chapman JW, Nilsson C, Lim KS, Bäckman J, Reynolds DR, Alerstam T. Adaptive strategies in nocturnally migrating insects and songbirds: contrasting responses to wind. J Anim Ecol 2015; 85:115-24. [PMID: 26147535 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Animals that use flight as their mode of transportation must cope with the fact that their migration and orientation performance is strongly affected by the flow of the medium they are moving in, that is by the winds. Different strategies can be used to mitigate the negative effects and benefit from the positive effects of a moving flow. The strategies an animal can use will be constrained by the relationship between the speed of the flow and the speed of the animal's own propulsion in relation to the surrounding air. Here we analyse entomological and ornithological radar data from north-western Europe to investigate how two different nocturnal migrant taxa, the noctuid moth Autographa gamma and songbirds, deal with wind by analysing variation in resulting flight directions in relation to the wind-dependent angle between the animal's heading and track direction. Our results, from fixed locations along the migratory journey, reveal different global strategies used by moths and songbirds during their migratory journeys. As expected, nocturnally migrating moths experienced a greater degree of wind drift than nocturnally migrating songbirds, but both groups were more affected by wind in autumn than in spring. The songbirds' strategies involve elements of both drift and compensation, providing some benefits from wind in combination with destination and time control. In contrast, moths expose themselves to a significantly higher degree of drift in order to obtain strong wind assistance, surpassing the songbirds in mean ground speed, at the cost of a comparatively lower spatiotemporal migratory precision. Moths and songbirds show contrasting but adaptive responses to migrating through a moving flow, which are fine-tuned to the respective flight capabilities of each group in relation to the wind currents they travel within.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason W Chapman
- Department of AgroEcology, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK.,Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Exeter TR10 9EZ, UK
| | - Cecilia Nilsson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Ka S Lim
- Department of AgroEcology, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK
| | - Johan Bäckman
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
| | - Don R Reynolds
- Department of AgroEcology, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK.,Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Thomas Alerstam
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
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108
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Hays GC. New insights: animal-borne cameras and accelerometers reveal the secret lives of cryptic species. J Anim Ecol 2015; 84:587-9. [PMID: 26247896 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Logging cameras and accelerometers have opened our eyes to the secret lives of many enigmatic species. Here some of the new opportunities provided by this technology are reviewed. Recent discoveries are highlighted including the observation of selective feeding on energy-rich parts of prey. As such, biologging cameras provide new opportunities for consideration of selective feeding within the same sort of theoretical framework (marginal value theory/optimal foraging) that exploitation of prey patches has been examined. A recent study with the world's largest bony fish, the ocean sunfish (Mola mola), is highlighted where animal-borne cameras allowed the ground-truthing of data sets collected with depth recorders and accelerometers. This synergistic use of a range of biologging approaches will help drive an holistic understanding of the free-living behaviour of a range of species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graeme C Hays
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Vic., 3280, Australia.,Swansea Laboratory for Animal Movement, Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP, Swansea, UK
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109
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Murray AJ, Horscroft JA. Mitochondrial function at extreme high altitude. J Physiol 2015; 594:1137-49. [PMID: 26033622 DOI: 10.1113/jp270079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
At high altitude, barometric pressure falls and with it inspired P(O2), potentially compromising O2 delivery to the tissues. With sufficient acclimatisation, the erythropoietic response increases red cell mass such that arterial O2 content (C(aO2)) is restored; however arterial P(O2)(P(aO2)) remains low, and the diffusion of O2 from capillary to mitochondrion is impaired. Mitochondrial respiration and aerobic capacity are thus limited, whilst reactive oxygen species (ROS) production increases. Restoration of P(aO2) with supplementary O2 does not fully restore aerobic capacity in acclimatised individuals, possibly indicating a peripheral impairment. With prolonged exposure to extreme high altitude (>5500 m), muscle mitochondrial volume density falls, with a particular loss of the subsarcolemmal population. It is not clear whether this represents acclimatisation or deterioration, but it does appear to be regulated, with levels of the mitochondrial biogenesis factor PGC-1α falling, and shows similarities to adapted Tibetan highlanders. Qualitative changes in mitochondrial function also occur, and do so at more moderate high altitudes with shorter periods of exposure. Electron transport chain complexes are downregulated, possibly mitigating the increase in ROS production. Fatty acid oxidation capacity is decreased and there may be improvements in biochemical coupling at the mitochondrial inner membrane that enhance O2 efficiency. Creatine kinase expression falls, possibly impairing high-energy phosphate transfer from the mitochondria to myofibrils. In climbers returning from the summit of Everest, cardiac energetic reserve (phosphocreatine/ATP) falls, but skeletal muscle energetics are well preserved, possibly supporting the notion that mitochondrial remodelling is a core feature of acclimatisation to extreme high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Murray
- Department of Physiology, Development & Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
| | - James A Horscroft
- Department of Physiology, Development & Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
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110
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Williams TM, Fuiman LA, Davis RW. Locomotion and the Cost of Hunting in Large, Stealthy Marine Carnivores. Integr Comp Biol 2015; 55:673-82. [PMID: 25936358 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icv025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Foraging by large (>25 kg), mammalian carnivores often entails cryptic tactics to surreptitiously locate and overcome highly mobile prey. Many forms of intermittent locomotion from stroke-and-glide maneuvers by marine mammals to sneak-and-pounce behaviors by terrestrial canids, ursids, and felids are involved. While affording proximity to vigilant prey, these tactics are also associated with unique energetic costs and benefits to the predator. We examined the energetic consequences of intermittent locomotion in mammalian carnivores and assessed the role of these behaviors in overall foraging efficiency. Behaviorally-linked, three-axis accelerometers were calibrated to provide instantaneous locomotor behaviors and associated energetic costs for wild adult Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) diving beneath the Antarctic ice. The results were compared with previously published values for other marine and terrestrial carnivores. We found that intermittent locomotion in the form of extended glides, burst-and-glide swimming, and rollercoaster maneuvers while hunting silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) resulted in a marked energetic savings for the diving seals relative to continuously stroking. The cost of a foraging dive by the seals decreased by 9.2-59.6%, depending on the proportion of time gliding. These energetic savings translated into exceptionally low transport costs during hunting (COTHUNT) for diving mammals. COTHUNT for Weddell seals was nearly six times lower than predicted for large terrestrial carnivores, and demonstrates the importance of turning off the propulsive machinery to facilitate cost-efficient foraging in highly active, air-breathing marine predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrie M Williams
- *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Center for Ocean Health, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; The University of Texas at Austin, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, TX 78373-5015, USA; Departments of Marine Biology and Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Texas A&M University, Galveston, TX 77553, USA
| | - Lee A Fuiman
- *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Center for Ocean Health, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; The University of Texas at Austin, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, TX 78373-5015, USA; Departments of Marine Biology and Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Texas A&M University, Galveston, TX 77553, USA
| | - Randall W Davis
- *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Center for Ocean Health, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA; The University of Texas at Austin, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, TX 78373-5015, USA; Departments of Marine Biology and Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Texas A&M University, Galveston, TX 77553, USA
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111
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Levesque DL. Taking the long way saves energy for high-flying birds. J Exp Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.112193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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112
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Harter TS, Reichert M, Brauner CJ, Milsom WK. Validation of the i-STAT and HemoCue systems for the analysis of blood parameters in the bar-headed goose, Anser indicus. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 3:cov021. [PMID: 27293706 PMCID: PMC4778437 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cov021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Every year, bar-headed geese (Anser indicus) perform some of the most remarkable trans-Himalayan migrations, and researchers are increasingly interested in understanding the physiology underlying their high-altitude flight performance. A major challenge is generating reliable measurements of blood parameters on wild birds in the field, where established analytical techniques are often not available. Therefore, we validated two commonly used portable clinical analysers (PCAs), the i-STAT and the HemoCue systems, for the analysis of blood parameters in bar-headed geese. The pH, partial pressures of O2 and CO2 (PO2 and PCO2), haemoglobin O2 saturation (sO2), haematocrit (Hct) and haemoglobin concentration [Hb] were simultaneously measured with the two PCA systems (i-STAT for all parameters; HemoCue for [Hb]) and with conventional laboratory techniques over a physiological range of PO2, PCO2 and Hct. Our results indicate that the i-STAT system can generate reliable values on bar-headed goose whole blood pH, PO2, PCO2 and Hct, but we recommend correcting the obtained values using the linear equations determined here for higher accuracy. The i-STAT is probably not able to produce meaningful measurements of sO2 and [Hb] over a range of physiologically relevant environmental conditions. However, we can recommend the use of the HemoCue to measure [Hb] in the bar-headed goose, if results are corrected. We emphasize that the equations that we provide to correct PCA results are applicable only to bar-headed goose whole blood under the conditions that we tested. We encourage researchers to validate i-STAT or HemoCue results thoroughly for their specific study conditions and species in order to yield accurate results.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. S. Harter
- Corresponding author: Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4. Tel: +1 604 822 3378.
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