101
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Zhang G, Rowe J, Kusel M, Bosco A, McKenna K, de Klerk N, Sly PD, Holt PG. Interleukin-10/interleukin-5 responses at birth predict risk for respiratory infections in children with atopic family history. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 179:205-11. [PMID: 18996999 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200803-438oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Respiratory infections in early life are associated with risk for wheezing bronchiolitis, especially in children at high risk of atopy. The underlying mechanisms are unknown, but are suspected to involve imbalance(s) in host defense responses against pathogens stemming from functional immaturity of the immune system in this age group. OBJECTIVES To assess the contribution of eosinophil-trophic IL-5, and the potent antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10, to risk for infection in early life. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS We prospectively monitored a cohort of 198 high-risk children to age 5 years, recording every acute respiratory infection episode and classifying them by severity. We measured cord blood T-cell capacity to produce IL-10 and IL-5, and related these functions to subsequent infection history. IL-10 and IL-5 were associated, respectively, with resistance versus susceptibility to infections. The greatest contrasting effects of these two cytokines were seen when they were considered in combination by generating IL-10/IL-5 response ratios for each subject. The low IL-10/high IL-5 T-cell response phenotype was strongly associated with susceptibility to all grades of acute respiratory infection, relative to the more resistant high IL-10/low IL-5 phenotype. CONCLUSIONS Excessive production of IL-5 by T cells at birth is associated with heightened risk for subsequent severe respiratory infections, and this risk is attenuated by concomitant IL-10 production. The underlying mechanisms may involve IL-10-mediated feedback inhibition of IL-5-dependent eosinophil-induced inflammation, which is a common feature of host antiviral responses in early life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guicheng Zhang
- Division of Cell Biology, Telethon Institute for Child Health Research, P.O. Box 855, West Perth, WA 6872, USA
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102
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Bachmann MF, Oxenius A. Interleukin 2: from immunostimulation to immunoregulation and back again. EMBO Rep 2008; 8:1142-8. [PMID: 18059313 DOI: 10.1038/sj.embor.7401099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2007] [Accepted: 09/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin 2 (IL-2) was one of the first cytokines to be discovered. However, the complex role of IL-2 and its receptor in the regulation of immune responses is only now emerging. This review explores the various signals triggered by IL-2 and discusses their translation into biological function. A model is outlined that accommodates the seemingly contradictory functions of IL-2, and explains how one cytokine can be an essential T-cell growth and differentiation factor and yet also be indispensable to maintain peripheral tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin F Bachmann
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Wagistrasse 25, 8952 Zürich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
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103
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Abstract
Much data support an essential role for interleukin (IL)-2 in immune tolerance. This idea is much different from the early paradigm in which IL-2 is central for protective immune responses. This change in thinking occurred when a T regulatory cell defect was shown to be responsible for the lethal autoimmunity associated with IL-2/IL-2R deficiency. This realization allowed investigators to explore immune responses in IL-2-nonresponsive mice rendered autoimmune-free. Such studies established that IL-2 sometimes contributes to optimal primary immune responses, but it is not mandatory. Emerging findings, however, suggest an essential role for IL-2 in immune memory. Here, the current understanding of the dual role of IL-2 in maintaining tolerance and contributing to immunity in vivo is reviewed with some emphasis on T regulatory cell production and homeostasis. Also discussed are implications of this new appreciation concerning the immunobiology of IL-2 with respect to targeting IL-2 or its receptor in immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Malek
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Diabetes Research Institute, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33101, USA.
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104
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Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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105
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The crucial role of IL-2/IL-2RA-mediated immune regulation in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes, an evidence coming from genetic and animal model studies. Immunol Lett 2008; 118:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2008] [Accepted: 03/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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106
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Cohen P. Murine models of immunodeficiency and autoimmune disease. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN IMMUNOLOGY 2008; Appendix 1:Appendix 1E. [PMID: 18432641 DOI: 10.1002/0471142735.ima01es17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Genetically determined murine immunodeficiency states are useful for understanding the function of specific immune-system genes and cellpopulations. In addition, certain immunodeficient strains may be exploited as hosts for foreign tumors or immune cells. The more commonly used immunodeficiency models are described in this appendix. Not included are strains better known for primary neurological or neuromuscular abnormalities or for defective osteoclast function. Many of the recently described immune-deficient "knockout" strains are described, including cytokine and cytokine receptor knockout strains. The most widely studied murine strains for autoimmune disease and experimental autoreactivity are also listed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Cohen
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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107
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Bcl-xL is associated with the anti-apoptotic effect of IL-15 on the survival of CD56(dim) natural killer cells. Mol Immunol 2008; 45:2559-69. [PMID: 18295891 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2007] [Revised: 01/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Human NK cells can be distinguished into CD56(bright) and CD56(dim) subsets based on cell surface CD56 density. It has been shown that IL-2 and IL-15 have opposing effects on life and death of CD8(+) T cells. However, the roles of IL-2 and IL-15 in regulating these two NK cell subsets remain elusive. In this study, we comparatively analyzed the effects of IL-2 and IL-15 on two NK cell subsets. IL-15 improved the proliferation and activation of CD56(dim) NK cells in long-term cord blood mononuclear cell culture, but IL-2 only maintained the survival of CD56(bright) NK cells. The percentage of CD56(+)Annexin V(+) NK cells cultured with IL-15 was lower than that with IL-2; moreover, most of Annexin V(+) NK cells were primarily in the CD56(dim) NK cells. IL-15 cultured NK cells expressed higher level of Bcl-xL than IL-2 cultured cells. Furthermore, IL-15 more strongly upregulated CD25 expression and better maintained the expression of IL-15Ralpha than IL-2. These results suggest that CD56(dim) NK cells undergo apoptosis when cultured with IL-2, but IL-15 inhibits their apoptosis and Bcl-xL is associated with the anti-apoptotic effect of IL-15. So IL-15 played a crucial role in sustaining long-lasting functions of CD56(dim) NK cells.
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108
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109
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Billerbeck E, Blum HE, Thimme R. Parallel expansion of human virus-specific FoxP3- effector memory and de novo-generated FoxP3+ regulatory CD8+ T cells upon antigen recognition in vitro. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:1039-48. [PMID: 17617596 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.2.1039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Although FoxP3 has been shown to be the most specific marker for regulatory CD4(+) T cells, its significance in the CD8(+) T cell population is not well understood. In this study, we show that the in vitro stimulation of human PBMC with hepatitis C virus or Flu virus-specific peptides gives rise to two distinct Ag-specific T cell populations: FoxP3(-) and FoxP3(+)CD8(+) T cells. The FoxP3(+) virus-specific CD8(+) T cells share phenotypical markers of regulatory T cells, such as CTLA-4 and glucocorticoid-induced TNFR family-related gene, and do produce moderate amounts of IFN-gamma but not IL-2 or IL-10. IL-2 and IL-10 are critical cytokines, however, because the expansion of virus-specific FoxP3(+)CD8(+) T cells is blocked by IL-2- or IL-10-neutralizing mAbs. The virus-specific FoxP3(+)CD8(+) T cells have a reduced proliferative capacity, indicating anergy, and display a cell-cell contact-dependent suppressive activity. Taken together, our results indicate that stimulation with a defined viral Ag leads to the expansion of two different cell populations: FoxP3(-) memory/effector as well as FoxP3(+) regulatory virus-specific CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Billerbeck
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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110
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Ganusov VV, Milutinović D, De Boer RJ. IL-2 regulates expansion of CD4+ T cell populations by affecting cell death: insights from modeling CFSE data. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:950-7. [PMID: 17617586 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.2.950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
It is generally accepted that IL-2 influences the dynamics of populations of T cells in vitro and in vivo. However, which parameters for cell division and/or death are affected by IL-2 is not well understood. To get better insights into the potential ways of how IL-2 may influence the population dynamics of T cells, we analyze data on the dynamics of CFSE-labeled polyclonal CD4(+) T lymphocytes in vitro after anti-CD3 stimulation at different concentrations of exogenous IL-2. Inferring cell division and death rates from CFSE-delabeling experiments is not straightforward and requires the use of mathematical models. We find that to adequately describe the dynamics of T cells at low concentrations of exogenous IL-2, the death rate of divided cells has to increase with the number of divisions cells have undergone. IL-2 hardly affects the average interdivision time. At low IL-2 concentrations 1) fewer cells are recruited into the response and successfully complete their first division; 2) the stochasticity of cell division is increased; and 3) the rate, at which the death rate increases with the division number, increases. Summarizing, our mathematical reinterpretation suggests that the main effect of IL-2 on the in vitro dynamics of naive CD4(+) T cells occurs by affecting the rate of cell death and not by changing the rate of cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaly V Ganusov
- Theoretical Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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111
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Minigo G, Scalzo K, Flanagan KL, Plebanski M. Predicting memory: a prospective readout for malaria vaccines? Trends Parasitol 2007; 23:341-3. [PMID: 17586093 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2007.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2006] [Revised: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Malaria vaccines aim to induce long lasting protective immunity. Bejon and colleagues propose that levels of rapidly induced (effector memory) interleukin-2 and interferon gamma producing T-cells after vaccination with leading pre-erythrocytic stage vaccines predict the induction of resting memory responses (central memory). Herein we discuss Bejon's findings in the context of current thinking on the generation and maintenance of T cell memory, with particular emphasis on the role of cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Minigo
- Department of Immunology, Monash University, The Alfred Medical Research and Education Precinct, Prahran, Victoria 3181, Australia
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112
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Ostiguy V, Allard EL, Marquis M, Leignadier J, Labrecque N. IL-21 promotes T lymphocyte survival by activating the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase signaling cascade. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 82:645-56. [PMID: 17554014 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0806494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-21 is a Type I cytokine, which uses the common gamma chain (gamma(c)) in its receptor. As members of the gamma(c) cytokine/cytokine receptors family play crucial role in the differentiation, activation, and survival of lymphocytes, we have investigated if IL-21 could promote T cell survival and thus, contribute to T cell homeostasis and expansion. Unlike most gamma(c) cytokine receptors, we report that IL-21R is constitutively expressed by all mature T lymphocytes and that stromal cells of lymphoid organs are a constitutive source of IL-21. These observations are reminiscent of what is observed for IL-7/IL-7R, which control T cell survival and homeostasis and suggest a role for IL-21 in T cell homeostasis. Indeed, our results show that IL-21 is a survival factor for resting and activated T cells. Moreover, the ability of IL-21 to costimulate T cell proliferation is mediated by enhancing T cell viability. Further investigation of how IL-21R signaling induces T cell survival shows for the first time that IL-21 binding to its receptor activates the PI-3K signaling pathway and induces Bcl-2 expression. Moreover, the activation of the PI-3K signaling pathway is essential for IL-21-mediated T cell survival. Our data provide a new role for IL-21 in the immune system, which might be used to improve T cell homeostasis in immunocompromised patients.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Size
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Enzyme Activation
- Flow Cytometry
- Interleukin-21 Receptor alpha Subunit/genetics
- Interleukin-21 Receptor alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Interleukins/pharmacology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Phosphorylation
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta/physiology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Ostiguy
- Department of Medicine, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, 5415 boul. de l'Assomption, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada HIT 2M4
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113
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Bachmann MF, Wolint P, Walton S, Schwarz K, Oxenius A. Differential role of IL-2R signaling for CD8+ T cell responses in acute and chronic viral infections. Eur J Immunol 2007; 37:1502-12. [PMID: 17492805 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200637023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 is a cytokine with multiple and even divergent functions; it has been described as a key cytokine for in vitro T cell proliferation but is also essential for down-regulating T cell responses by inducing activation-induced cell death as well as regulatory T cells. The in vivo analysis of IL-2 function in regulating specific T cell responses has been hampered by the fact that mice deficient in IL-2 or its receptors develop lymphoproliferative diseases and/or autoimmunity. Here we generated chimeric mice harboring both IL-2R-competent and IL-2R-deficient T cells and assessed CD8+ T cell induction, function and maintenance after acute or persistent viral infections. Induction and maintenance of CD8+ T cells were relatively independent of IL-2R signaling during acute/resolved viral infection. In marked contrast, IL-2 was crucial for secondary expansion of memory CD8+ T cells and for the maintenance of virus-specific CD8+ T cells during persistent viral infections. Thus, depending on the chronicity of antigen exposure, IL-2R signaling is either essential or largely dispensable for induction and maintenance of virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Bone Marrow Transplantation
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/transplantation
- Chronic Disease
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Interleukin-2/metabolism
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/genetics
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/physiology
- Interleukin-7 Receptor alpha Subunit/metabolism
- L-Selectin/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus/immunology
- Lysosomal Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/physiology
- Signal Transduction
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/metabolism
- Viral Proteins/immunology
- Virus Diseases/immunology
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114
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Montero E, Alonso L, Perez R, Lage A. Interleukin-2 Mastering Regulation in Cancer and Autoimmunity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1107:239-50. [PMID: 17804552 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1381.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmunity and tumor immunity evolved as two distinct arenas in immunological research. However, the identification of self-antigens as the major components of malignant cells may define a central role for autoimmunity in cancer control tuned by peripheral immunoregulatory mechanisms avoiding self-aggression. Emerging evidence documents a triple antagonistic role of interleukin-2 (IL-2) in vivo promoting survival, apoptosis, and the generation of regulatory T cells. We have found that IL-2 administration reduces the clinical course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and enhances immunoregulation in tumor-bearing mice. However, actively induced anti-IL-2 antibodies restore the response to nominal antigens in tumor-induced immunosuppressed host and induced therapeutic effect in transplantable and chemically induced tumors. It is suggested that IL-2 may contribute dynamically to the maintenance of natural immunological tolerance, preventing pathological autoimmunity, but may affect antitumor immunity. Cancer research has gained from autoimmunity understanding that tumor escape strategies include the natural mechanisms of immune tolerance and the ways to imbalance the peripheral regulatory mechanisms. Interestingly, therapeutic manipulations of immunoregulation have limited antitumor effects, although promoting collaterally infrequent autoimmune diseases. It may suggest that tumors may reinforce tolerance to protect themselves from the immune attack, a process that may involve dynamically various mechanisms including IL-2. Understanding this acquired experience from tumors may help utilize them to revert the immunopathology in autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Montero
- Center of Molecular Immunology, Experimental Immunotherapy Department, 216 and 15, Playa, P.O. Box: 16040, Havana 11600, Cuba.
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115
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Yu A, Malek TR. Selective availability of IL-2 is a major determinant controlling the production of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T regulatory cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 177:5115-21. [PMID: 17015695 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.8.5115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The development and maintenance of T regulatory (Treg) cells critically depend on IL-2. This requirement for IL-2 might be due to specificity associated with IL-2R signal transduction or because IL-2 was uniquely present in the niche in which Treg cells reside. To address this issue, we examined the capacity of IL-7R-dependent signaling to support Treg cell production and prevent autoimmunity in IL-2Rbeta(-/-) mice. Expression of transgenic wild-type IL-7R or a chimeric receptor that consisted of the extracytoplasmic domain of the IL-7R alpha-chain and the cytoplasmic domain of IL-2R beta-chain in IL-2Rbeta(-/-) mice did not prevent autoimmunity. Importantly, expression of a chimeric receptor that consisted of the extracytoplasmic domain of the IL-2R beta-chain and the cytoplasmic domain of IL-7R alpha-chain in IL-2Rbeta(-/-) mice led to Treg cells production in the thymus and periphery and prevented autoimmunity. Signaling through the IL-2R or chimeric IL-2Rbeta/IL-7Ralpha in vivo or the culture of thymocytes from IL-2Rbeta(-/-) mice with IL-7 led to up-regulation of Foxp3 and CD25 on Treg cells. These findings indicate that IL-7R signal transduction is competent to promote Treg cell production, but this signaling requires triggering through IL-2 by binding to the extracytoplasmic portion of the IL-2R via this chimeric receptor. Thus, a major factor controlling the nonredundant activity of the IL-2R is selective compartmentalization of IL-2-producing cells with Treg cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aixin Yu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33101, USA
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116
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Abstract
Our understanding of human natural killer (NK) cell development lags far behind that of human B- or T-cell development. Much of our recent knowledge of this incomplete picture comes from experimental animal models that have aided in identifying fundamental in vivo processes, including those controlling NK cell homeostasis, self-tolerance, and the generation of a diverse NK cell repertoire. However, it has been difficult to fully understand the mechanistic details of NK cell development in humans, primarily because the in vivo cellular intermediates and microenvironments of this developmental pathway have remained elusive. Although there is general consensus that NK cell development occurs primarily within the bone marrow (BM), recent data implicate secondary lymphoid tissues as principal sites of NK cell development in humans. The strongest evidence stems from the observation that the newly described stages of human NK cell development are naturally and selectively enriched within lymph nodes and tonsils compared with blood and BM. In the current review, we provide an overview of these recent findings and discuss these in the context of existing tenets in the field of lymphocyte development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aharon G Freud
- Medical Scientist Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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117
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Duffy D, Yang CP, Heath A, Garside P, Bell EB. Naive T-cell receptor transgenic T cells help memory B cells produce antibody. Immunology 2007; 119:376-84. [PMID: 17067314 PMCID: PMC1819572 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2006.02446.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Injection of the same antigen following primary immunization induces a classic secondary response characterized by a large quantity of high-affinity antibody of an immunoglobulin G class produced more rapidly than in the initial response - the products of memory B cells are qualitatively distinct from that of the original naive B lymphocytes. Very little is known of the help provided by the CD4 T cells that stimulate memory B cells. Using antigen-specific T-cell receptor transgenic CD4 T cells (DO11.10) as a source of help, we found that naive transgenic T cells stimulated memory B cells almost as well (in terms of quantity and speed) as transgenic T cells that had been recently primed. There was a direct correlation between serum antibody levels and the number of naive transgenic T cells transferred. Using T cells from transgenic interleukin-2-deficient mice we showed that interleukin-2 was not required for a secondary response, although it was necessary for a primary response. The results suggested that the signals delivered by CD4 T cells and required by memory B cells for their activation were common to both antigen-primed and naive CD4 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darragh Duffy
- Division of Immunology, Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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118
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Sato N, Patel HJ, Waldmann TA, Tagaya Y. The IL-15/IL-15Ralpha on cell surfaces enables sustained IL-15 activity and contributes to the long survival of CD8 memory T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:588-93. [PMID: 17202253 PMCID: PMC1766429 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0610115104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously described unique features of the IL-15 receptor (IL-15R)alpha. IL-15Ralpha by itself forms stable complexes with IL-15 on cell surfaces and presents IL-15 in trans to neighboring natural killer/T cells. Moreover, the membrane IL-15/IL-15Ralpha complexes (membIL-15) undergo endosomal internalization but survive lysosomal degradation, allowing the complexes to recycle back to the cell surface. Here, we show that membIL-15+ cells act as a persistent source of IL-15 for the surrounding microenvironment (intercellular reservoir effect). Additionally, membIL-15+ cells give rise to augmented retention of IL-15 in the circulation as well as in tissues. Curiously, IL-15 retention was particularly associated with lungs, rather than with lymph nodes, in normal unstimulated mice, which correlated with the preferential homing of antigen-specific CD8 T cells to lungs during their contraction phase in an IL-15Ralpha-dependent manner. Furthermore, membIL-15, unlike soluble IL-15, caused sustained IL-15 signal transduction in the target cells. Collectively, these characteristics define IL-15 as a unique cytokine with prolonged in vivo survival and sustained biological action on the target cells, which may account for the proposed persistent action of IL-15 that helps the long-term survival of functional CD8 memory T cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Sato
- *Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | | | - Thomas A. Waldmann
- *Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
National Institutes of Health, Building 10/Room 4N117, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892. E-mail:
| | - Yutaka Tagaya
- *Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
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119
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Abstract
Recognition of a systemic antigen by CD4+ T cells in a lymphopenic host leads to the sequential generation of pathogenic effector cells and protective CD25+ forkhead box protein (Foxp3+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the periphery. Such an experimental model is potentially valuable for defining the stimuli that determine the balance of effector and regulatory T cells. Our studies have shown that interleukin-2 (IL-2) enhances the development of effector cells and is essential for the peripheral generation of regulatory cells. Other models of peripheral Treg generation suggest that the concentration of antigen, the nature of the antigen-presenting cells, and cytokines such as transforming growth factor-beta and IL-10 may all influence the peripheral generation of Tregs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Lohr
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA 94143-0511, USA
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120
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Nandiwada SL, Li W, Zhang R, Mueller DL. p300/Cyclic AMP-responsive element binding-binding protein mediates transcriptional coactivation by the CD28 T cell costimulatory receptor. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:401-13. [PMID: 16785536 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.1.401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
During Ag stimulation of T cells, the recognition of B7 molecules by the CD28 costimulatory receptor increases the level of c-Fos, a component of the AP-1 transactivator known to bind the 5' Il2 gene enhancer. In this study, we show that the costimulation of Fos transcription by CD28 is associated with increased binding of p300/CREB-binding protein (CBP) molecules at the Fos promoter, and is blocked by an adenoviral E1A molecular antagonist of p300/CBP. Furthermore, transcriptional activation by a C-terminal domain of CBP is strengthened when CD28 molecules are actively signaling. This increased amount and activity of p300/CBP molecules at the Fos gene correlated with higher histone H4 acetylation and RNA polymerase II association with the promoter. These data suggest a global mechanism whereby CD28 signaling influences the rate and intensity of new gene expression during Ag recognition via direct control over the coactivator function of p300/CBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarada L Nandiwada
- Rheumatic and Autoimmune Diseases Division, and Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, 312 Church Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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121
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Williams MA, Tyznik AJ, Bevan MJ. Interleukin-2 signals during priming are required for secondary expansion of CD8+ memory T cells. Nature 2006; 441:890-3. [PMID: 16778891 PMCID: PMC2776073 DOI: 10.1038/nature04790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 593] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Although interleukin-2 (IL-2) was initially characterized as the primary T-cell growth factor following in vitro activation, less is known about its role in shaping T-cell responses to acute infections in vivo. The use of IL-2- or IL-2-receptor-deficient mice is problematic owing to their early development of autoimmunity, attributable to the central role of IL-2 in the generation, maintenance and function of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. To bypass these inherent difficulties, we have studied the effect of IL-2 on T-cell responses to acute infections by adopting a mixed chimaera strategy in which T cells lacking the high-affinity IL-2 receptor could be studied in an otherwise healthy mouse containing a full complement of regulatory T cells. Here we show that although IL-2 signalling to pathogen-specific CD8+ T cells affects the number of developing effector and memory cells very little, it is required for the generation of robust secondary responses. This is not due to an altered T-cell-receptor repertoire development or selection, and does not reflect an acute requirement for IL-2 during secondary activation and expansion. Rather, we demonstrate a previously unappreciated role for IL-2 during primary infection in programming the development of CD8+ memory T cells capable of full secondary expansion. These results have important implications for the development of vaccination or immunotherapeutic strategies aimed at boosting memory T-cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Williams
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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122
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Hallett WHD, Murphy WJ. Positive and negative regulation of Natural Killer cells: therapeutic implications. Semin Cancer Biol 2006; 16:367-82. [PMID: 16934486 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2006.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Natural Killer (NK) cells can mediate numerous anti-tumor and anti-viral effector functions as well as play important immunoregulatory roles in various disease states. Promoting the ability of NK cells to respond in an immunotherapeutic setting has often been sought by the addition of NK cell-stimulating factors. However, such therapies are often found to be insufficient, which may in part be due to the presence of inhibitory influences on the NK cell. NK cells can respond to a plethora of cytokines which are generated by numerous cell types and these interactions can markedly affect NK cell survival and activity. NK cells also possess multiple activating and inhibiting receptors which can alter their function. Whether the NK cell will become activated or not can depend on a complex balance of activating and inhibitory signals received by the cell and modulation of these signals may shift the balance on NK activation. This review discusses the various activating and inhibitory stimuli which can act on NK cells, and suggests that future NK cell-based therapies consider not only activating stimuli but also removal of possible inhibitory elements which could prevent optimal NK cell function and/or survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H D Hallett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, MS 199, University of Nevada School of Medicine, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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123
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Fearon DT, Carr JM, Telaranta A, Carrasco MJ, Thaventhiran JED. The rationale for the IL‐2‐independent generation of the self‐renewing central memory CD8
+
T cells. Immunol Rev 2006; 211:104-18. [PMID: 16824121 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2006.00390.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Clones of CD8+ T cells that have been selected in the primary response must have a mechanism by which they can continuously or intermittently generate new effector cells. Several years ago, this mechanism was proposed to involve a self-renewing, stem cell-like subset that could avoid the differentiating effects of interleukin-2 (IL-2). The model considered the stem cell subset to be contained within the central memory population of CD8+ T cells (T(CM)). This proposal was inconsistent with subsequent findings suggesting that all antigen-activated CD8+ T cells differentiated to effector cells (T(EFF)) during the primary response and that T(CM) developed during the memory phase by de-differentiating from effector memory cells (T(EM)). However, findings have since been reported that support the stem cell model. First, studies indicate that T(EM) do not serve as the precursors of T(CM). Second, transcriptional repressors of IL-2 signaling do enhance the memory response. Third, memory cells lacking effector functions and with a capacity to replicate in a secondary response develop in the absence of signaling through the IL-2/IL-15 receptor. Taken together, these findings suggest that antigen-activated CD8+ T cells with a stem cell-like capability for maintaining proliferative potential develop by an unknown IL-2-independent process. The challenge is now to identify this unknown pathway of clonal expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas T Fearon
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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124
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Abstract
During T-cell priming, cytokines and costimulatory molecules provide important signals that determine the magnitude and quality of the response. Although the functions of defined cytokines and costimulators in the primary T-cell response are well characterized, much less is known about how these factors contribute to memory T-cell development and survival. Since memory cells are thought to be long-lived progeny of the primary response, it is conceivable that the same signals shaping initial T-cell expansion and differentiation also contribute to memory generation. Here, we review evidence and show novel data on the role of the cytokines interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-7 and the costimulator CD28 in CD4+ memory T-cell development. We emphasize that transient IL-2 and CD28 signals during priming imprint a long-lasting survival advantage in primed T cells, thus contributing to the persistence of a memory population. The requirement for IL-2 and CD28 signals is not linked to promoting T-cell division and expansion but most likely due to their capacity to (i) promote effector cell differentiation; (ii) induce survival proteins, and, as we discuss in more detail; (iii) program expression of receptors for 'memory survival factors' such as IL-7. Studies exploring the therapeutic potential of these insights are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Dooms
- Department of Pathology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0511, USA
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125
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Antony PA, Paulos CM, Ahmadzadeh M, Akpinarli A, Palmer DC, Sato N, Kaiser A, Hinrichs CS, Heinrichs C, Klebanoff CA, Tagaya Y, Restifo NP. Interleukin-2-dependent mechanisms of tolerance and immunity in vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:5255-66. [PMID: 16621991 PMCID: PMC1473163 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.9.5255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
IL-2 is a critical T cell growth factor in vitro, but predominantly mediates tolerance in vivo. IL-2 is mainly produced by CD4(+) Th cells, but the role of Th cell-derived IL-2 in vivo is controversial. We demonstrate that during immunity to a tumor/self-Ag, the predominant role of Th cell-derived IL-2 was to maintain IL-2Ralpha (CD25) on CD4(+) T regulatory cells (T(reg)), which resulted in their maintenance of the T(reg) cell lineage factor, Forkhead/winged helix transcription factor (Foxp3), and tolerance. However, in the absence of T(reg) cells, Th cell-derived IL-2 maintained effector T cells and caused autoimmunity. IL-2R signaling was indispensable for T(reg) cell homeostasis and efficient suppressor function in vivo, but, surprisingly, was not required for their generation, because IL-2(-/-) and CD25(-/-) mice both contained Foxp3(+) T cells in the periphery. IL-2R signaling was also important for CD8(+) T cell immunity, because CD25(-/-) tumor-reactive CD8(+) T cells failed to affect established tumors. Conversely, IL-2R signaling was not required for Th cell function. Lastly, administration of anti-IL-2 plus exogenous IL-15 to tumor-bearing mice enhanced the adoptive immunotherapy of cancer. Therefore, Th cell-derived IL-2 paradoxically controls both tolerance and immunity to a tumor/self-Ag in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Antony
- Surgery Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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126
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Regulatory CD56(bright) natural killer cells mediate immunomodulatory effects of IL-2Ralpha-targeted therapy (daclizumab) in multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:5941-6. [PMID: 16585503 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0601335103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 480] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Administration of daclizumab, a humanized mAb directed against the IL-2Ralpha chain, strongly reduces brain inflammation in multiple sclerosis patients. Here we show that daclizumab treatment leads to only a mild functional blockade of CD4(+) T cells, the major candidate in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. Instead, daclizumab therapy was associated with a gradual decline in circulating CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and significant expansion of CD56(bright) natural killer (NK) cells in vivo, and this effect correlated highly with the treatment response. In vitro studies showed that NK cells inhibited T cell survival in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures by a contact-dependent mechanism. Positive correlations between expansion of CD56(bright) NK cells and contraction of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell numbers in individual patients in vivo provides supporting evidence for NK cell-mediated negative immunoregulation of activated T cells during daclizumab therapy. Our data support the existence of an immunoregulatory pathway wherein activated CD56(bright) NK cells inhibit T cell survival. This immunoregulation has potential importance for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection and toward modification of tumor immunity.
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127
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Le Bon A, Durand V, Kamphuis E, Thompson C, Bulfone-Paus S, Rossmann C, Kalinke U, Tough DF. Direct Stimulation of T Cells by Type I IFN Enhances the CD8+T Cell Response during Cross-Priming. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:4682-9. [PMID: 16585561 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.8.4682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Type I IFN (IFN-alphabeta), which is produced rapidly in response to infection, plays a key role in innate immunity and also acts as a stimulus for the adaptive immune response. We have investigated how IFN-alphabeta induces cross-priming, comparing CD8+ T cell responses generated against soluble protein Ags in the presence or absence of IFN-alphabeta. Injection of IFN-alpha was found to prolong the proliferation and expansion of Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, which was associated with marked up-regulation of IL-2 and IL-15 receptors on Ag-specific cells and expression of IL-15 in the draining lymph node. Surprisingly, neither IL-2 nor IL-15 was required for IFN-alpha-induced cross-priming. Conversely, expression of the IFN-alphabetaR by T cells was shown to be necessary for effective stimulation of the response by IFN-alpha. The finding that T cells represent direct targets of IFN-alphabeta-mediated stimulation reveals an additional mechanism by which the innate response to infection promotes adaptive immunity.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation
- Base Sequence
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Proliferation
- Cross Reactions
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Immunity, Innate
- In Vitro Techniques
- Interferon-alpha/pharmacology
- Interleukin-15/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/deficiency
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Radiation Chimera/immunology
- Receptor, Interferon alpha-beta
- Receptors, Interferon/deficiency
- Receptors, Interferon/genetics
- Receptors, Interferon/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-15
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnes Le Bon
- The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research, Compton, United Kingdom
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128
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Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease of the arterial wall where both innate and adaptive immunoinflammatory mechanisms are involved. Inflammation is central at all stages of atherosclerosis. It is implicated in the formation of early fatty streaks, when the endothelium is activated and expresses chemokines and adhesion molecules leading to monocyte/lymphocyte recruitment and infiltration into the subendothelium. It also acts at the onset of adverse clinical vascular events, when activated cells within the plaque secrete matrix proteases that degrade extracellular matrix proteins and weaken the fibrous cap, leading to rupture and thrombus formation. Cells involved in the atherosclerotic process secrete and are activated by soluble factors, known as cytokines. Important recent advances in the comprehension of the mechanisms of atherosclerosis provided evidence that the immunoinflammatory response in atherosclerosis is modulated by regulatory pathways, in which the two anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β play a critical role. The purpose of this review is to bring together the current information concerning the role of cytokines in the development, progression, and complications of atherosclerosis. Specific emphasis is placed on the contribution of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines to pathogenic (innate and adaptive) and regulatory immunity in the context of atherosclerosis. Based on our current knowledge of the role of cytokines in atherosclerosis, we propose some novel therapeutic strategies to combat this disease. In addition, we discuss the potential of circulating cytokine levels as biomarkers of coronary artery disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Tedgui
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U. 689, Cardiovascular Research Center Lariboisiere, and University Paris 7, Paris, France.
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129
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Abstract
IL-2, IL-15, and IL-7 are cytokines that are critical for regulating lymphoid homeostasis. These cytokines stimulate similar responses from lymphocytes in vitro, but play markedly divergent roles in lymphoid biology in vivo. Their distinct physiological functions can be ascribed to distinct signaling pathways initiated by proprietary cytokine receptor chains, differential expression patterns of the cytokines or their receptor chains, and/or signals occurring in distinct physiological contexts. Recently, the discovery of a novel mechanism of cytokine signaling, trans-presentation, has provided further insights into the different ways these cytokines function. Trans-presentation also raises several novel cell biological and cellular implications concerning how cytokines support lymphoid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Averil Ma
- Department of Medicine, Biomedical Sciences Program, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0451, USA.
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130
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Murayama A, Sakura K, Nakama M, Yasuzawa-Tanaka K, Fujita E, Tateishi Y, Wang Y, Ushijima T, Baba T, Shibuya K, Shibuya A, Kawabe YI, Yanagisawa J. A specific CpG site demethylation in the human interleukin 2 gene promoter is an epigenetic memory. EMBO J 2006; 25:1081-92. [PMID: 16498406 PMCID: PMC1409718 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 01/27/2006] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA demethylation plays a critical role in transcriptional regulation in differentiated somatic cells. However, there is no experimental evidence that CpG methylation in a small region of a genome restricts gene expression. Here, we show that the anti-CD3repsilon/CD28 antibody stimulation of human CD4+ T cells induces IL2 expression following epigenetic changes, including active demethylation of a specific CpG site, recruitment of Oct-1, and changes in histone modifications. When the stimulatory signal is withdrawn, Oct-1 remains on the enhancer region as a stable marker of the stimulation, causing the second induction to be faster and stronger. Our observations indicate that Oct-1-binding followed by CpG demethylation are key events in the epigenetic regulation of IL2 expression and may act as a memory of the regulatory event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Murayama
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Sakura
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Mina Nakama
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kayoko Yasuzawa-Tanaka
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Etsuko Fujita
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yukiyo Tateishi
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yinan Wang
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Center for TARA, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Toshikazu Ushijima
- Carcinogenesis Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tadashi Baba
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kazuko Shibuya
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Center for TARA, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Akira Shibuya
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Center for TARA, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoh-ichi Kawabe
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Junn Yanagisawa
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki, Japan
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tenno-dai, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan. Tel.: +81 29 853 6632; Fax: 81 29 853 4605; E-mail:
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131
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Abstract
The human immune system mounts specific responses to a vast array of antigens. Although this is clearly beneficial in fighting off harmful infections and cancerous cells, the system must be carefully controlled to ensure that normal self-antigens are not targeted. A recently characterized subset of T cells, identified by their cell surface expression of CD4 and CD25, is critical in regulating the function of other immune cells and preventing potentially harmful autoimmune responses. This article reviews what is currently known about these so-called regulatory T cells and discusses the therapeutic potential of these cells to modulate human immune-based diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Randolph
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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132
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Monteleone I, Monteleone G, Fina D, Caruso R, Petruzziello C, Calabrese E, Biancone L, Pallone F. A functional role of flip in conferring resistance of Crohn's disease lamina propria lymphocytes to FAS-mediated apoptosis. Gastroenterology 2006; 130:389-97. [PMID: 16472594 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2004] [Accepted: 10/19/2005] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS There is evidence that, in Crohn's disease (CD), lamina propria T lymphocytes (LPLs) are resistant to FAS-mediated apoptosis and that this defect contributes to the mucosal T-cell accumulation. In this study we examined the functional role of Flip, a Flice inhibitor protein, in the resistance of CD LPL to FAS-mediated apoptosis. METHODS Biopsy specimens and LPLs were taken from CD and ulcerative colitis (UC) patients and normal controls and analyzed for Flip by Western blotting. We also examined whether inhibition of Flip by antisense oligonucleotide restored the susceptibility of CD LPLs to FAS-induced apoptosis. LPL apoptosis was assessed by flow cytometry. RESULTS After FAS stimulation, the rate of apoptosis of CD3+ LPLs was higher in normal controls and patients with UC than in patients with CD. Enhanced expression of both long and short Flip isoforms was seen in biopsy specimens and purified CD3+ and CD45RO+ LPLs of CD patients in comparison with UC patients and normal controls. No increase in Flip was documented in untreated celiac disease mucosa, thus suggesting the possibility that induction of Flip in the gut does not simply rely on the ongoing inflammation. Finally, we showed that inhibition of Flip by antisense oligonucleotide reverted the resistance of CD LPLs to FAS-induced apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Data suggest a role for Flip in the resistance of CD LPLs to FAS-mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Monteleone
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna e Centro di Eccellenza per lo Studio Delle Malattie Complesse e Multifattoriali, Università Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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133
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Abstract
Autoimmune disease is characterized by clinical symptoms mediated by adaptive (T cell and B cell) immune reactions towards autoantigen-expressing tissue. Here we discuss that autoimmune disease is often preceded by autoreactivity, meaning the priming of autoantigen-specific immune cells without relevant tissue damage. Recent experimental evidence has demonstrated that both the induction of autoreactivity and the conversion into autoimmune disease is controlled by the activation of the nonspecific innate immune system. Also, the "inflammatory status" of the target organ critically influences the onset of overt autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Recher
- University Hospital Bruderholz, Institute of Internal Medicine, Switzerland.
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134
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Lorenzen I, Dingley AJ, Jacques Y, Grötzinger J. The structure of the interleukin-15 alpha receptor and its implications for ligand binding. J Biol Chem 2005; 281:6642-7. [PMID: 16377614 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m513118200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-15 is a member of the small four alpha-helix bundle family of cytokines. IL-15 was discovered by its ability to mimic IL-2-mediated T-cell proliferation. Both cytokines share the beta and gamma receptor chains of the IL-2 receptor for signal transduction. However, in addition, they target specific alpha chain receptors IL-15Ralpha and IL-2Ralpha, respectively. The exceptionally high affinity binding of IL-15 to IL-15Ralpha is mediated by its sushi domain. Here we present the solution structure of the IL-15Ralpha sushi domain solved by NMR spectroscopy and a model of its complex with IL-15. The model shows that, rather than the familiar hydrophobic forces dominating the interaction interface between cytokines and their cognate receptors, the interaction between the IL-15 and IL-15Ralpha complex involves a large network of ionic interactions. This type of interaction explains the exceptionally high affinity of the IL-15.IL-15Ralpha complex, which is essential for the biological effects of this important cytokine and which is not observed in other cytokine/cytokine receptor complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inken Lorenzen
- Biochemisches Institut der Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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135
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Janas ML, Groves P, Kienzle N, Kelso A. IL-2 Regulates Perforin and Granzyme Gene Expression in CD8+T Cells Independently of Its Effects on Survival and Proliferation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:8003-10. [PMID: 16339537 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.12.8003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Perforin and the serine protease granzymes are key effectors of CD8+ T cell granule-mediated cytotoxicity, but the requirements for their expression remain largely undefined. We show in this study that IL-2 increased the expression of perforin and granzyme A, B, and C mRNA; intracellular granzyme B protein levels; and cytolytic function in a dose-dependent manner during primary activation of murine CD8+ T cells in vitro. Two approaches showed that these responses were not a consequence of the effects of IL-2 on cell survival and proliferation. First, IL-2 enhancement of perforin and granzyme expression was equivalent in CD8+ T cells from wild-type and bcl-2 transgenic mice, although only the latter cells survived in low concentrations or the absence of added IL-2. This property of bcl-2 transgenic T cells also allowed the demonstration that induction of granzyme A, B, and C mRNA and granzyme B protein required exogenous IL-2, whereas induction of perforin and IFN-gamma expression did not. Second, analysis of perforin and granzyme mRNA levels in cells separated according to division number using the dye CFSE showed that the effects of IL-2 were unrelated to division number. Together, these findings indicate that IL-2 can directly regulate perforin and granzyme gene expression in CD8+ T cells independently of its effects on cell survival and proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Janas
- Cooperative Research Center for Vaccine Technology and Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Australia
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136
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Knoechel B, Lohr J, Kahn E, Bluestone JA, Abbas AK. Sequential development of interleukin 2-dependent effector and regulatory T cells in response to endogenous systemic antigen. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 202:1375-86. [PMID: 16287710 PMCID: PMC2212975 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20050855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Transfer of naive antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells into lymphopenic mice that express an endogenous antigen as a systemic, secreted protein results in severe autoimmunity resembling graft-versus-host disease. T cells that respond to this endogenous antigen develop into effector cells that cause the disease. Recovery from this disease is associated with the subsequent generation of FoxP3(+)CD25(+) regulatory cells in the periphery. Both pathogenic effector cells and protective regulatory cells develop from the same antigen-specific T cell population after activation, and their generation may occur in parallel or sequentially. Interleukin (IL)-2 plays a dual role in this systemic T cell reaction. In the absence of IL-2, the acute disease is mild because of reduced T cell effector function, but a chronic and progressive disease develops late and is associated with a failure to generate FoxP3(+) regulatory T (T reg) cells in the periphery. Thus, a peripheral T cell reaction to a systemic antigen goes through a phase of effector cell-mediated pathology followed by T reg cell-mediated recovery, and both require the growth factor IL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Knoechel
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, CA 94143, USA
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137
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy L Meinkoth
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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138
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Elson CO, Cong Y, McCracken VJ, Dimmitt RA, Lorenz RG, Weaver CT. Experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease reveal innate, adaptive, and regulatory mechanisms of host dialogue with the microbiota. Immunol Rev 2005; 206:260-76. [PMID: 16048554 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2005.00291.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 369] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There are now many experimental models of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), most of which are due to induced mutations in mice that result in an impaired homeostasis with the intestinal microbiota. These models can be clustered into several broad categories that, in turn, define the crucial cellular and molecular mechanisms of host microbial interactions in the intestine. The first of these components is innate immunity defined broadly to include both myeloid and epithelial cell mechanisms. A second component is the effector response of the adaptive immune system, which, in most instances, comprises the CD4+ T cell and its relevant cytokines. The third component is regulation, which can involve multiple cell types, but again particularly involves CD4+ T cells. Severe impairment of a single component can result in disease, but many models demonstrate milder defects in more than one component. The same is true for both spontaneous models of IBD, C3H/HeJBir and SAMPI/Yit mice. The thesis is advanced that 'multiple hits' or defects in these interacting components is required for IBD to occur in both mouse and human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles O Elson
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0007, USA.
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139
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Leonard WJ, Spolski R. Interleukin-21: a modulator of lymphoid proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation. Nat Rev Immunol 2005; 5:688-98. [PMID: 16138102 DOI: 10.1038/nri1688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The interleukin-21 (IL-21)-IL-21-receptor system was discovered in 2000. It was immediately of great interest because of the homology of IL-21 to IL-2, IL-4 and IL-15, and of the IL-21-receptor subunit IL-21R to the beta-subunit of the IL-2 receptor, and because the IL-21 receptor also contains the common cytokine-receptor gamma-chain, the protein that is mutated in X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. As we discuss, IL-21 has pleiotropic actions, from augmenting the proliferation of T cells and driving the differentiation of B cells into memory cells and terminally differentiated plasma cells to augmenting the activity of natural killer cells. Moreover, it has antitumour activity and might have a role in the development of autoimmunity, so these findings have implications for the treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren J Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1674, USA.
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140
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Lisik W, Kahan BD. Proliferation signal inhibitors: chemical, biologic, and clinical properties. Transplant Rev (Orlando) 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trre.2005.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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141
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Zhou J, Hinton DR, Stohlman SA, Liu CP, Zhong L, Marten NW. Maintenance of CD8+ T cells during acute viral infection of the central nervous system requires CD4+ T cells but not interleukin-2. Viral Immunol 2005; 18:162-9. [PMID: 15802960 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2005.18.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) is rapidly cleared from the central nervous system (CNS) by CD8(+) T cells. In the absence of CD4(+) T cells, fewer CD8(+) T cells are found within the CNS in association with a coordinate increase in apoptotic lymphocytes. Previous data suggested that CD4(+) T cells may support CD8(+) T cells through secretion of interleukin-2 (IL-2). To determine the in vivo role of IL-2 during CNS infection, IL-2 signaling was inhibited via administration of a neutralizing IL-2-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb). In contrast to depletion of CD4(+) T cells, inhibition of IL-2 signaling did not influence CD8(+) T cell infiltration, effector cell function or survival within the CNS. These data suggest that the cellular immune response to acute neurotropic JHMV infection requires a distinct CD4(+) T cell component, but is independent of a requirement for IL-2 for induction, activation, recruitment, and/or maintenance of CD8(+) T cells within the CNS during acute infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiehao Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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142
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Ebert O, Harbaran S, Shinozaki K, Woo SLC. Systemic therapy of experimental breast cancer metastases by mutant vesicular stomatitis virus in immune-competent mice. Cancer Gene Ther 2005; 12:350-8. [PMID: 15565179 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cgt.7700794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In view of the limited success of available treatment modalities for metastatic breast cancer, alternative and complementary strategies need to be developed. Oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is a promising novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of recombinant VSV containing the M51R mutation in the matrix (M) protein gene administered intravenously as an effective and safe therapeutic agent for treating mice with experimental breast cancer metastases. Recombinant VSV(M51R)-LacZ was generated and characterized in vitro on human and murine breast cancer cells. Breast cancer metastases were established in immune-competent Balb/c mice by intravenous injection of syngeneic 4T1 cells. The vector was infused into the tumor-bearing animals via the tail vein, and productive infection of pulmonary breast cancer lesions was assessed by X-gal stainings of frozen lung sections. To evaluate potential systemic toxicity, histology of major organs and serum chemistries were analyzed. To assess effectiveness, buffer- or vector-treated tumor-bearing mice were followed for survival and the results were analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method and the log-rank test. We found that VSV(M51R)-LacZ efficiently replicated and lysed human breast cancer cells but was partially attenuated in 4T1 cells in vitro. We also demonstrated that its maximum tolerated dose after intravenous infusion in normal Balb/c mice was elevated by at least 100-fold over that of the parental VSV vector containing the wild-type M gene. When VSV(M51R)-LacZ was repeatedly injected intravenously into mice bearing syngeneic 4T1 tumors, the virus was able to infect multiple breast cancer lesions in the lungs without apparent toxicities, which led to significant prolongation of animal survival (P=.003). In conclusion, systemic administration of M mutant VSV is both effective and safe in the treatment of experimental breast cancer metastases in immune-competent mice, suggesting that further development of this approach may have potential for clinical application in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Ebert
- Department of Gene and Cell Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029-6574, USA
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143
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Giannoni F, Lyon AB, Wareing MD, Dias PB, Sarawar SR. Protein kinase C theta is not essential for T-cell-mediated clearance of murine gammaherpesvirus 68. J Virol 2005; 79:6808-13. [PMID: 15890920 PMCID: PMC1112139 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.11.6808-6813.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is a naturally occurring rodent pathogen with significant homology to human pathogens Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. T cells are essential for primary clearance of MHV-68 and survival of mice following intranasal infection. Previous reports have suggested that protein kinase C theta (PKCtheta) is essential for T-cell activation and cytokine production in vitro. To determine the role of this molecule in vivo during the immune response to a viral infection, PKCtheta-/- mice were infected with MHV-68. Despite the essential role of T cells in viral clearance, PKCtheta-/- mice survived infection, cleared lytic virus, and maintained effective long-term control of latency. CD8 T-cell expansion, trafficking to the lung, and cytotoxic activity were similar in PKCtheta+/+ and PKCtheta-/- mice, whereas antiviral antibody and T-helper cell cytokine production were significantly lower in PKCtheta-/- mice than in PKCtheta+/+ mice. These studies demonstrate a differential requirement for PKCtheta in the immune response to MHV-68 and show that PKCtheta is not essential for the T-cell activation events leading to viral clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Giannoni
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, California 92121, USA
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144
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Abstract
'It's high time molecular biology became quantitative, it cries out to a physicist ... for modeling. Modeling isn't a crutch, it's the opposite; it's a way of suggesting experiments to do, to fill gaps in your understanding.' John Maddox, Editor of Nature 1966-73, and 1980-95.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin E Callard
- Immunobiology Unit, Institute of Child Health and CoMPLEX, University College London, London UK.
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145
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Marsland BJ, Schmitz N, Kopf M. IL-4R? signaling is important for CD8+ T?cell cytotoxicity in the absence of CD4+ T?cell help. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:1391-8. [PMID: 15816016 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells are key mediators of viral clearance during primary infection through their production of IFN-gamma and lysis of virally infected cells. Comparatively, the cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 are typically associated with the development of Th2 immune responses against allergens and parasites, while their influence on cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell responses is controversial. We have investigated the roles of IL-4 and IL-13 in the development of CD8(+) T cell responses against influenza infection. We show that in the absence of either IL-4 or IL-13, CD8(+) T cells proliferated and a normal secondary cytotoxic response developed in vitro. In striking contrast, the absence of IL-4Ralpha resulted in impaired ex vivo proliferation and consequently no secondary CTL activity, whereas the in vivo response appeared normal. We show that the presence of CD4(+) T cell help, or the addition of exogenous IL-2 in vitro, restored the response. Taken together, this work reveals previously unrecognized in vivo redundancies between IL-4, IL-13 and IL-2 during immune responses against influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Marsland
- Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland
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146
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Sund M, Xu LL, Rahman A, Qian BF, Hammarström ML, Danielsson Å. Reduced susceptibility to dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis in the interleukin-2 heterozygous (IL-2) mouse. Immunology 2005; 114:554-64. [PMID: 15804292 PMCID: PMC1782116 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2005.02123.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Summary Mice homozygous for an inactivation of the interleukin-2 (IL-2) gene develop a T-cell dependent colitis. Heterozygous (IL-2+/-) mice are clinically healthy but have been shown to express reduced levels of IL-2 in the colon. Splenocytes from the IL-2+/- mice had a poorer proliferative response to polyclonal T-cell activation and these mice have reduced numbers of intestinal regulatory T cells (CD4+ CD25+ cells) when compared to wild type mice. When exposed to dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) IL-2+/- mice showed a markedly reduced susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis. While DSS treatment caused a marked increase in both CD4+ and CD8+ colonic T cells expressing increased levels of IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 in wild type mice none of these changes were seen in IL-2+/- mice. On the contrary, cytokine expression in intestinal T cells of IL-2+/- mice was actually reduced after DSS treatment. These results suggest that reduced levels of IL-2 leads to attenuated activation and function of intestinal T cells in IL-2+/- mice and a failure to react adequately to DSS exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin Sund
- Department of Medicine, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
- Department of Immunology, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
| | - Li Li Xu
- Department of Medicine, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
- Department of Immunology, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Arman Rahman
- Department of Medicine, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
- Department of Immunology, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
| | - Bi-Feng Qian
- Department of Medicine, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
- Department of Immunology, University of UmeåUmeå, Sweden
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147
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Antony PA, Piccirillo CA, Akpinarli A, Finkelstein SE, Speiss PJ, Surman DR, Palmer DC, Chan CC, Klebanoff CA, Overwijk WW, Rosenberg SA, Restifo NP. CD8+ T cell immunity against a tumor/self-antigen is augmented by CD4+ T helper cells and hindered by naturally occurring T regulatory cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:2591-601. [PMID: 15728465 PMCID: PMC1403291 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.5.2591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 548] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells control the effector function, memory, and maintenance of CD8(+) T cells. Paradoxically, we found that absence of CD4(+) T cells enhanced adoptive immunotherapy of cancer when using CD8(+) T cells directed against a persisting tumor/self-Ag. However, adoptive transfer of CD4(+)CD25(-) Th cells (Th cells) with tumor/self-reactive CD8(+) T cells and vaccination into CD4(+) T cell-deficient hosts induced autoimmunity and regression of established melanoma. Transfer of CD4(+) T cells that contained a mixture of Th and CD4(+)CD25(+) T regulatory cells (T(reg) cells) or T(reg) cells alone prevented effective adoptive immunotherapy. Maintenance of CD8(+) T cell numbers and function was dependent on Th cells that were capable of IL-2 production because therapy failed when Th cells were derived from IL-2(-/-) mice. These findings reveal that Th cells can help break tolerance to a persisting self-Ag and treat established tumors through an IL-2-dependent mechanism, but requires simultaneous absence of naturally occurring T(reg) cells to be effective.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/transplantation
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Proliferation
- Homeostasis/immunology
- Immunity, Innate
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/adverse effects
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/methods
- Interleukin-2/physiology
- Interleukin-2/therapeutic use
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/immunology
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Melanoma, Experimental/therapy
- Membrane Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Glycoproteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Proteins/biosynthesis
- Neoplasm Proteins/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Self Tolerance/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/transplantation
- Transplantation Tolerance/immunology
- Tumor Escape/immunology
- gp100 Melanoma Antigen
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Antony
- Division of Surgery, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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148
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Manders PM, Hunter PJ, Telaranta AI, Carr JM, Marshall JL, Carrasco M, Murakami Y, Palmowski MJ, Cerundolo V, Kaech SM, Ahmed R, Fearon DT. BCL6b mediates the enhanced magnitude of the secondary response of memory CD8+ T lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:7418-25. [PMID: 15833813 PMCID: PMC1140431 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0501585102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A characteristic of the secondary response of CD8(+) T cells that distinguishes it from the primary response is the generation of greater numbers of effector cells. Because effector CD8(+) T cells are derived from a pool of less differentiated, replicating cells in secondary lymphoid organs, and because IL-2 mediates effector differentiation, the enhanced secondary response may reflect the enlargement of this generative pool by the transient repression of IL-2-mediated differentiation. We have examined for this function the transcriptional repressor BCL6b, a homologue of BCL6 that represses IL-2-induced B cell differentiation. BCL6b is expressed in a small subset of antigen-experienced CD8(+) T cells. Ectopic expression of BCL6b in CD8(+) T cells diminishes their growth in response to IL-2 in vitro. Female mice in which the BCL6b gene has been interrupted have normal primary responses of CD8(+) T cells to infection with vaccinia expressing the H-Y epitope, Uty, but Uty-specific, BCL6b(-/-), memory CD8(+) T cells have diminished recall proliferative responses to this epitope in vitro. BCL6b(-/-) mice also have normal primary CD8(+) T cell responses to influenza infection, but nucleoprotein peptide-specific, BCL6b(-/-), memory CD8(+) T cells have a cell autonomous defect in the number of effector cells generated in response to reinfection. Therefore, BCL6b is required for the enhanced magnitude of the secondary response of memory CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Manders
- Wellcome Trust Immunology Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Medical Research Council Centre, Cambridge CB2 2QH, UK
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149
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Abstract
Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is the newest member of the common gamma-chain family of cytokines, which includes IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-13, and IL-15. Its private receptor, IL-21R, has been shown to activate the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription signaling pathway upon ligand binding. Initial studies have demonstrated that IL-21 has pleiotropic effects on the proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions of B, T, natural killer, and dendritic cells. More recently, the potential therapeutic capacity of IL-21 in the treatment of cancers has been widely investigated. The biological role of IL-21 in the immune system is complex, as IL-21 has been shown to have the ability to both promote and inhibit immune responses. Overall, the current data point to IL-21 being a novel immunomodulatory cytokine, whose regulation of any given immune response is highly dependent on the surrounding environmental context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devangi S Mehta
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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150
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Kovanen PE, Leonard WJ. Cytokines and immunodeficiency diseases: critical roles of the gamma(c)-dependent cytokines interleukins 2, 4, 7, 9, 15, and 21, and their signaling pathways. Immunol Rev 2005; 202:67-83. [PMID: 15546386 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we discuss the role of cytokines and their signaling pathways in immunodeficiency. We focus primarily on severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) diseases as the most severe forms of primary immunodeficiencies, reviewing the different genetic causes of these diseases. We focus in particular on the range of forms of SCID that result from defects in cytokine-signaling pathways. The most common form of SCID, X-linked SCID, results from mutations in the common cytokine receptor gamma-chain, which is shared by the receptors for interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, and IL-21, underscoring that X-linked SCID is indeed a disease of defective cytokine signaling. We also review the signaling pathways used by these cytokines and the phenotypes in humans and mice with defects in the cytokines or signaling pathways. We also briefly discuss other cytokines, such as interferon-gamma and IL-12, where mutations in the ligand or receptor or signaling components also cause clinical disease in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panu E Kovanen
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1674, USA
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