101
|
Kumar A, Xu J, Sung B, Kumar S, Yu D, Aggarwal BB, Mehta K. Evidence that GTP-binding domain but not catalytic domain of transglutaminase 2 is essential for epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in mammary epithelial cells. Breast Cancer Res 2012; 14:R4. [PMID: 22225906 PMCID: PMC3496119 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The expression of proinflammatory protein tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is frequently upregulated in multiple cancer cell types. However, the exact role of TG2 in cancer cells is not well-understood. We recently initiated studies to determine the significance of TG2 in cancer cells and observed that sustained expression of TG2 resulted in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promoted cancer stem cell (CSC) traits in mammary epithelial cells. These results suggested that TG2 could serve as a promising therapeutic target for overcoming chemoresistance and inhibiting metastatic spread of cancer cells. METHODS Using various mutant constructs, we analyzed the activity of TG2 that is essential for promoting the EMT-CSC phenotype. RESULTS Our results suggest that catalytically inactive TG2 (TG2-C277S) is as effective as wild-type TG2 (TG2-WT) in inducing the EMT-CSC in mammary epithelial cells. In contrast, overexpression of a GTP-binding-deficient mutant (TG2-R580A) was completely incompetent in this regard. Moreover, TG2-dependent activation of the proinflammatory transcription factor NF-κB is deemed essential for promoting the EMT-CSC phenotype in mammary epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the transamidation activity of TG2 is not essential for promoting its oncogenic functions and provide a strong rationale for developing small-molecule inhibitors to block GTP-binding pockets of TG2. Such inhibitors may have great potential for inhibiting the TG2-regulated pathways, reversing drug resistance and inhibiting the metastasis of cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anupam Kumar
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M.D., Anderson Cancer Center, 1901 East Road, 4SCR3,1006, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
102
|
Maioli E, Torricelli C, Valacchi G. Rottlerin and cancer: novel evidence and mechanisms. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012:350826. [PMID: 22272173 PMCID: PMC3259573 DOI: 10.1100/2012/350826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Because cancers are caused by deregulation of hundreds of genes, an ideal anticancer agent should target multiple gene products or signaling pathways simultaneously. Recently, extensive research has addressed the chemotherapeutic potential of plant-derived compounds. Among the ever-increasing list of naturally occurring anticancer agents, Rottlerin appears to have great potentiality for being used in chemotherapy because it affects several cell machineries involved in survival, apoptosis, autophagy, and invasion. The underlying mechanisms that have been described are diverse, and the final, cell-specific, Rottlerin outcome appears to result from a combination of signaling pathways at multiple levels. This paper seeks to summarize the multifocal signal modulatory properties of Rottlerin, which merit to be further exploited for successful prevention and treatment of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Maioli
- Department of Physiology, University of Siena, Aldo Moro Street, 53100 Siena, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
103
|
Nurminskaya MV, Belkin AM. Cellular functions of tissue transglutaminase. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 294:1-97. [PMID: 22364871 PMCID: PMC3746560 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394305-7.00001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2 or tissue transglutaminase) is a highly complex multifunctional protein that acts as transglutaminase, GTPase/ATPase, protein disulfide isomerase, and protein kinase. Moreover, TG2 has many well-documented nonenzymatic functions that are based on its noncovalent interactions with multiple cellular proteins. A vast array of biochemical activities of TG2 accounts for its involvement in a variety of cellular processes, including adhesion, migration, growth, survival, apoptosis, differentiation, and extracellular matrix organization. In turn, the impact of TG2 on these processes implicates this protein in various physiological responses and pathological states, contributing to wound healing, inflammation, autoimmunity, neurodegeneration, vascular remodeling, tumor growth and metastasis, and tissue fibrosis. TG2 is ubiquitously expressed and is particularly abundant in endothelial cells, fibroblasts, osteoblasts, monocytes/macrophages, and smooth muscle cells. The protein is localized in multiple cellular compartments, including the nucleus, cytosol, mitochondria, endolysosomes, plasma membrane, and cell surface and extracellular matrix, where Ca(2+), nucleotides, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, membrane lipids, and distinct protein-protein interactions in the local microenvironment jointly regulate its activities. In this review, we discuss the complex biochemical activities and molecular interactions of TG2 in the context of diverse subcellular compartments and evaluate its wide ranging and cell type-specific biological functions and their regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria V Nurminskaya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
104
|
Budillon A, Carbone C, Di Gennaro E. Tissue transglutaminase: a new target to reverse cancer drug resistance. Amino Acids 2011; 44:63-72. [PMID: 22130737 PMCID: PMC3535412 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1167-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Cancer resistance mechanisms, which result from intrinsic genetic alterations of tumor cells or acquired genetic and epigenetic changes, limit the long-lasting benefits of anti-cancer treatments. Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) has emerged as a putative gene involved in tumor cell drug resistance and evasion of apoptosis. Although some reports have indicated that TG2 can suppress tumor growth and enhance the growth inhibitory effects of anti-tumor agents, several studies have presented both pro-survival and anti-apoptotic roles for TG2 in malignant cells. Increased TG2 expression has been found in several tumors, where it was considered a potential negative prognostic marker, and it is often associated with advanced stages of disease, metastatic spread and drug resistance. TG2 mediates drug resistance through the activation of survival pathways and the inhibition of apoptosis, but also by regulating extracellular matrix (ECM) formation, the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) or autophagy. Because TG2 knockdown or inhibition of TG2 enzymatic activity may reverse drug resistance and sensitize cancer cells to drug-induced apoptosis, many small molecules capable of blocking TG2 have recently been developed. Additional insight into the multifunctional nature of TG2 as well as translational studies concerning the correlation between TG2 expression, function or location and cancer behavior will aid in translating these findings into new therapeutic approaches for cancer patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Budillon
- Experimental Pharmacology Unit, Department of Research, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, National Cancer Institute G. Pascale, Via M. Semmola, 80131 Naples, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
105
|
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed member of the transglutaminase family of Ca(2+)-dependent crosslinking enzymes. Unlike other family members, TG2 is a multifunctional protein, which has several other well documented enzymatic and non-enzymatic functions. A significant body of evidence accumulated over the last decade reveals multiple and complex activities of this protein on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix (ECM), including its role in the regulation of cell-ECM interactions and outside-in signaling by several types of transmembrane receptors. Moreover, recent findings indicate a dynamic regulation of the levels and functions of extracellular TG2 by several complementary mechanisms. This review summarizes and assesses recent research into the emerging functions and regulation of extracellular TG2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexey M Belkin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
106
|
Kuo TF, Tatsukawa H, Kojima S. New insights into the functions and localization of nuclear transglutaminase 2. FEBS J 2011; 278:4756-67. [PMID: 22051117 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08409.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2; EC 2.3.2.13) is the most abundantly expressed member of the transglutaminase family and exerts opposing effects on cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis via multiple activities, including transamidase, GTPase, cell adhesion, protein disulfide isomerase, kinase and scaffold activities. It is distributed in and around various parts of a cell, including the extracellular matrix, plasma membrane, cytosol, mitochondria and nucleus. Generally, nuclear TG2 represents only 5-7% of the total TG2 in a cell, and various stimuli will increase nuclear TG2 via cellular stress and/or an increased intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. There is increasing evidence indicating the importance of nuclear TG2 in regulating gene expression via post-translational modification of (or interaction with) transcriptional factors and related proteins. These include E2F1, hypoxia inducible factor 1, Sp1 and histones. Through this mechanism, TG2 controls cell growth or survival, differentiation and apoptosis, and is involved in the pathogenesis and/or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, liver diseases and cancers. The balance between import from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, determines the level of TG2 in the nucleus. Selective regulation of the expression, activity or localization of nuclear TG2 will be important for basic research, as well as clinical applications, suggesting a new era for this long-studied enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Fang Kuo
- Chemical Biology Department, RIKEN Advanced Science Institute, Wako, Saitama, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
107
|
Yoo JW, Hong SW, Bose S, Kim HJ, Kim SY, Kim SY, Lee DK. The Role of Transglutaminase in Double-stranded DNA-Triggered Antiviral Innate Immune Response. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2011. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2011.32.11.3893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
108
|
Expression of transglutaminase-2 isoforms in normal human tissues and cancer cell lines: dysregulation of alternative splicing in cancer. Amino Acids 2011; 44:33-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1127-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
109
|
Tissue transglutaminase, inflammation, and cancer: how intimate is the relationship? Amino Acids 2011; 44:81-8. [PMID: 22083892 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1139-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant advances in surgery and biology, cancer remains a major health problem. It is now well accepted that metastasis and cancer cells' acquired or inherent resistance to conventional therapies are major roadblocks to successful treatment. Chronic inflammation is an important driving force that provides a favorable platform for cancer's progression and development and suggests a link between inflammation and metastatic transformation. However, how chronic inflammation contributes to metastatic cell transformation is not well understood. According to the current theory of cancer progression, a small subpopulation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in tumors is responsible for their metastasis, resistance, and sustenance. Whether CSCs originate from normal stem cells or from dedifferentiation of terminally differentiated cells remains unknown. Recent evidence indicates that stem cells are not unique; malignant or nonmalignant cells can reprogram and de-differentiate to acquire a stemness phenotype. Thus, phenotypic plasticity may exist between stem cells and non-stem cells, and a dynamic equilibrium may exist between the two phenotypes. Moreover, this equilibrium may shift in one direction or another on the basis of contextual signals in the microenvironment that influence the interconversion between stem and non-stem cell compartments. Whether the inflammatory microenvironment influences this interconversion and shifts the dynamic equilibrium towards stem cell compartments remains unknown. We recently found that aberrant tissue transglutaminase (TG2) expression induces the mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stem cell characteristics in epithelial cells. This finding, in conjunction with the observation that inflammatory signals (e.g., TGFβ, TNFα, and NF-κB) which induce EMT, also induce TG2 expression, suggests a possible link between TG2, inflammation, and cancer progression. In this review, we summarize TG2-driven processes in inflammation and their implications in cancer progression.
Collapse
|
110
|
Bergamini CM, Collighan RJ, Wang Z, Griffin M. Structure and regulation of type 2 transglutaminase in relation to its physiological functions and pathological roles. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 78:1-46. [PMID: 22220471 DOI: 10.1002/9781118105771.ch1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlo M Bergamini
- Deparment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
111
|
Li B, Cerione RA, Antonyak M. Tissue transglutaminase and its role in human cancer progression. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 78:247-93. [PMID: 22220476 DOI: 10.1002/9781118105771.ch6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
112
|
Transglutaminase 2: a molecular Swiss army knife. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2011; 1823:406-19. [PMID: 22015769 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2011.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is the most widely distributed member of the transglutaminase family with almost all cell types in the body expressing TG2 to varying extents. In addition to being widely expressed, TG2 is an extremely versatile protein exhibiting transamidating, protein disulphide isomerase and guanine and adenine nucleotide binding and hydrolyzing activities. TG2 can also act as a protein scaffold or linker. This unique protein also undergoes extreme conformational changes and exhibits localization diversity. Being mainly a cytosolic protein; it is also found in the nucleus, associated with the cell membrane (inner and outer side) and with the mitochondria, and also in the extracellular matrix. These different activities, conformations and localization need to be carefully considered while assessing the role of TG2 in physiological and pathological processes. For example, it is becoming evident that the role of TG2 in cell death processes is dependent upon the cell type, stimuli, subcellular localization and conformational state of the protein. In this review we discuss in depth the conformational and functional diversity of TG2 in the context of its role in numerous cellular processes. In particular, we have highlighted how differential localization, conformation and activities of TG2 may distinctly mediate cell death processes.
Collapse
|
113
|
Cao L, Shao M, Schilder J, Guise T, Mohammad KS, Matei D. Tissue transglutaminase links TGF-β, epithelial to mesenchymal transition and a stem cell phenotype in ovarian cancer. Oncogene 2011; 31:2521-34. [PMID: 21963846 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2011.429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TG2), an enzyme involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis is overexpressed in ovarian carcinomas, where it modulates epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promotes metastasis. Its regulation in ovarian cancer (OC) remains unexplored. Here, we show that transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, a cytokine involved in tumor dissemination is abundantly secreted in the OC microenvironment and induces TG2 expression and enzymatic activity. This is mediated at transcriptional level by SMADs and by TGF-β-activated kinase 1-mediated activation of the nuclear factor-κB complex. TGF-β-stimulated OC cells aggregate as spheroids, which enable peritoneal dissemination. We show that TGF-β-induced TG2 regulates EMT, formation of spheroids and OC metastasis. TG2 knock-down in OC cells decreases the number of cells harboring a cancer stem cell phenotype (CD44+/CD117+). Furthermore, CD44+/CD117+ cells isolated from human ovarian tumors express high levels of TG2. In summary, TGF-β-induced TG2 enhances ovarian tumor metastasis by inducing EMT and a cancer stem cell phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Cao
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
114
|
Choi CM, Jang SJ, Park SY, Choi YB, Jeong JH, Kim DS, Kim HK, Park KS, Nam BH, Kim HR, Kim SY, Hong KM. Transglutaminase 2 as an independent prognostic marker for survival of patients with non-adenocarcinoma subtype of non-small cell lung cancer. Mol Cancer 2011; 10:119. [PMID: 21943122 PMCID: PMC3196741 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-10-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Expression of transglutaminase 2 (TGase 2) is related to invasion and resistance to chemotherapeutic agents in several cancer cells. However, there has been only limited clinical validation of TGase 2 as an independent prognostic marker in cancer. Methods The significance of TGase 2 expression as an invasive/migratory factor was addressed by in vitro assays employing down-regulation of TGase 2. TGase 2 expression as a prognostic indicator was assessed in 429 Korean patients with early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) by immunohistochemical staining. Results TGase 2 expression increased the invasive and migratory properties of NSCLC cells in vitro, which might be related to the induction of MMP-9. In the analysis of the immunohistochemical staining, TGase 2 expression in tumors was significantly correlated with recurrence in NSCLC (p = 0.005) or in the non-adenocarcinoma subtype (p = 0.031). Additionally, a multivariate analysis also showed a significant correlation between strong TGase 2 expression and shorter disease-free survival (DFS) in NSCLC (p = 0.029 and HR = 1.554) and in the non-adenocarcinoma subtype (p = 0.030 and HR = 2.184). However, the correlation in the adenocarcinoma subtype was not significant. Conclusions TGase 2 expression was significantly correlated with recurrence and shorter DFS in NSCLC, especially in the non-adenocarcinoma subtype including squamous cell carcinoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Min Choi
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Asan Medical Center, College of Medicine, University of Ulsan, 388-1 Pungnap-2 Dong, SongPa-Gu, Seoul 138-736, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
115
|
van Strien ME, Brevé JJP, Fratantoni S, Schreurs MWJ, Bol JGJM, Jongenelen CAM, Drukarch B, van Dam AM. Astrocyte-derived tissue transglutaminase interacts with fibronectin: a role in astrocyte adhesion and migration? PLoS One 2011; 6:e25037. [PMID: 21949843 PMCID: PMC3174992 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An important neuropathological feature of neuroinflammatory processes that occur during e.g. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is the formation of an astroglial scar. Astroglial scar formation is facilitated by the interaction between astrocytes and extracellular matrix proteins (ECM) such as fibronectin. Since there is evidence indicating that glial scars strongly inhibit both axon growth and (re)myelination in brain lesions, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to the interaction between astrocytes and ECM proteins. Tissue Transglutaminase (TG2) is a multifunctional enzyme with an ubiquitous tissue distribution, being clearly present within the brain. It has been shown that inflammatory cytokines can enhance TG2 activity. In addition, TG2 can mediate cell adhesion and migration and it binds fibronectin with high affinity. We therefore hypothesized that TG2 is involved in astrocyte-fibronectin interactions. Our studies using primary rat astrocytes show that intracellular and cell surface expression and activity of TG2 is increased after treatment with pro-inflammatory cytokines. Astrocyte-derived TG2 interacts with fibronectin and is involved in astrocyte adhesion onto and migration across fibronectin. TG2 is involved in stimulating focal adhesion formation which is necessary for the interaction of astrocytes with ECM proteins. We conclude that astrocyte-derived TG2 contributes to the interaction between astrocytes and fibronectin. It might thereby regulate ECM remodeling and possibly glial scarring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam E. van Strien
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John J. P. Brevé
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Silvina Fratantoni
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W. J. Schreurs
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John G. J. M. Bol
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis A. M. Jongenelen
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Drukarch
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie van Dam
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
116
|
Lin CY, Tsai PH, Kandaswami CC, Chang GD, Cheng CH, Huang CJ, Lee PP, Hwang JJ, Lee MT. Role of tissue transglutaminase 2 in the acquisition of a mesenchymal-like phenotype in highly invasive A431 tumor cells. Mol Cancer 2011; 10:87. [PMID: 21777419 PMCID: PMC3150327 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-10-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cancer progression is closely linked to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. Studies have shown that there is increased expression of tissue tranglutaminase (TG2) in advanced invasive cancer cells. TG2 catalyzes the covalent cross-linking of proteins, exhibits G protein activity, and has been implicated in the modulation of cell adhesion, migration, invasion and cancer metastasis. This study explores the molecular mechanisms associated with TG2's involvement in the acquisition of the mesenchymal phenotype using the highly invasive A431-III subline and its parental A431-P cells. Results The A431-III tumor subline displays increased expression of TG2. This is accompanied by enhanced expression of the mesenchymal phenotype, and this expression is reversed by knockdown of endogenous TG2. Consistent with this, overexpression of TG2 in A431-P cells advanced the EMT process. Furthermore, TG2 induced the PI3K/Akt activation and GSK3β inactivation in A431 tumor cells and this increased Snail and MMP-9 expression resulting in higher cell motility. TG2 also upregulated NF-κB activity, which also enhanced Snail and MMP-9 expression resulting in greater cell motility; interestingly, this was associated with the formation of a TG2/NF-κB complex. TG2 facilitated acquisition of a mesenchymal phenotype, which was reversed by inhibitors of PI3K, GSK3 and NF-κB. Conclusions This study reveals that TG2 acts, at least in part, through activation of the PI3K/Akt and NF-κB signaling systems, which then induce the key mediators Snail and MMP-9 that facilitate the attainment of a mesenchymal phenotype. These findings support the possibility that TG2 is a promising target for cancer therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yu Lin
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
117
|
Jamshidi M, Bartkova J, Greco D, Tommiska J, Fagerholm R, Aittomäki K, Mattson J, Villman K, Vrtel R, Lukas J, Heikkilä P, Blomqvist C, Bartek J, Nevanlinna H. NQO1 expression correlates inversely with NFκB activation in human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2011; 132:955-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s10549-011-1629-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 06/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
118
|
Abstract
Autophagy is a basic cell biological process ongoing under physiologic circumstances in almost all cell types of the human organism and upregulated by various stress conditions including those leading to inflammation. Since autophagy affects the effector cells of innate and adaptive immunity mediating the inflammatory response, its activity in these cells influences the antimicrobial response, the development of an effective cognate immune defense, and the course of the normal sterile inflammatory reactions. The level of autophagic activity may determine whether tissue cells die by apoptosis, necrosis, or through autophagy, and, as a consequence, whether the clearance of these dying cells is a silent process or results in an inflammatory response. Loss or decreased autophagy may lead to necrotic death that can initiate an inflammatory reaction in phagocytes through their surface and cytosolic receptors. Engulfment of certain cells dying through autophagy can activate the inflammasome. The intertwining regulatory connections between inflammation and immunity extend to pathologic conditions including chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmunity and cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- László Fésüs
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Apoptosis and Genomics Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Medical and Health Science Center, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
119
|
Ghanta KS, Pakala SB, Reddy SDN, Li DQ, Nair SS, Kumar R. MTA1 coregulation of transglutaminase 2 expression and function during inflammatory response. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:7132-8. [PMID: 21156794 PMCID: PMC3044970 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.199273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2010] [Revised: 12/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Although both metastatic tumor antigen 1 (MTA1), a master chromatin modifier, and transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a multifunctional enzyme, are known to be activated during inflammation, it remains unknown whether these molecules regulate inflammatory response in a coordinated manner. Here we investigated the role of MTA1 in the regulation of TG2 expression in bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mammalian cells. While studying the impact of MTA1 status on global gene expression, we unexpectedly discovered that MTA1 depletion impairs the basal as well as the LPS-induced expression of TG2 in multiple experimental systems. We found that TG2 is a chromatin target of MTA1 and of NF-κB signaling in LPS-stimulated cells. In addition, LPS-mediated stimulation of TG2 expression is accompanied by the enhanced recruitment of MTA1, p65RelA, and RNA polymerase II to the NF-κB consensus sites in the TG2 promoter. Interestingly, both the recruitment of p65 and TG2 expression are effectively blocked by a pharmacological inhibitor of the NF-κB pathway. These findings reveal an obligatory coregulatory role of MTA1 in the regulation of TG2 expression and of the MTA1-TG2 pathway, at least in part, in LPS modulation of the NF-κB signaling in stimulated macrophages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Sumanth Ghanta
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Suresh B. Pakala
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Sirigiri Divijendra Natha Reddy
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Da-Qiang Li
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Sujit S. Nair
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Coregulator Biology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20037
| |
Collapse
|
120
|
Cancer cell-derived microvesicles induce transformation by transferring tissue transglutaminase and fibronectin to recipient cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:4852-7. [PMID: 21368175 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1017667108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 363] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor progression involves the ability of cancer cells to communicate with each other and with neighboring normal cells in their microenvironment. Microvesicles (MV) derived from human cancer cells have received a good deal of attention because of their ability to participate in the horizontal transfer of signaling proteins between cancer cells and to contribute to their invasive activity. Here we show that MV may play another important role in oncogenesis. In particular, we demonstrate that MV shed by two different human cancer cells, MDAMB231 breast carcinoma cells and U87 glioma cells, are capable of conferring onto normal fibroblasts and epithelial cells the transformed characteristics of cancer cells (e.g., anchorage-independent growth and enhanced survival capability) and that this effect requires the transfer of the protein cross-linking enzyme tissue transglutaminase (tTG). We further demonstrate that tTG is not sufficient to transform fibroblasts but rather that it must collaborate with another protein to mediate the transforming actions of the cancer cell-derived MV. Proteomic analyses of the MV derived from MDAMB231 and U87 cells indicated that both these vesicle preparations contained the tTG-binding partner and cross-inking substrate fibronectin (FN). Moreover, we found that tTG cross-links FN in MV from cancer cells and that the ensuing MV-mediated transfers of cross-linked FN and tTG to recipient fibroblasts function cooperatively to activate mitogenic signaling activities and to induce their transformation. These findings highlight a role for MV in the induction of cellular transformation and identify tTG and FN as essential participants in this process.
Collapse
|
121
|
Mehta K, Han A. Tissue Transglutaminase (TG2)-Induced Inflammation in Initiation, Progression, and Pathogenesis of Pancreatic Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2011; 3:897-912. [PMID: 24212645 PMCID: PMC3756395 DOI: 10.3390/cancers3010897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is among the deadliest cancers, with a median survival of six months. It is generally believed that infiltrating PC arises through the progression of early grade pancreatic intraepithelial lesions (PanINs). In one model of the disease, the K-ras mutation is an early molecular event during progression of pancreatic cancer; it is followed by the accumulation of additional genetic abnormalities. This model has been supported by animal studies in which activated K-ras and p53 mutations produced metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in mice. According to this model, oncogenic K-ras induces PanIN formation but fails to promote the invasive stage. However, when these mice are subjected to caerulein treatment, which induces a chronic pancreatitis-like state and inflammatory response, PanINs rapidly progress to invasive carcinoma. These results are consistent with epidemiologic studies showing that patients with chronic pancreatitis have a much higher risk of developing PC. In line with these observations, recent studies have revealed elevated expression of the pro-inflammatory protein tissue transglutaminase (TG2) in early PanINs, and its expression increases even more as the disease progresses. In this review we discuss the implications of increased TG2 expression in initiation, progression, and pathogenesis of pancreatic cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kapil Mehta
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; E-Mail:
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Amy Han
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA; E-Mail:
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| |
Collapse
|
122
|
Caccamo D, Currò M, Ientile R. Potential of transglutaminase 2 as a therapeutic target. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2010; 14:989-1003. [PMID: 20670177 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2010.510134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Increased expression and activity of transglutaminase 2 - a calcium-dependent enzyme which catalyzes protein cross-linking, polyamination or deamidation at selective glutamine residues - are involved in the etiopathogenesis of several pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative disorders, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory diseases. Inhibition of enzyme activity has potential for therapeutic management of these diseases. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW The major results achieved in the last twelve years of research in the field of inhibition of tranglutaminase activity using cell cultures as well as in vivo models of high-social-impact or widespread diseases, such as CNS neurodegenerative disorders, celiac sprue, cancer and fibrotic diseases. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Beneficial effects of enzyme activity inhibition have been observed in neurodegeneration and fibrosis in vivo models by delivery of the competitive inhibitor cystamine and more recently designed inhibitors, such as thiomidaziolium or norleucine derivatives, which irreversibly bind the active site cysteine residue. Transglutaminase 2 targeting with specific antibodies has also been shown to be a promising tool for celiac disease treatment. TAKE HOME MESSAGE New insights from transglutaminase inhibition studies dealing with side effects of in vivo administration of pan-transglutaminase inhibitors will help in design of novel therapeutic approaches to various diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Caccamo
- University of Messina, Policlinico Universitario, Department of Biochemical, Physiological and Nutritional Sciences, Italy
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
123
|
Kotsakis P, Wang Z, Collighan RJ, Griffin M. The role of tissue transglutaminase (TG2) in regulating the tumour progression of the mouse colon carcinoma CT26. Amino Acids 2010; 41:909-21. [PMID: 21046178 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-010-0790-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The multifunctional enzyme tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is reported to both mediate and inhibit tumour progression. To elucidate these different roles of TG2, we established a series of stable-transfected mouse colon carcinoma CT26 cells expressing a catalytically active (wild type) and a transamidating-inactive TG2 (Cys277Ser) mutant. Comparison of the TG2-transfected cells with the empty vector control indicated no differences in cell proliferation, apoptosis and susceptibility to doxorubicin, which correlated with no detectable changes in the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. TG2-transfected cells showed increased expression of integrin β3, and were more adherent and less migratory on fibronectin than control cells. Direct interaction of TG2 with β3 integrins was demonstrated by immunoprecipitation, suggesting that TG2 acts as a coreceptor for fibronectin with β3 integrins. All cells expressed the same level of TGFβ receptors I and II, but only cells transfected with active TG2 had increased levels of TGFβ1 and matrix-deposited fibronectin, which could be inhibited by TG2 site-directed inhibitors. Moreover, only cells transfected with active TG2 were capable of inhibiting tumour growth when compared to the empty vector controls. We conclude that in this colon carcinoma model increased levels of active TG2 are unfavourable to tumour growth due to their role in activation of TGFβ1 and increased matrix deposition, which in turn favours increased cell adhesion and a lowered migratory and invasive behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Panayiotis Kotsakis
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham, B47ET, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
124
|
Kumar A, Xu J, Brady S, Gao H, Yu D, Reuben J, Mehta K. Tissue transglutaminase promotes drug resistance and invasion by inducing mesenchymal transition in mammary epithelial cells. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13390. [PMID: 20967228 PMCID: PMC2953521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent observations that aberrant expression of tissue transglutaminase (TG2) promotes growth, survival, and metastasis of multiple tumor types is of great significance and could yield novel therapeutic targets for improved patient outcomes. To accomplish this, a clear understanding of how TG2 contributes to these phenotypes is essential. Using mammary epithelial cell lines (MCF10A, MCF12A, MCF7 and MCF7/RT) as a model system, we determined the impact of TG2 expression on cell growth, cell survival, invasion, and differentiation. Our results show that TG2 expression promotes drug resistance and invasive functions by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Thus, TG2 expression supported anchorage-independent growth of mammary epithelial cells in soft-agar, disrupted the apical-basal polarity, and resulted in disorganized acini structures when grown in 3D-culture. At molecular level, TG2 expression resulted in loss of E-cadherin and increased the expression of various transcriptional repressors (Snail1, Zeb1, Zeb2 and Twist1). Tumor growth factor-beta (TGF-β) failed to induce EMT in cells lacking TG2 expression, suggesting that TG2 is a downstream effector of TGF-β-induced EMT. Moreover, TG2 expression induced stem cell-like phenotype in mammary epithelial cells as revealed by enrichment of CD44(+)/CD24(-/low) cell populations. Overall, our studies show that aberrant expression of TG2 is sufficient for inducing EMT in epithelial cells and establish a strong link between TG2 expression and progression of metastatic breast disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anupam Kumar
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jia Xu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Samuel Brady
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hui Gao
- Department of Hematopathology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Dihua Yu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - James Reuben
- Department of Hematopathology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Kapil Mehta
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
125
|
Calcagno AM, Salcido CD, Gillet JP, Wu CP, Fostel JM, Mumau MD, Gottesman MM, Varticovski L, Ambudkar SV. Prolonged drug selection of breast cancer cells and enrichment of cancer stem cell characteristics. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010; 102:1637-52. [PMID: 20935265 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djq361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cancer stem cells are presumed to have virtually unlimited proliferative and self-renewal abilities and to be highly resistant to chemotherapy, a feature that is associated with overexpression of ATP-binding cassette transporters. We investigated whether prolonged continuous selection of cells for drug resistance enriches cultures for cancer stem-like cells. METHODS Cancer stem cells were defined as CD44+/CD24⁻ cells that could self-renew (ie, generate cells with the tumorigenic CD44+/CD24⁻ phenotype), differentiate, invade, and form tumors in vivo. We used doxorubicin-selected MCF-7/ADR cells, weakly tumorigenic parental MCF-7 cells, and MCF-7/MDR, an MCF-7 subline with forced expression of ABCB1 protein. Cells were examined for cell surface markers and side-population fractions by microarray and flow cytometry, with in vitro invasion assays, and for ability to form mammospheres. Xenograft tumors were generated in mice to examine tumorigenicity (n = 52). The mRNA expression of multidrug resistance genes was examined in putative cancer stem cells and pathway analysis of statistically significantly differentially expressed genes was performed. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS Pathway analysis showed that MCF-7/ADR cells express mRNAs from ABCB1 and other genes also found in breast cancer stem cells (eg, CD44, TGFB1, and SNAI1). MCF-7/ADR cells were highly invasive, formed mammospheres, and were tumorigenic in mice. In contrast to parental MCF-7 cells, more than 30% of MCF-7/ADR cells had a CD44+/CD24⁻ phenotype, could self-renew, and differentiate (ie, produce CD44+/CD24⁻ and CD44+/CD24+ cells) and overexpressed various multidrug resistance-linked genes (including ABCB1, CCNE1, and MMP9). MCF-7/ADR cells were statistically significantly more invasive in Matrigel than parental MCF-7 cells (MCF-7 cells = 0.82 cell per field and MCF-7/ADR = 7.51 cells per field, difference = 6.69 cells per field, 95% confidence interval = 4.82 to 8.55 cells per field, P < .001). No enrichment in the CD44+/CD24⁻ or CD133+ population was detected in MCF-7/MDR. CONCLUSION The cell population with cancer stem cell characteristics increased after prolonged continuous selection for doxorubicin resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Calcagno
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
126
|
Kausar T, Sharma R, Hasan MR, Tripathi SC, Saraya A, Chattopadhyay TK, Gupta SD, Ralhan R. Clinical significance of GPR56, transglutaminase 2, and NF-κB in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Invest 2010; 29:42-8. [PMID: 20874003 DOI: 10.3109/07357907.2010.512597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Proteins do not operate as individual units, and components of intracellular canonical pathways often cross talk in tumor genesis. We hypothesized that G-protein-coupled receptor 56 (GPR56), transglutaminase (TG2), and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) may collaborate in interconnected pathways and contribute to the aggressive behavior of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Immunohistochemical analysis of GPR56, TG2, and NF-κB was carried out using ESCC tissue microarrays. Immunostaining of all the three proteins revealed a significant increase in their expression in ESCCs as compared with normal epithelia and correlated with their concomitant expression. A significant correlation between GPR56, TG2, and NF-κB was observed that correlated with nodal metastasis and tumor invasion in ESCCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tasneem Kausar
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi, India
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
127
|
The transglutaminase 2 gene is aberrantly hypermethylated in glioma. J Neurooncol 2010; 101:429-40. [PMID: 20596752 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-010-0277-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed protein that catalyzes protein/protein crosslinking. Because extracellular TG2 crosslinks components of the extracellular matrix, TG2 is thought to function as a suppressor of cellular invasion. We have recently uncovered that the TG2 gene (TGM2) is a target for epigenetic silencing in breast cancer, highlighting a molecular mechanism that drives reduced TG2 expression, and this aberrant molecular event may contribute to invasiveness in this tumor type. Because tumor invasiveness is a primary determinant of brain tumor aggressiveness, we sought to determine if TGM2 is targeted for epigenetic silencing in glioma. Analysis of TGM2 gene methylation in a panel of cultured human glioma cells indicated that the 5' flanking region of the TGM2 gene is hypermethylated and that this feature is associated with reduced TG2 expression as judged by immunoblotting. Further, culturing glioma cells in the presence of the global DNA demethylating agent 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine and the histone deacetylase inhibitor Trichostatin A resulted in re-expression of TG2 in these lines. In primary brain tumors we observed that the TGM2 promoter is commonly hypermethylated and that this feature is a cancer-associated phenomenon. Using publically available databases, TG2 expression in gliomas was found to vary widely, with many tumors showing overexpression or underexpression of this gene. Since overexpression of TG2 leads to resistance to doxorubicin through the ectopic activation of NFκB, we sought to examine the effects of recombinant TG2 expression in glioma cells treated with commonly used brain tumor therapeutics. We observed that in addition to doxorubicin, TG2 expression drove resistance to CCNU; however, TG2 expression did not alter sensitivity to other drugs tested. Finally, a catalytically null mutant of TG2 was also able to support doxorubicin resistance in glioma cells indicating that transglutaminase activity is not necessary for the resistance phenotype.
Collapse
|
128
|
Akar U, Ozpolat B, Mehta K, Lopez-Berestein G, Zhang D, Ueno NT, Hortobagyi GN, Arun B. Targeting p70S6K prevented lung metastasis in a breast cancer xenograft model. Mol Cancer Ther 2010; 9:1180-7. [PMID: 20423989 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-09-1025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Overexpression of p70S6K in breast cancer patients is associated with aggressive disease and poor prognosis. Recent studies showed that patients with breast cancer with increased p70S6K phosphorylation had poor survival and increased metastasis. The purpose of our study was to determine whether knockdown of p70S6K would inhibit cell growth, invasion, and metastasis in breast cancer. We therefore stably knocked down p70S6K expression in MDA-231, a highly metastatic breast cancer cell line, using a lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA) based approach. Inhibition of p70S6K led to inhibition of cell growth, migration, and invasion in vitro. To determine the role of p70S6K in breast cancer tumorigenesis and metastasis, we used an MDA-231 orthotopic and metastatic animal model. In the orthotopic model, mice injected with MDA-231-p70S6K shRNA cells developed significantly smaller tumors than control mice injected with MDA-231 control shRNA cells (P < 0.01). No metastasis was observed in the p70S6K downregulated group, whereas lung metastasis was detected in all mice in the control group. To determine the role of p70S6K on growth and invasion, we tested downstream signaling targets by Western blot analysis. Knockdown of p70S6K inhibited phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase, tissue transglutaminase 2, and cyclin D1 proteins, which promote cell growth, survival, and invasion. In addition, downregulation of p70S6K induced expression of PDCD4, a tumor-suppressor protein. In conclusion, we showed that p70S6K plays an important role in metastasis by regulating key proteins like cyclin D1, PDCD4, focal adhesion kinase, E-cadherin, beta-catenin, and tissue transglutaminase 2, which are essential for cell attachment, survival, invasion, and metastasis in breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ugur Akar
- Department of Breast Medical Oncology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
129
|
NF-kappaB and cancer: how intimate is this relationship. Mol Cell Biochem 2010; 336:25-37. [PMID: 19823771 PMCID: PMC3148942 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-009-0267-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
NF-kappaB, a transcription factor first discovered in 1986, is now known to be closely connected to the process of tumorogenesis based on a multiplicity of evidence. (1) NF-kappaB is activated in response to tobacco, stress, dietary agents, obesity, alcohol, infectious agents, irradiation, and environmental stimuli that account for as much as 95% of all cancers. (2) The transcription factor has been linked with transformation of cells. (3) It is constitutively active in most tumor cells. (4) It has also been linked with the survival of cancer stem cells, an early progenitor cell that has acquired self-renewal potential. (5) NF-kappaB regulates the expression of most anti-apoptotic gene products associated with the survival of the tumor. (6) It also regulates the gene products linked with proliferation of tumors. (7) The transcription factor controls the expression of gene products linked with invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer. (8) While most carcinogens activate NF-kappaB, most chemopreventive agents suppress its activation. These observations suggest that NF-kappaB is intimately intertwined with cancer growth and metastasis. The mechanism that leads to constitutive activation of NF-kappaB in hematological, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, gynecological, thoracic head and neck, breast, and skin cancers, and the ways NF-kappaB is activated are the topics of discussion in this review.
Collapse
|
130
|
Lin Y, Bai L, Chen W, Xu S. The NF-kappaB activation pathways, emerging molecular targets for cancer prevention and therapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2010; 14:45-55. [PMID: 20001209 DOI: 10.1517/14728220903431069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) is activated by a variety of cancer-promoting agents. The reciprocal activation between NF-kappaB and inflammatory cytokines makes NF-kappaB important for inflammation-associated cancer development. Both the constitutive and anticancer therapeutic-induced NF-kappaB activation blunts the anticancer activities of the therapy. Elucidating the roles of NF-kappaB in cancer facilitates developing approaches for cancer prevention and therapy. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW By searching PubMed, we summarize the progress of studies on NF-kappaB in carcinogenesis and cancer cells' drug resistance in recent 10 years. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN The mechanisms by which NF-kappaB activation pathways are activated; the roles and mechanisms of NF-kappaB in cell survival and proliferation, and in carcinogenesis and cancer cells' response to therapy; recent development of NF-kappaB-modulating means and their application in cancer prevention and therapy. TAKE HOME MESSAGE NF-kappaB is involved in cancer development, modulating NF-kappaB activation pathways has important implications in cancer prevention and therapy. Due to the complexity of NF-kappaB roles in different cancers, careful evaluation of NF-kappaB's in each cancer type is crucial in this regard. More cancer cell-specific NF-kappaB inhibiting means are desired for improving anticancer efficacy and reducing systemic toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Lin
- Molecular Biology and Lung Cancer Program, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
131
|
Park D, Choi SS, Ha KS. Transglutaminase 2: a multi-functional protein in multiple subcellular compartments. Amino Acids 2010; 39:619-31. [PMID: 20148342 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-010-0500-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 01/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional protein that can function as a transglutaminase, G protein, kinase, protein disulfide isomerase, and as an adaptor protein. These multiple biochemical activities of TG2 account for, at least in part, its involvement in a wide variety of cellular processes encompassing differentiation, cell death, inflammation, cell migration, and wound healing. The individual biochemical activities of TG2 are regulated by several cellular factors, including calcium, nucleotides, and redox potential, which vary depending on its subcellular location. Thus, the microenvironments of the subcellular compartments to which TG2 localizes, such as the cytosol, plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, or extracellular space, are important determinants to switch on or off various TG2 biochemical activities. Furthermore, TG2 interacts with a distinct subset of proteins and/or substrates depending on its subcellular location. In this review, the biological functions and molecular interactions of TG2 will be discussed in the context of the unique environments of the subcellular compartments to which TG2 localizes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Donghyun Park
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Vascular System Research Center, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, 200-701, Republic of Korea
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
132
|
Shao M, Cao L, Shen C, Satpathy M, Chelladurai B, Bigsby RM, Nakshatri H, Matei D. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and ovarian tumor progression induced by tissue transglutaminase. Cancer Res 2010; 69:9192-201. [PMID: 19951993 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-1257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TG2), an enzyme that catalyzes Ca(2+)-dependent aggregation and polymerization of proteins, is overexpressed in ovarian cancer cells and tumors. We previously reported that TG2 facilitates tumor dissemination using an i.p. xenograft model. Here we show that TG2 modulates epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), contributing to increased ovarian cancer cell invasiveness and tumor metastasis. By using stable knockdown and overexpression in epithelial ovarian cancer cells, we show that TG2 induces a mesenchymal phenotype, characterized by cadherin switch and invasive behavior in a Matrigel matrix. This is mediated at the transcriptional level by altering the expression levels and function of several transcriptional repressors, including Zeb1. One mechanism through which TG2 induces Zeb1 is by activating the nuclear factor-kappaB complex. The effects of TG2 on ovarian cancer cell phenotype and invasiveness translate into increased tumor formation and metastasis in vivo, as assessed by an orthotopic ovarian xenograft model. Highly expressed in ovarian tumors, TG2 promotes EMT and enhances ovarian tumor metastasis by activating oncogenic signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minghai Shao
- Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
133
|
EGF potentiated oncogenesis requires a tissue transglutaminase-dependent signaling pathway leading to Src activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:1408-13. [PMID: 20080707 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0907907107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
EGF receptor (EGFR) signaling in human cancers elicits changes in protein-expression patterns that are crucial for potentiating tumor growth. Identifying those proteins with expression regulated by the EGFR and determining how they contribute to malignancy is fundamental for the development of more effective strategies to treat cancer. Here, we show that tissue transglutaminase (tTG) is one such protein. EGF up-regulates tTG expression in human breast-cancer cells, and knock-downs of tTG or the treatment of breast cancer cells with a tTG inhibitor blocks their EGF-stimulated anchorage-independent growth. We further show that the combined actions of Ras and Cdc42, leading to the activation of PI 3-kinase and NFkappaB, provide a mechanism by which EGF can up-regulate tTG in breast-cancer cells. Moreover, overexpression of wild-type tTG, but not its transamidation-defective counterpart, fully mimics the growth advantages afforded by EGF to these cancer cells. Surprisingly, the tTG-promoted growth of breast-cancer cells is dependent on its ability to activate the Src tyrosine kinase as an outcome of a complex formed between tTG and the breast-cancer marker and intermediate filament protein keratin-19. These findings identify tTG as a key participant in an EGFR/Src-signaling pathway in breast-cancer cells and a potential target for inhibiting EGFR-promoted tumor progression.
Collapse
|
134
|
Miyoshi N, Ishii H, Mimori K, Tanaka F, Hitora T, Tei M, Sekimoto M, Doki Y, Mori M. TGM2 is a novel marker for prognosis and therapeutic target in colorectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2009; 17:967-72. [PMID: 20033322 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-009-0865-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) plays a role in cell growth and survival through the antiapoptosis signaling pathway. METHODS We analyzed TGM2 gene expression in 91 paired cases of colorectal cancer (CRC) and noncancerous regions and seven CRC cell lines to demonstrate the importance of TGM2 expression for the prediction of prognosis of CRC. TGM2 expression was higher in CRC tissue than in corresponding normal tissue by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (P = .015). RESULTS Patients in the high TGM2 expression group showed a poorer overall survival rate than those in the low expression group (P = .001), indicating that the increase in TGM2 expression was an independent prognostic factor. TGM2 was also expressed in the seven CRC cell lines. The in vitro proliferation assay showed that TGM2 expression is involved with tumor growth. CONCLUSIONS The present study suggests that TGM2 is useful as a predictive marker for patient prognosis and may be a novel therapeutic target for CRC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Norikatsu Miyoshi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
135
|
Kim Y, Eom S, Kim K, Lee YS, Choe J, Hahn JH, Lee H, Kim YM, Ha KS, Ro JY, Jeoung D. Transglutaminase II interacts with rac1, regulates production of reactive oxygen species, expression of snail, secretion of Th2 cytokines and mediates in vitro and in vivo allergic inflammation. Mol Immunol 2009; 47:1010-22. [PMID: 20004474 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 11/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase II (TGase II) is a protein cross-linking enzyme with diverse biological functions. Here we report the role of TGase II in allergic inflammation. Antigen stimulation induced expression and activity of TGase II by activation of NF-kappaB in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL2H3) cells. This induction of TGase II was dependent on FcepsilonRI and EGFR. Interaction between TGase II and rac1 was induced following antigen stimulation. TGase II was responsible for the increased production of reactive oxygen species, expression of prostaglandin E2 synthase (PGE2 synthase) and was responsible for increased secretion of prostaglandin E2. ChIP assay showed that TGase II, through interaction with NF-kappaB, was responsible for the induction of histone deacetylase-3 (HDAC3) and snail by direct binding to promoter sequences. HDAC3 and snail induced by TGase II, exerted transcriptional repression on E-cadherin. Snail exerted negative effect on expression of MMP-2, and secretion of Th2 cytokines. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) inhibited secretion of Th2 cytokines. In vivo induction of TGase II was observed in Balb/c mouse model of IgE antibody-induced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis. Chemical inhibition of TGase II exerted negative effect on IgE-dependent passive cutaneous anaphylaxis. Chemical inhibition of TGase II by cystamine exerted negative effect on Balb/c mouse model of phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced atopic dermatitis. These results suggest novel role of TGase II in allergic inflammation and TGase II can be developed as target for the development of allergy therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Youngmi Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
136
|
Yang Z, Song L, Huang C. Gadd45 proteins as critical signal transducers linking NF-kappaB to MAPK cascades. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2009; 9:915-30. [PMID: 20025601 PMCID: PMC3762688 DOI: 10.2174/156800909790192383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible 45 (Gadd45) proteins are a group of critical signal transducers that are involved in regulations of many cellular functions. Accumulated data indicate that all three Gadd45 proteins (i.e., Gadd45alpha, Gadd45beta, and Gadd45gamma) play essential roles in connecting an upstream sensor module, the transcription Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), to a transcriptional regulating module, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). This NF-kappaB-Gadd45(s)-MAPK pathway responds to various kinds of extracellular stimuli and regulates such cell activities as growth arrest, differentiation, cell survival, and apoptosis. Defects in this pathway can also be related to oncogenesis. In the first part of this review, the functions of Gadd45 proteins, and briefly NF-kappaB and MAPK, are summarized. In the second part, the mechanisms by which Gadd45 proteins are regulated by NF-kappaB, and how they affect MAPK activation, are reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Z. Yang
- Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 57 Old Forge Road, Tuxedo, NY 10987, USA
| | - L. Song
- Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 57 Old Forge Road, Tuxedo, NY 10987, USA
- Department of Cellular Immunology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, 27 Taiping Road, Beijing 100850, China
| | - C. Huang
- Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, 57 Old Forge Road, Tuxedo, NY 10987, USA
| |
Collapse
|
137
|
Tissue transglutaminase 2 as a biomarker of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and its relationship to p16INK4A and nuclear factor kappaB expression. Virchows Arch 2009; 456:45-51. [PMID: 19937343 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-009-0860-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Revised: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a recently identified molecule with multifunctional physiological roles. This is the first report of the expression of TG2 in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). For comparison, the expression of p16, a known surrogate biomarker of HPV infection, was evaluated. The expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB), a molecule crucial to inflammation and neoplasia, was also determined to explore its possible linkage with TG2 expression. Twenty cases each with normal cervical histology, CIN1, CIN2, CIN3, and invasive SCC were analyzed for TG2, p16, and NF-kappaB expression by immunohistochemistry. Intergroup differences were analyzed by Friedman ANOVA. Cytoplasmic as well as nuclear TG2 expression was observed in the epithelial cells. As compared to normal controls, CIN1 showed markedly increased cytoplasmic TG2 expression (p = 0.006). In CIN2/3, additional nuclear TG2 expression was seen (p = 0.009 and 0.031, respectively). Marked extracellular stromal upregulation of TG2 was noted in CIN3/SCC versus normal controls (p = 0.054; p = 0.003). There was no relationship of TG2 with either p16 of NF-kappaB expression. Combining TG2 immunoreactivity with p16 increased the immunolabeling of dysplasia from 35% to 100% in CIN1, 45% to 60% in CIN2, and 60% to 85% in CIN3. TG2 serves as an additional biomarker for all grades of cervical dysplasia, especially for low-grade dysplasia.
Collapse
|
138
|
The interaction of angiocidin with tissue transglutaminase. Exp Mol Pathol 2009; 88:15-25. [PMID: 19931242 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2009.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Angiocidin, a matrix bound and tumor associated protein, has been shown to inhibit tumor progression and angiogenesis. We previously demonstrated that angiocidin binds to thrombospondin-1 and alpha2beta1 integrin. We now show that angiocidin binds and is a preferred substrate for tissue transglutaminase-2 (tTgase). Angiocidin bound tTgase saturably with a Kd of 26 nM, while an angiocidin deletion mutant missing the matrix binding domain of angiocidin failed to bind tTgase. tTgase colocalized with angiocidin on endothelial cells. tTgase bound anti-angiocidin immunoprecipitates of endothelial cell lysates. Breast cancer cells expressing high levels of tTgase attached to angiocidin immobilized on tissue culture plates. Angiocidin was a preferred substrate for tTgase forming high molecular weight cross-linked multimers when treated with tTgase. Cross-linked angiocidin contained iso-peptide bonds as demonstrated by Western blotting and immunohistochemical colocalization studies using endothelial cells treated with angiocidin. Cross-linked angiocidin inhibited cell migration in contrast to monomeric angiocidin and inhibited localization of fibronectin (FN), a pro-tumorigenic matrix protein, into the extracellular matrix (ECM) of tumor and HUVE cells. Our studies provide an additional explanation for the anti-tumor activity of angiocidin suggesting that cross-linked angiocidin disrupts the tumor ECM making it less permissive for tumor growth.
Collapse
|
139
|
Telci D, Collighan RJ, Basaga H, Griffin M. Increased TG2 expression can result in induction of transforming growth factor beta1, causing increased synthesis and deposition of matrix proteins, which can be regulated by nitric oxide. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:29547-58. [PMID: 19657147 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.041806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In fibrotic conditions increases in TG2 activity has been linked to an increase in the deposition of extracellular matrix proteins. Using TG2 transfected Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts expressing TG2 under the control of the tetracycline-regulated inducible promoter, we demonstrate that induction of TG2 not only stimulates an increase in collagen and fibronectin deposition but also an increase in the expression of these proteins. Increased TG2 expression in these fibroblasts led to NF-kappaB activation, resulting in the increased expression of transforming growth factor (TGF) beta(1). In addition, cells overexpressing TG2 demonstrated an increase in biologically active TGFbeta(1) in the extracellular environment. A specific site-directed inhibitor of TG abolished the NF-kappaB and TGFbeta1 activation and the subsequent elevation in the synthesis and deposition of extracellular matrix proteins, confirming that this process depends on the induction of transglutaminase activity. Treatment of TG2-induced fibroblasts with nontoxic doses of nitric oxide donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine resulted in decreased TG2 activity and apprehension of the inactive enzyme on the cell surface. This was paralleled by a reduction in activation of NF-kappaB and TGFbeta(1) production with a subsequent decrease in collagen expression and deposition. These findings support a role for NO in the regulation of TG2 function in the extracellular environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dilek Telci
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B47ET, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
140
|
Antonyak MA, Li B, Regan AD, Feng Q, Dusaban SS, Cerione RA. Tissue transglutaminase is an essential participant in the epidermal growth factor-stimulated signaling pathway leading to cancer cell migration and invasion. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:17914-25. [PMID: 19403524 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.013037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) exerts pleiotropic effects during oncogenesis, including the stimulation of cell migration and invasiveness. Although a number of traditional signaling proteins (e.g. Ras and Rho GTPases) have been implicated in EGF-stimulated cancer cell migration, less is known about the identity of those proteins functioning further downstream in this growth factor pathway. Here we have used HeLa carcinoma cells as a model system for investigating the role of tissue transglutaminase (TGase), a protein that has been linked to oncogenesis, in EGF-stimulated cancer cell migration and invasion. Treatment of HeLa cells with EGF resulted in TGase activation and its accumulation at their leading edges, whereas knocking down TGase expression, or treating cells with a TGase inhibitor, blocked EGF-stimulated cell migration and invasion. We show that EGF signaling through Ras and c-Jun N-terminal kinase is responsible for targeting TGase to the leading edges of cells and activating it. The requirement for EGF to properly localize and activate TGase can be circumvented by the expression of oncogenic Ras (G12V), whose ability to stimulate migration is also dependent on TGase. We further show that, in the highly aggressive breast cancer cell line MDAMB231, where EGF stimulation is unnecessary for migration and invasive activity, TGase is already at the leading edge and activated. These findings demonstrate that TGase plays a key role in cancer cell motility and invasiveness and represents a previously unappreciated participant in the EGF pathway that stimulates these processes in cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc A Antonyak
- Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
141
|
Satpathy M, Shao M, Emerson R, Donner DB, Matei D. Tissue transglutaminase regulates matrix metalloproteinase-2 in ovarian cancer by modulating cAMP-response element-binding protein activity. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:15390-9. [PMID: 19324884 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m808331200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is overexpressed in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) and promotes intraperitoneal metastasis. How TG2 facilitates the spread of EOC is unknown. Here, we show that TG2 regulates the expression and function of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), a critical mediator of tissue invasiveness. TG2 knockdown down-regulates MMP-2 protein and mRNA expression in SKOV3, IGROV-1, MDA-MB-436, and PC-3 cancer cells. TG2 knockdown or inhibition of TG2 activity using KCC009 decreases MMP-2 gelatinase activity in cancer cells. MMP-2 expression and function are regulated by TG2 at transcriptional level, as demonstrated by quantitative PCR and reporter assays. We used bioinformatics and chromatin immunoprecipitation to identify a CREB binding site in the MMP-2 promoter. Binding of CREB to the MMP-2 promoter was diminished in cells that expressed decreased TG2 levels. TG2 knockdown decreased CREB phosphorylation, and CREB knockdown decreased MMP-2 expression. The effect of TG2 on CREB activity and MMP-2 transcription is mediated by TG2-dependent degradation of protein phosphatase 2 (PP2A-alpha). We show that PP2A-alpha complexes with and is targeted for degradation by TG2. In addition to their related in vitro expression levels, TG2 and MMP-2 expression were significantly correlated in vivo, as shown by concordant immunostaining in peritoneal xenografts and in human ovarian tumors. The capacity of TG2 to regulate MMP-2 expression in vitro and in vivo identifies a mechanism that may facilitate tissue invasion and the spread of EOC. The demonstration that TG2 induced degradation of PP2A-alpha activates CREB, and thereby increases MMP-2 transcription, provides novel mechanistic insight into the pro- metastatic function of TG2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minati Satpathy
- Indiana University Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
142
|
Transglutaminase 2 cross-linking of matrix proteins: biological significance and medical applications. Amino Acids 2008; 36:659-70. [PMID: 18982407 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-008-0190-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This review summarises the functions of the enzyme tissue transglutaminase (TG2) in the extracellular matrix (ECM) both as a matrix stabiliser through its protein cross-linking activity and as an important cell adhesion protein involved in cell survival. The contribution of extracellular TG2 to the pathology of important diseases such as cancer and fibrosis are discussed with a view to the potential importance of TG2 as a therapeutic target. The medical applications of TG2 are further expanded by detailing the use of transglutaminase cross-linking in the development of novel biocompatible biomaterials for use in soft and hard tissue repair.
Collapse
|
143
|
Hwang JY, Mangala LS, Fok JY, Lin YG, Merritt WM, Spannuth WA, Nick AM, Fiterman DJ, Vivas-Mejia PE, Deavers MT, Coleman RL, Lopez-Berestein G, Mehta K, Sood AK. Clinical and biological significance of tissue transglutaminase in ovarian carcinoma. Cancer Res 2008; 68:5849-58. [PMID: 18632639 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-6130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tissue type transglutaminase (TG2) is a unique multifunctional protein that plays a role in many steps in the cancer metastatic cascade. Here, we examined the clinical (n = 93 epithelial ovarian cancers) and biological (in vitro adhesion, invasion, and survival and in vivo therapeutic targeting) significance of TG2 in ovarian cancer. The overexpression of TG2 was associated with significantly worse overall patient survival in both univariate and multivariate analyses. Transfection of TG2 into SKOV3ip1 cells promoted attachment and spreading on fibronectin-coated surfaces and increased the in vitro invasive potential of these cells. Conversely, TG2 silencing with small interfering RNA (siRNA) of HeyA8 cells significantly decreased the invasive potential of the cells and also increased docetaxel-induced cell death. In vivo therapy experiments using chemotherapy-sensitive (HeyA8) and chemotherapy-resistant (HeyA8-MDR and RMG2) models showed significant antitumor activity both with TG2 siRNA-1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine alone and in combination with docetaxel chemotherapy. This antitumor activity was related to decreased proliferation and angiogenesis and increased tumor cell apoptosis in vivo. Taken together, these findings indicate that TG2 overexpression is an adverse prognostic factor in ovarian carcinoma and TG2 targeting may be an attractive therapeutic approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jee Young Hwang
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
144
|
Cao L, Petrusca DN, Satpathy M, Nakshatri H, Petrache I, Matei D. Tissue transglutaminase protects epithelial ovarian cancer cells from cisplatin-induced apoptosis by promoting cell survival signaling. Carcinogenesis 2008; 29:1893-900. [PMID: 18667446 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgn158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TG2), an enzyme involved in protein cross-linking and overexpressed in ovarian tumors, has antiapoptotic effects in cancer cells and may play a role in response to chemotherapy. In this study, we investigated the role of TG2 in the sensitivity of ovarian cancer cells to cisplatin. By using stable knockdown and overexpression strategies, we demonstrate that the level of expression of TG2 regulates apoptosis induced by cisplatin in SKOV3 and OV-90 ovarian cancer cells. Interestingly, not only TG2 knockdown but also a TG2 enzymatic inhibitor (KCC009) sensitized SKOV3 cells to cisplatin. To understand the mechanism by which TG2 exerts its antiapoptotic role, we examined the effects of protein kinase B (Akt) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB), two survival pathways commonly involved in development of drug resistance. Overexpression of the constitutively active p65 subunit of NF-kappaB, but not constitutively active Akt, rescued cells with diminished TG2 expression from cisplatin-induced apoptosis. This implicates activation of NF-kappaB as the main cisplatin resistance mechanism downstream of TG2. Indeed, NF-kappaB activity is decreased and the level of the inhibitory subunit I kappaB alpha is increased in ovarian cancer cells engineered to express diminished levels of TG2 or treated with the enzymatic inhibitor, KCC009. Our data show that TG2 prevents apoptosis induced by cisplatin by activating the NF-kappaB survival pathway in ovarian cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liyun Cao
- Department of Medicine, Richard L. Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, 535 Barnhill Drive, RT 473, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
145
|
Mehta K. Biological and therapeutic significance of tissue transglutaminase in pancreatic cancer. Amino Acids 2008; 36:709-16. [PMID: 18594944 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-008-0128-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/10/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is one of the deadliest cancers world-wide with an estimated annual incidence and mortality rates of approximately 6,500 cases in the UK, over 40,000 cases in Europe, 19,000 cases in Japan and over 30,000 cases in the United States. Difficulty to diagnose the disease at an early stage, rapid progression and intrinsic resistance to currently available therapies are major factors that contribute to poor disease outcome in these patients (overall 5 years survival, <3%). Identification of cancer cell-encoded genes that contribute to the development of intrinsic resistance and metastatic spread of the PDA tumors, may yield immediate clinical benefits in terms of revealing new therapeutic targets for effective treatment of the disease. This article discusses the significance of tissue-type transglutaminase (TG2) whose expression is elevated in the majority of PDA tumors and cell lines. Based on the published data and the results discussed in this review, TG2 appears to be a promising target for containment and treatment of this formidable disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Mehta
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Unit 362, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
146
|
Falasca L, Farrace MG, Rinaldi A, Tuosto L, Melino G, Piacentini M. Transglutaminase type II is involved in the pathogenesis of endotoxic shock. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:2616-24. [PMID: 18250473 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.4.2616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of sepsis is characterized by the inability of the host to regulate the inflammatory response, and as a consequence, dysregulated inflammatory processes induce organ dysfunctions and death. Altered transglutaminase type II (TG2) expression is associated with the development of many inflammatory diseases. Therefore, in this study, we questioned whether TG2 could also contribute to the pathological inflammatory dysregulation occurring in septic shock in vivo. To this aim, we used as an experimental model the TG2 knockout mice, in which the process of septic shock was elicited by treatment with LPS. Interestingly, our results demonstrated that TG2 ablation leads to partial resistance to experimental sepsis. The increased survival of TG2(-/-) mice was reflected in a drastic reduction of organ injury, highlighted by a limited infiltration of neutrophils in kidney and peritoneum and by a better homeostasis of the proinflammatory mediators as well as mitochondrial function. We also showed that in wild-type mice, the TG2 expression is increased during endotoxemia and, being directly involved in the mechanisms of NF-kappaB activation, it may cause a continuous activation cycle in the inflammatory process, thus contributing to development of sepsis pathogenesis. We propose that the inhibition of TG2 could represent a novel approach in the treatment of inflammatory processes associated with sepsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Falasca
- Laboratory of Electron Microscopy, National Institute for Infectious Diseases L. Spallanzani, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
147
|
Verma A, Guha S, Diagaradjane P, Kunnumakkara AB, Sanguino AM, Lopez-Berestein G, Sood AK, Aggarwal BB, Krishnan S, Gelovani JG, Mehta K. Therapeutic significance of elevated tissue transglutaminase expression in pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:2476-83. [PMID: 18413840 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-4529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is a multifunctional protein that is implicated in development of drug resistance and metastasis. Therefore, we examined therapeutic targeting of TG2 for inhibiting growth and metastasis of in vivo growing pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) in nude mice. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We implanted Panc-28 pancreatic cancer cells to induce orthotopic PDAC tumors in nude mice and determined the efficacy of liposomal TG2 small interfering RNA (siRNA) either alone or in combination with gemcitabine. RESULTS We show that down-regulation of endogenous TG2 by siRNA could effectively block the growth of PDAC. Moreover, down-regulation of TG2 significantly enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of gemcitabine against PDAC and inhibited metastatic spread of the disease. The antitumor activity was related to inhibition of proliferation, angiogenesis, and Akt phosphorylation. CONCLUSION siRNA-mediated down-regulation of TG2 represents a promising therapeutic approach for improved treatment of PDAC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Verma
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
148
|
Verma A, Guha S, Wang H, Fok JY, Koul D, Abbruzzese J, Mehta K. Tissue Transglutaminase Regulates Focal Adhesion Kinase/AKT Activation by Modulating PTEN Expression in Pancreatic Cancer Cells. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:1997-2005. [DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-1533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
149
|
Sethi G, Sung B, Aggarwal BB. Nuclear factor-kappaB activation: from bench to bedside. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2008; 233:21-31. [PMID: 18156302 DOI: 10.3181/0707-mr-196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) is a proinflammatory transcription factor that has emerged as an important player in the development and progression of malignant cancers. NF-kappaB targets genes that promote tumor cell proliferation, survival, metastasis, inflammation, invasion, and angiogenesis. Constitutive or aberrant activation of NF-kappa is frequently encountered in many human tumors and is associated with a resistant phenotype and poor prognosis. The mechanism of such persistent NF-kappaB activation is not clear but may involve defects in signaling pathways, mutations, or chromosomal rearrangements. Suppression of constitutive NF-kappaB activation inhibits the oncogenic potential of transformed cells and thus makes NF-kappaB an interesting new therapeutic target in cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gautam Sethi
- Cytokine Research Laboratory, Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Box 143, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
150
|
Stenberg P, Roth EB, Sjöberg K. Transglutaminase and the pathogenesis of coeliac disease. Eur J Intern Med 2008; 19:83-91. [PMID: 18249302 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2007.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2006] [Revised: 05/09/2007] [Accepted: 05/10/2007] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In 1997, a German group demonstrated that the antigen of the biomarker EMA (endomysial antibodies) in coeliac disease is a calcium-dependent thiol enzyme, transglutaminase type 2 (TG2). This most important discovery opened up an exciting field of research aimed at a better understanding of the pathogenesis of coeliac disease, a T-cell-driven autoimmune disorder with a prevalence of about 1%. The accidental activation of TG2, possibly caused by a stress-induced local deficiency of zinc in the intestinal wall, might play a key role where the enzyme catalyzes an atypical deamidation of specific glutamine residues of food gliadins. The genetic contribution is HLA DQ2 or DQ8, which can form a complex with the TG2-modified gliadin residues, resulting in an immune response with the formation of antibodies against both gliadin and the enzyme. Indeed, the immunopathogenesis of coeliac disease can now be recognized partly at the molecular level. Progress has already improved the opportunities for laboratory diagnostics and, hopefully, new ways of treating and preventing coeliac disease will become available. These exciting developments might stimulate research within other fields of autoimmune disorders. With its focus on TG2, this review highlights some of the intriguing mechanisms of the pathogenesis of coeliac disease, such as the structure of the neo-antigen, the involvement of calcium and zinc, and the effects of coeliac antibodies on TG2 activity. Moreover, the many pitfalls due to dubious laboratory practice are addressed, as is the potential when a fundamental biological mechanism is understood at the molecular level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pål Stenberg
- Hospital Pharmacy, Malmö University Hospital, S-205 02 Malmö, Sweden.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|