Romantic relationships and substance use in early adulthood: an examination of the influences of relationship type, partner substance use, and relationship quality

A matter of timing: developmental theories of romantic involvement and psychosocial adjustment

The present study compared two theories of the association between romantic involvement and adjustment: a social timetable theory and a developmental task theory. We examined seven waves of longitudinal data on a community based sample of 200 participants (Wave 1 mean age = 15 years, 10 months). In each wave, multiple measures of substance use, externalizing symptoms, and internalizing symptoms were gathered, typically from multiple reporters. Multilevel modeling revealed that greater levels of romantic involvement in adolescence were associated with higher levels of substance use and externalizing symptoms but became associated with lower levels in adulthood. Having a romantic partner was associated with greater levels of substance use, externalizing symptoms, and internalizing symptoms in adolescence but was associated with lower levels in young adulthood. The findings were not consistent with a social timetable theory, which predicts that nonnormative involvement is associated with poor adjustment. Instead, the findings are consistent with a developmental task theory, which predicts that precocious romantic involvement undermines development and adaptation, but when romantic involvement becomes a salient developmental task in adulthood, it is associated with positive adjustment. Discussion focuses on the processes that may underlie the changing nature of the association between romantic involvement and adjustment.

Do adolescent drug use consequences predict externalizing and internalizing problems in emerging adulthood as well as traditional drug use measures in a Hispanic sample?

The present study compares statistical models for three conceptualizations of drug use in 11th grade (past 30 day ever/never use, past 30 day frequency of drug use and past 30 day drug use consequences) with externalizing and internalizing problems in emerging adulthood when controlling for age, academic achievement and socioeconomic status in a Hispanic sample. Multivariate logistic regression models for the different drug use variables were compared when modeling weapon carrying, arrest, multiple lifetime sex partners, drug/alcohol use before sex and condom use in emerging adulthood. A multivariate linear regression model was used to model depression in emerging adulthood as a function of drug use measurement controlling for other covariates and depression in adolescence. Our findings suggest that any conceptualization of drug use will produce equitable results and model fit statistics when examining externalizing problems. However, when investigating internalizing problems, such as depression, lower frequency drug use-and not high frequency-was more strongly associated with depression whereas experiencing high levels of drug use consequences-and not low levels of consequences-was associated with depression in emerging adulthood despite similar model fit values. Variation between drug use and the experience of drug use consequences may lead to misspecification of "at-risk" subgroups of drug users. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Identifying theoretical predictors of risky alcohol use among noncollege emerging adults

OBJECTIVE

Studies show that emerging adults who do not obtain postsecondary education are at greater risk for developing alcohol use disorders later in life relative to their college-attending peers. Research examining constructs amenable to change within this population is necessary to inform intervention efforts. Thus, the current study aimed to identify psychosocial correlates of risky alcohol use for noncollege emerging adults. A secondary goal was to examine whether gender moderated the relationships between the psychosocial constructs and alcohol use.

METHOD

Participants were a nationally representative sample of noncollege emerging adults (18-22 years old) who reported using alcohol in the past year, recruited through an established Internet panel (N = 209; 125 women). A path model was used to examine the relationship between theoretically derived constructs (expectancies, attitudes, normative beliefs) and risky (peak) drinking. A second model examined a multigroup solution to assess moderating effects of gender.

RESULTS

The full-sample model revealed significant associations between attitudes toward drinking and risky drinking. The model assessing gender differences revealed association between normative beliefs and drinking for women but not men, whereas attitudes were significantly associated with risky drinking for both men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of attitudes and, for women, descriptive norms in the etiology of risky drinking among noncollege emerging adults, which emphasizes their potential utility in the development and adaptation of interventions for this at-risk population.

Alcohol and tobacco use disorder comorbidity in young adults and the influence of romantic partner environments

BACKGROUND

Although there is considerable evidence that the development of tobacco dependence (TD) and that of alcohol use disorder (AUD) are intertwined, less is known about the comorbid development of these disorders. The present study examines tobacco dependence and alcohol use disorder comorbidity in young adulthood within the context of romantic partner relationships.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a contemporary, ethnically diverse, and gender balanced longitudinal panel including 808 participants. A typological person-centered approach was used to assign participants to four outcome groups: no disorder, tobacco dependence (TD) only, alcohol use disorder (AUD) only, and comorbid (both). Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the association between partner general and substance-specific environments and single or dual alcohol and tobacco use disorder diagnosis in young adulthood (ages 24-33, n=628). Previous heavy alcohol and tobacco use were controlled for, as were dispositional characteristics, gender, ethnicity, adult SES, and adult depression.

RESULTS

Greater partner conflict increased the likelihood of being comorbid compared to having TD only or AUD only. Having a smoking partner increased the likelihood of being comorbid compared to having AUD only, but having a drinking partner did not significantly distinguish being comorbid from having TD only.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings demonstrated the utility of a comorbidity-based, person-centered approach and the influence of general and tobacco-specific, but not alcohol-specific, partner environments on comorbid alcohol and tobacco use disorders in young adulthood.

Growth of men's alcohol use in early adulthood: intimate partners' influence

The present study examined the effects of intimate partners' alcohol use on the developmental trajectories of men's alcohol use across their early to late 20s. Longitudinal data from a community sample of 110 at-risk young men and their intimate partners were analyzed using latent growth modeling. Results indicated that, in general, men showed a significant linear decrease in alcohol use across their 20s, as expected. However, partners' alcohol use had significant and positive effects on men's concurrent alcohol use across their 20s, regardless of relationship status, even after taking into account autoregressive effects of men's own alcohol use and their antisocial behavior. Furthermore, a new partner's alcohol use had a significantly greater influence on the man's alcohol use in his late 20s compared to a partner's alcohol use from intact relationships. Findings from the present study highlight the importance of considering intimate partners' alcohol use as part of the proximal psychosocial environment influencing men's alcohol use during early adulthood. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts are discussed.

The effect of general and drug-specific family environments on comorbid and drug-specific problem behavior: a longitudinal examination

Previous research has shown that the development of alcohol and tobacco dependence is linked and that both are influenced by environmental and intrapersonal factors, many of which likely interact over the life course. The present study examines the effects of general and alcohol- and tobacco-specific environmental influences in the family of origin (ages 10-18) and family of cohabitation (ages 27-30) on problem behavior and alcohol- and tobacco-specific outcomes at age 33. General environmental factors include family management, conflict, bonding, and involvement. Alcohol environment includes parental alcohol use, parents' attitudes toward alcohol, and children's involvement in family drinking. Tobacco-specific environment is assessed analogously. Additionally, analyses include the effects of childhood behavioral disinhibition, initial behavior problems, and age 18 substance use. Analyses were based on 469 participants drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) sample. Results indicated that (a) environmental factors within the family of origin and the family of cohabitation are both important predictors of problem behavior at age 33; (b) family of cohabitation influences partially mediate the effects of family of origin environments; (c) considerable continuity exists between adolescent and adult general and tobacco (but not alcohol) environments; age 18 alcohol and tobacco use partially mediates these relationships; and (d) childhood behavioral disinhibition contributed to age 33 outcomes, over and above the effects of family of cohabitation mediators. Implications for preventive interventions are discussed.

Patterns of alcohol use and related consequences in non-college-attending emerging adults

OBJECTIVE

Among emerging adults, those who do not attain postsecondary education are at highest risk for experiencing longterm problems related to alcohol use, including alcohol dependence. The purpose of the current study was to identify latent classes of alcohol users among non-college-attending youth and examine correlates of class membership.

METHOD

Screening criteria were used to select emerging adults between ages 18 and 22 years with no postsecondary education (N = 264) from a prerecruited probability-based Web panel. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify common patterns of alcohol use. Grouping variables and demographic variables were added to the LCA model, and rates of alcohol-related consequences across the LCA classes were compared.

RESULTS

Four classes of drinking patterns were identified: (a) current nondrinkers (34%), (b) weekend light drinkers (38%), (c) weekend risky drinkers (23%), and (d) daily drinkers (5%). Class membership was associated with early onset of alcohol use (age 14 or younger), marital status, employment status, and urban residency (area populated by 50,000 or more people). The number of latent classes did not differ across sex and legal drinking age status, although proportions of subjects within classes varied by age. Weekend risky drinkers were most likely to report sickness and feelings of guilt because of drinking, whereas daily drinkers were most likely to report getting into fights, driving a car after drinking, and missing work.

CONCLUSIONS

Similar to college samples of emerging adults, most of this noncollege sample belonged to latent classes defined by rare or moderate alcohol use. Nevertheless, nearly a quarter of the sample reported high-risk drinking behaviors, and a small number reported drinking alcohol on a daily basis. Both of these classes were at elevated risk for experiencing a number of alcohol-related consequences.

Methamphetamine use among rural White and Native American adolescents: an application of the stress process model

Methamphetamine use has been identified as having significant adverse health consequences, yet we know little about the correlates of its use. Additionally, research has found that Native Americans are at the highest risk for methamphetamine use. Our exploratory study, informed by the stress process model, examines stress and stress buffering factors associated with methamphetamine use among a cross-sectional sample of rural White and Native American adolescents (n = 573). Results of logistic regression analyses revealed mixed support for the stress process model; while stress exposure and family methamphetamine use predicted past year methamphetamine use, the inclusion of these variables failed to attenuate the association between race and past year use.

Romantic relationships and health among African American young adults: linking patterns of relationship quality over time to changes in physical and mental health

With trends in delayed marriage, scholars have begun to explore how a wide range of romantic relationships contribute to health. Although a welcome shift, this largely cross-sectional work ignores potential (in)stability in relationship supports and stressors thought to affect health. Using Family and Community Health Study data on 634 African American young adults, we extend this work by demonstrating the value of a holistic, multidimensional assessment of relationship quality for understanding the link between relationships and health. In addition, however, we also show that there is substantial instability in both the presence and quality of romantic relationships during the transition to adulthood. Importantly, particular patterns of instability are uniquely associated with changes in mental and physical health. Given persistent racial inequalities across both relationships and health, such findings prove theoretically and practically important. In particular, they highlight the need for more contextualized, life course-sensitive approaches in future work.

Educational Paths and Substance Use from Adolescence into Early Adulthood

This study examined how substance use trajectories from ages 15 to 23 in a community sample (N=921) were related to educational pathways. Rates of heavy drinking converged across different paths, but starting college at a 2-year college before transferring to a 4-year college was related to later increase in drinking after high school. Higher future educational attainment was negatively associated with high school marijuana use, but marijuana use increased after high school for individuals who went to 4-year colleges compared to those who did not. Noncollege youth had the highest rates of daily cigarette smoking throughout adolescence and early adulthood, while college dropouts had higher rates of smoking than college students who did not drop out. The findings support the need for universal prevention for early adult heavy drinking, addressing increases in drinking and marijuana use in 4-year colleges, and targeting marijuana use and cigarette smoking interventions at noncollege youth and college dropouts.

Cigarette smoking, illicit drug use, and routes of administration among heroin and cocaine users

Cigarette smoking is ubiquitous among illicit drug users. Some have speculated that this may be partially due to similarities in the route of administration. However, research examining the relationship between cigarette smoking and routes of administration of illicit drugs is limited. To address this gap, we investigated sociodemographic and drug use factors associated with cigarette smoking among cocaine and heroin users in the Baltimore, Maryland community (N=576). Regular and heavy cigarette smokers were more likely to be White, have a history of a prior marriage, and have a lower education level. Regular smoking of marijuana and crack was associated with cigarette smoking, but not heavy cigarette smoking. Injection use was more common among heavy cigarette smokers. In particular, regular cigarette smokers were more likely to have a lifetime history of regularly injecting heroin. Optimal prevention and treatment outcomes can only occur through a comprehensive understanding of the interrelations between different substances of abuse.

Marriage and mental health among young adults

Marriage is widely thought to confer mental health benefits, but little is known about how this apparent benefit may vary across the life course. Early marriage, which is nonnormative, could have no, or even negative, mental health consequences for young adults. Using survey data from waves 1 and 3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 11,695), I find that married young adults exhibit levels of psychological distress that are similar to those of young adults in any kind of romantic relationship. Married and engaged young adults also report lower frequency of drunkenness than those who are not in a romantic relationship. Married young adults, especially those who first married at ages 22 to 26, report higher life satisfaction than those in other type of romantic relationships,those in no romantic relationship, and those who married prior to age 22. Explanations for these findings are examined, and their implications are discussed.

Romantic relationship status changes and substance use among 18- to 20-year-olds

OBJECTIVE

Changes in romantic relationship status are common in emerging adulthood and may be linked to changes in substance use. This study tested the hypothesis that entry into relationships or transitioning to a more committed status leads to decreases in substance use and that dissolution of relationships or transitioning to a less committed status results in increases in substance use.

METHOD

Data were from a community sample of 939 individuals. Substance use (heavy drinking, marijuana use, and cigarette smoking) and relationship status (single, in a romantic relationship but not cohabiting, cohabiting, or married) were assessed at the beginning and end of three 6-month intervals between the ages of 18 and 20 years. Models were estimated to assess the association between transitions in relationship status and substance use, adjusting for prior levels of use.

RESULTS

There were increases in heavy drinking, marijuana use, and cigarette smoking associated with dissolution of a romantic relationship, as well as increases in marijuana use and cigarette smoking associated with switching partners within a 6-month interval. Mediation analyses found some support for increases in both depressive symptoms and exposure to substance-using peers partially accounting for these associations. Decreases in substance use were not found for individuals entering into a new relationship or transitioning to a more committed relationship status. In fact, cigarette smoking increased among those who went from being single to being in a romantic relationship compared with those whose relationship status did not change.

CONCLUSIONS

Emerging adults who experience dissolution of romantic relationships or quickly move from one relationship to another experience increased substance use. Both depressive symptoms and changes in peer environments may partially account for these changes in use.

Correlates of alcohol abuse/dependence in early-onset alcohol-using women

Early-onset alcohol use is associated with increased vulnerability to subsequent alcohol abuse and dependence. However, not all early-onset alcohol users develop alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Using a sample of young women from the United States, we identify correlates that contribute to a greater likelihood of AUDs in early-onset alcohol users. Using interview and questionnaire data on participants of the Missouri Adolescent Female Twin Study (MOAFTS), we examine whether measures from domains including sociodemographic, pubertal development, religiosity, educational achievement, adverse life events, internalizing disorders, externalizing disorders, and family history and discipline were associated with development of AUDs in 1,158 women who had their first drink of alcohol prior to age 16. Early-onset drinkers were 3.6 times more likely to meet criteria for AUDs than later onset drinkers. While univariate analyses revealed that a host of correlates were associated with likelihood of AUDs in early-onset drinkers, multivariate analyses suggested that, even after accounting for a particularly early age of onset of drinking, those with a history of physical abuse, cotwin alcohol problems, conduct disorder, regular smoking, older peers, and peer substance use were considerably more likely to meet criteria for AUDs than early-onset drinkers without a lifetime history of these correlates. The progression from first drink to AUDs is complex, and while early age at first drink is a potent risk factor, other aspects of psychopathology, family history, conduct problems, and peer affiliations can exacerbate or alleviate the risk of AUDs in these young female drinkers.