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Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on neurodevelopmental outcome in full-term infants. Nutrients 2010; 2:790-804. [PMID: 22254056 PMCID: PMC3257703 DOI: 10.3390/nu2080790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 07/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It takes more than 20 years before the human brain obtains its complex, adult configuration. Most dramatic developmental changes occur prenatally and early postnatally. During development, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) such as doxosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are accreted in the brain. Since breastfeeding is associated with a better developmental outcome than formula feeding, and human milk in contrast to traditional standard formula contains LCPUFA, the question arose whether LCPUFA supplementation of infant formula may promote the neurodevelopmental outcome. The current paper reviews the evidence available in full-term infants. It concludes that postnatal supplementation of formula with LCPUFA is associated with a beneficial effect on short-term neurodevelopmental outcome. However, no evidence is available that LCPUFA supplementation enhances neurodevelopmental outcome in full-term infants beyond the age of four months. Nevertheless, it should be realized that very limited information is available on the effect of LCPUFA supplementation on neurodevelopmental outcome at school age or later. It is conceivable that effects of LCPUFA supplementation first emerge or re-emerge at school age when more complex neural functions are expressed.
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102
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Agostoni C. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): from the maternal-foetal dyad to the complementary feeding period. Early Hum Dev 2010; 86 Suppl 1:3-6. [PMID: 20133092 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) status of infants at birth and maternal DHA intake during pregnancy are interconnected and associated with infants' developmental performance. High-dosage supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs; particularly DHA) in mothers, started at mid-pregnancy, has been associated with long-term positive effects on intelligence quotient scores of neurodevelopment. Poor maternal and infant DHA status could partly contribute to the observed association between certain conditions and impaired developmental outcome. The dietary DHA enrichment of human milk seems to be functionally effective in breastfed infants only when lactating mothers start supplementation during pregnancy. Results from trials in artificially fed infants are dissimilar and could be related in part to uninvestigated covariates such as infant DHA status at birth and the individual genetic background. Nevertheless, DHA supplementation during the complementary feeding period seems to be effective in improving neurofunctional and visual performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Agostoni
- Department of Maternal and Pediatric Sciences, Fondazione IRCCS Ospedale Cà Granda-Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, University of Milan, Via della Commenda 9, Milan, Italy.
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103
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Brand A, Crawford MA, Yavin E. Retailoring docosahexaenoic acid-containing phospholipid species during impaired neurogenesis following omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid deprivation. J Neurochem 2010; 114:1393-404. [PMID: 20557429 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06866.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Diminished levels of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3), the major fatty acid (FA) synthesized from alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), have been implicated in functional impairment in the developing and adult brain. We have now examined the changes in phospholipid (PL) molecular species in the developing postnatal cortex, a region recently shown to be affected by a robust aberration in neuronal cell migration, after maternal diet alpha-linolenic acid deprivation (Yavin et al. (2009)Neuroscience162(4),1011). The frontal cortex PL composition of 1- to 4-week-old rats was analyzed by gas chromatography and electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry. Changes in the cortical PL molecular species profile by dietary means appear very specific as 22:6n-3 was exclusively substituted by docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6). However, molecular species were conserved with respect to the combination of specific polar head groups (i.e. ethanolamine and serine) in sn-3 and defined saturated/mono-unsaturated FA in sn-1 position even when the sn-2 FA moiety underwent diet-induced changes. Our results suggest that substitution of docosahexaenoic acid by docosapentaenoic acid is tightly regulated presumably to maintain a proper biophysical characteristic of membrane PL molecular species. The importance of this conservation may underscore the possible biochemical consequences of this substitution in regulating certain functions in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Brand
- Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition, London Metropolitan University, London, UK
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104
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Birch EE, Carlson SE, Hoffman DR, Fitzgerald-Gustafson KM, Fu VLN, Drover JR, Castañeda YS, Minns L, Wheaton DKH, Mundy D, Marunycz J, Diersen-Schade DA. The DIAMOND (DHA Intake And Measurement Of Neural Development) Study: a double-masked, randomized controlled clinical trial of the maturation of infant visual acuity as a function of the dietary level of docosahexaenoic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 91:848-59. [PMID: 20130095 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The range of human milk docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentrations worldwide is much broader than the range explored in randomized clinical trials to date. OBJECTIVE The primary objective was to determine the effect of 4 amounts of DHA supplementation on the visual acuity of formula-fed infants at 12 mo of age. Secondary objectives were to evaluate visual acuity maturation, red blood cell fatty acids, tolerance, anthropometric measures, and adverse events. DESIGN This double-masked, randomized trial was conducted at 2 sites (Dallas and Kansas City). Three hundred forty-three healthy, term, formula-fed infants were enrolled at 1-9 d of age and were randomly assigned to be fed 1 of the following 4 infant formulas containing equivalent nutrient amounts, except for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: control (0% DHA), 0.32% DHA, 0.64% DHA, or 0.96% DHA; DHA-supplemented formulas also provided 0.64% arachidonic acid. Visual acuity was measured by visual evoked potentials in 244 infants who completed the 12-mo primary outcome examination. RESULTS Infants fed control formula had significantly poorer visual evoked potential visual acuity at 12 mo of age than did infants who received any of the DHA-supplemented formulas (P < 0.001). There were no significant differences in visual evoked potential visual acuity between the 3 amounts of DHA supplementation for either site at any age tested. CONCLUSIONS DHA supplementation of infant formula at 0.32% of total fatty acids improves visual acuity. Higher amounts of DHA supplementation were not associated with additional improvement of visual acuity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00753818.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen E Birch
- Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX 75231, USA.
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105
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Rantakari P, Lagerbohm H, Kaimainen M, Suomela JP, Strauss L, Sainio K, Pakarinen P, Poutanen M. Hydroxysteroid (17{beta}) dehydrogenase 12 is essential for mouse organogenesis and embryonic survival. Endocrinology 2010; 151:1893-901. [PMID: 20130115 DOI: 10.1210/en.2009-0929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxysteroid (17beta) dehydrogenases (HSD17Bs) have a significant role in steroid metabolism by catalyzing the conversion between 17-keto and 17beta-hydroxysteroids. However, several studies in vitro have shown that some of these enzymes may also be involved in other metabolic pathways. Among these enzymes, HSD17B12 has been shown to be involved in both the biosynthesis of estradiol and the elongation of the essential very long fatty acids in vitro and in vivo. To investigate the function of mammalian HSD17B12 in vivo, we generated mice with a null mutation of the Hsd17b12 gene (HSD17B12KO mice) by using a gene-trap vector, resulting in the expression of the lacZ gene of the trapped allele. The beta-galactosidase staining of the heterozygous HSD17B12KO mice revealed that Hsd17b12 is expressed widely in the embryonic day (E) 7.5-E9.5 embryos, with the highest expression in the neural tissue. The HSD17B12KO mice die at E9.5 at latest and present severe developmental defects. Analysis of the knockout embryos revealed that the embryos initiate gastrulation, but organogenesis is severely disrupted. As a result, the E8.5-E9.5 embryos were void of all normal morphological structures. In addition, the inner cell mass of knockout blastocysts showed decreased proliferation capacity in vitro, and the amount of arachidonic acid was significantly decreased in heterozygous HSD17B12 ES cells. This, together with the expression pattern, suggests that in mouse, the HSD17B12 is involved in the synthesis of arachidonic acid and is essential for normal neuronal development during embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Rantakari
- Department of Physiology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, FIN-20520 Turku, Finland
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106
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Li Y, Mu H, Andersen JET, Xu X, Meyer O, Ørngreen A. New human milk fat substitutes from butterfat to improve fat absorption. Food Res Int 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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107
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Murray-Taylor FM, Ho YY, Densupsoontorn N, Chang CL, Deckelbaum RJ, Seo T. n-3, but not n-6 lipid particle uptake requires cell surface anchoring. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 392:135-9. [PMID: 20056109 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.12.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 12/31/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are emerging as bioactive agents protective against cardiovascular disease. However, their cellular delivery pathways are poorly defined. Here we questioned whether the uptake of n-3 triglyceride-rich particles (TGRP) is mediated by cell surface proteoglycans (PG) using LDL receptor (LDLR)+/+ and LDLR-/- cell models. LDLR+/+ but not LDLR-/- cells showed higher n-6 over n-3 TGRP uptake. Removal of cell surface proteins and receptors by pronase markedly enhanced the uptake of n-3 but not n-6 TGRP. Lactoferrin blockage of apoE-mediated pathways decreased the uptake of n-6 TGRP by up to 85% (p<0.05) but had insignificant effect on n-3 TGRP uptake. PG removal by sodium chlorate in LDLR+/+ cells substantially reduced n-3 TGRP uptake but had little effect on n-6 TGRP uptake. Thus, while n-6 TGRP uptake is preferentially mediated by LDLR-dependent pathways, the uptake of n-3 TGRP depends more on PG and non-LDLR cell surface anchoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith M Murray-Taylor
- Institute of Human Nutrition, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, USA
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108
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Pavlovski CJ. Screening for essential fatty acid deficiency in at risk infants. Med Hypotheses 2009; 73:910-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.06.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2009] [Accepted: 06/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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109
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Dobkins KR, Bosworth RG, McCleery JP. Effects of gestational length, gender, postnatal age, and birth order on visual contrast sensitivity in infants. J Vis 2009; 9:19.1-21. [PMID: 19810800 DOI: 10.1167/9.10.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate effects of visual experience versus preprogrammed mechanisms on visual development, we used multiple regression analysis to determine the extent to which a variety of variables (that differ in the extent to which they are tied to visual experience) predict luminance and chromatic (red/green) contrast sensitivity (CS), which are mediated by the magnocellular (M) and parvocellular (P) subcortical pathways, respectively. Our variables included gestational length (GL), birth weight (BW), gender, postnatal age (PNA), and birth order (BO). Two-month-olds (n = 60) and 6-month-olds (n = 122) were tested. Results revealed that (1) at 2 months, infants with longer GL have higher luminance CS; (2) at both ages, CS significantly increases over a approximately 21-day range of PNA, but this effect is stronger in 2- than 6-month-olds and stronger for chromatic than luminance CS; (3) at 2 months, boys have higher luminance CS than girls; and (4) at 2 months, firstborn infants have higher CS, while at 6 months, non-firstborn infants have higher CS. The results for PNA/GL are consistent with the possibility that P pathway development is more influenced by variables tied to visual experience (PNA), while M pathway development is more influenced by variables unrelated to visual experience (GL). Other variables, including prenatal environment, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen R Dobkins
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.
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110
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Or-Rashid MM, Wright TC, McBride BW. Microbial fatty acid conversion within the rumen and the subsequent utilization of these fatty acids to improve the healthfulness of ruminant food products. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 84:1033-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2169-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2009] [Revised: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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111
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Hoffman DR, Boettcher JA, Diersen-Schade DA. Toward optimizing vision and cognition in term infants by dietary docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid supplementation: a review of randomized controlled trials. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2009; 81:151-8. [PMID: 19505812 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The question of whether a dietary supply of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) imparts advantages to visual or cognitive development in term infants has been debated for many years. DHA and ARA are present in human milk, and nursing infants consume these fatty acids needed for rapid synthesis of cell membranes, particularly neural cells. The reported mean DHA and ARA levels of human milk worldwide are 0.32% and 0.47% of total fatty acids, respectively. Prior to 2002 in the US, formula-fed infants did not receive these fatty acids and relied solely on endogenous conversion of the dietary essential omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids, alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids, to DHA and ARA, respectively. Formula-fed infants were found to have significantly less accretion of DHA in brain cortex after death than breastfed infants. Numerous studies have found positive correlations between blood DHA levels and improvements in cognitive or visual function outcomes of breastfed and formula-fed infants. Results of randomized controlled clinical trials of term formula-fed infants evaluating functional benefits of dietary DHA and ARA have been mixed, likely due to study design heterogeneity. A comparison of visual and cognitive outcomes in these trials suggests that dietary DHA level is particularly relevant. Trials with formulas providing close to the worldwide human milk mean of 0.32% DHA were more likely to yield functional benefits attributable to DHA. We agree with several expert groups in recommending that infants receive at least 0.3% DHA, with at least 0.3% ARA, in infant feedings; in addition, some clinical evidence suggests that an ARA:DHA ratio greater than 1:1 is associated with improved cognitive outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis R Hoffman
- Retina Foundation of the Southwest, 9900 N. Central Expwy, Dallas, TX 75231, USA.
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112
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113
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DHA and ARA and visual development - Scientific substantiation of a health claim related to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) and visual development pursuant to Article14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA J 2009. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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114
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Lien VW, Clandinin MT. Dietary Assessment of Arachidonic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Intake in 4–7 Year-Old Children. J Am Coll Nutr 2009; 28:7-15. [DOI: 10.1080/07315724.2009.10719755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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115
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Engström K, Saldeen AS, Yang B, Mehta JL, Saldeen T. Effect of fish oils containing different amounts of EPA, DHA, and antioxidants on plasma and brain fatty acids and brain nitric oxide synthase activity in rats. Ups J Med Sci 2009; 114:206-13. [PMID: 19961266 PMCID: PMC2852776 DOI: 10.3109/03009730903268958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interest in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) has expanded significantly in the last few years, due to their many positive effects described. Consequently, the interest in fish oil supplementation has also increased, and many different types of fish oil supplements can be found on the market. Also, it is well known that these types of fatty acids are very easily oxidized, and that stability among supplements varies greatly. AIMS OF THE STUDY In this pilot study we investigated the effects of two different types of natural fish oils containing different amounts of the n-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and antioxidants on plasma and brain fatty acids, blood lipids, vitamin E, and in vivo lipid peroxidation, as well as brain nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity, an enzyme which has been shown to be important for memory and learning ability. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups and fed regular rat chow pellets enriched with 5% (w/w) of butter (control group), a natural fish oil (17.4% EPA and 11.7% DHA, referred to as EPA-rich), and a natural fish oil rich in DHA (7.7% EPA and 28.0% DHA, referred to as DHA-rich). Both of the fish oils were stabilized by a commercial antioxidant protection system (Pufanox) at production. The fourth group received the same DHA-rich oil, but without Pufanox stabilization (referred to as unstable). As an index of stability of the oils, their peroxide values were repeatedly measured during 9 weeks. The dietary treatments continued until sacrifice, after 10 days. RESULTS Stability of the oils varied greatly. It took the two stabilized oils 9 weeks to reach the same peroxide value as the unstable oil reached after only a few days. Both the stabilized EPA- and DHA-rich diets lowered the triacylglycerols and total cholesterol compared to control (-45%, P < 0.05 and -54%, P < 0.001; -31%, P < 0.05 and -25%, P < 0.01) and so did the unstable oil, but less efficiently. Only the unstable oil increased in vivo lipid peroxidation significantly compared to control (+40%, P < 0.001). Most of the fatty acids in the plasma phospholipids were significantly affected by both the EPA- and DHA-rich diets compared to control, reflecting their specific fatty acid pattern. The unstable oil diet resulted in smaller changes, especially in n-3 PUFAs. In the brain phospholipids the changes were less pronounced, and only the diet enriched with the stabilized DHA-rich oil resulted in a significantly greater incorporation of DHA (+13%, P < 0.01), as well as total n-3 PUFAs (+13%, P < 0.01) compared to control. Only the stabilized DHA-rich oil increased the brain NOS activity (+33%, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Both the EPA- and DHA-rich diets affected the blood lipids in a similarly positive manner, and they both had a large impact on plasma phospholipid fatty acids. It was only the unstable oil that increased in vivo lipid peroxidation. However, the intake of DHA was more important than that of EPA for brain phospholipid DHA enrichment and brain NOS activity, and the stability of the fish oil was also important for these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Engström
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Uppsala, UppsalaSweden
| | - Ann-Sofie Saldeen
- Department of Pediatrics, Rigshospitalet, Bispebjerg Hospital, CopenhagenDenmark
| | - Baichun Yang
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, ARUSA
| | - Jawahar L. Mehta
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, ARUSA
| | - Tom Saldeen
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Uppsala, UppsalaSweden
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116
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House SH. Schoolchildren, maternal nutrition and generating healthy brains: the importance of lifecycle education for fertility, health and peace. Nutr Health 2009; 20:51-76. [PMID: 19326720 DOI: 10.1177/026010600902000106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In order to generate healthy brains, the earlier in life that children develop a healthy lifestyle the better. At home and at school, with a good diet and physical activity, children need to experience and to understand the value of healthy metabolism. Continuous education is needed in lifecycle health, with awareness that the most vulnerable phase relates to reproduction. This is the way that most people can become parents of healthy children. Nutrient deficits, toxins, or uro-genital disease, often unnoticed, affect quality of sperm or ovum, and subsequent development. Early errors can have the most pronounced effect. Gene-switches are being set early in life. Any early flaw can be magnified by growth. Moreover children's habits become set and young couples are too busy to learn and adapt. Many are liable to unintended pregnancy. Adoption of a healthy lifestyle at a young age is the most reliable route to producing healthy babies. The mother's state throughout pregnancy, emotions/hormones included, naturally continues to powerfully affect her child's development, therefore future physical and mental health, behaviour and ability. There has recently been a serious increase in babies conceived by schoolchildren, as well as a shift by working women towards childbearing in their late thirties or more. A return towards childbearing in the twenties and early thirties can reduce risks for the child. The mother needs to build her appropriate body-stores--vitamins and minerals, proteins, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and other essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)--to ensure optimal development of her child. Replenishment of reserves is important for maternal health and before bearing another child. A restorative time of three years is desirable. Governments and school teachers need to guide and encourage parents in this health education and practice, and to use their authority to achieve it in schools. Empowerment with knowledge is the one way to fend off the growing pandemic of mental ill health and related disorders, and to make the most of a nation's genetic potential. There could be no better investment financially, let alone in enhancing people's lives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon H House
- The McCarrison Society for Nutrition & Health, International Society of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Medicine, Association for Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Health, North America.
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117
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Abstract
Converging evidence suggests that a neurodevelopmental disruption plays a role in the vulnerability to schizophrenia. The authors review evidence supporting in utero exposure to nutritional deficiency as a determinant of schizophrenia. We first describe studies demonstrating that early gestational exposure to the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944--1945 and to a severe famine in China are each associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia in offspring. The plausibility of several candidate micronutrients as potential risk factors for schizophrenia and the biological mechanisms that may underlie these associations are then reviewed. These nutrients include folate, essential fatty acids, retinoids, vitamin D, and iron. Following this discussion, we describe the methodology and results of an epidemiologic study based on a large birth cohort that has tested the association between prenatal homocysteine, an indicator of serum folate, and schizophrenia risk. The study capitalized on the use of archived prenatal serum specimens that make it possible to obtain direct, prospective biomarkers of prenatal insults, including levels of various nutrients during pregnancy. Finally, we discuss several strategies for subjecting the prenatal nutritional hypothesis of schizophrenia to further testing. These approaches include direct assessment of additional prenatal nutritional biomarkers in relation to schizophrenia in large birth cohorts, studies of epigenetic effects of prenatal starvation, association studies of genes relevant to folate and other micronutrient deficiencies, and animal models. Given the relatively high prevalence of nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy, this work has the potential to offer substantial benefits for the prevention of schizophrenia in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan S. Brown
- College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Mailman School of Public Health, 1051 Riverside Drive, Unit 23, New York, NY,To whom correspondence should be addressed; tel: 212-543-5629, fax: 212-543-6225, e-mail:
| | - Ezra S. Susser
- College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Mailman School of Public Health, 1051 Riverside Drive, Unit 23, New York, NY
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118
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Li P, Woo Kim S, Li X, Datta S, Pond WG, Wu G. Dietary supplementation with cholesterol and docosahexaenoic acid increases the activity of the arginine-nitric oxide pathway in tissues of young pigs. Nitric Oxide 2008; 19:259-65. [PMID: 18555806 PMCID: PMC2574886 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2008.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2008] [Revised: 05/11/2008] [Accepted: 05/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO), synthesized from l-arginine by tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)-dependent NO synthase (NOS), is critical for neurological and muscular development and function. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that cholesterol and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may modulate the arginine-NO pathway in tissues of the young pig. Sixteen newborn pigs were nursed by sows for 24h and then assigned to one of four treatment groups, representing supplementation with 0.0%, 0.2% cholesterol, 0.2% DHA, or cholesterol plus DHA to the basal milk-formula. All piglets were euthanized at 49 days of age. Brain, liver and gastrocnemius muscle were analyzed for BH4, NADPH and arginine, GTP cyclohydrolase-I (GTP-CH) and NOS activities, and NOS protein isoforms. Hepatic NOS activity was below the detection limit in all pigs. DHA supplementation (P<0.01) increased GTP-CH activities, as well as BH4 and NADPH concentrations in brain, liver, and muscle by 24-46%, while enhancing (P<0.05) NOS activities by 45-48% in brain and muscle. Dietary cholesterol supplementation increased (P<0.05) NOS and GTP-CH activities by 17-26% in brain but had no effect in liver or muscle. The enhanced NOS activity in the brain or muscle of cholesterol- or DHA-supplemented piglets was attributable to the combined effects of increased eNOS and nNOS activation (changes in phosphorylation levels) and total iNOS protein. Additionally, DHA and cholesterol enhanced (P<0.05) arginine concentrations in brain (35-42%), but not in liver or muscle. These tissue-specific effects of cholesterol and DHA on NO synthesis may play an important role in postnatal growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Department of Animal Science and Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Sung Woo Kim
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Xilong Li
- Department of Animal Science and Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Sujay Datta
- Department of Animal Science and Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
- Department of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Wilson G. Pond
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Guoyao Wu
- Department of Animal Science and Faculty of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
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119
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Dietary supplementation with cholesterol and docosahexaenoic acid affects concentrations of amino acids in tissues of young pigs. Amino Acids 2008; 37:709-16. [PMID: 18972185 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-008-0196-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2008] [Accepted: 10/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are important nutrients for neural development of infants. However, little is known about the effect of cholesterol or DHA on concentrations of amino acids (AA) in neonatal tissues. This study was conducted with the piglet (an established model for studying human infant nutrition) to test the hypothesis that dietary supplementation with the lipids may modulate AA availability in tissues. Sixteen newborn pigs were nursed by sows for 24 h and then assigned to one of four treatment groups, representing supplementation with 0.0% (control), 0.2% cholesterol, 0.2% DHA, or cholesterol plus DHA to the basal milk-formula. All piglets were euthanized at 49 days of age. In brain, cholesterol supplementation reduced (P < 0.05) concentrations of glutamate, serine, glutamine, threonine, beta-alanine, alanine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, and gamma-aminobutyrate but increased (P < 0.05) concentrations of glycine and lysine, whereas DHA supplementation similarly affected (P < 0.05) concentrations of the same AA (except for isoleucine and lysine) and taurine. In addition, concentrations of most AA in liver, muscle and plasma were substantially altered by dietary supplementation of cholesterol and DHA in a tissue-dependent manner. Further, DHA reduced concentrations of carnosine in skeletal muscle, as well as ammonia in both plasma and brain. The results reveal that cholesterol and DHA can regulate AA metabolism and availability in various tissues of piglets. These novel findings have important implications for designing the next generation of infant formula to optimize neonatal growth and development.
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Sanjurjo Crespo P, Trebolazabala Quirante N, Aldámiz-Echevarría Azuara L, Castaño González L, Prieto Perera JA, Andrade Lodeiro F. [n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in plasma at birth and one year of age and relationship with feeding]. An Pediatr (Barc) 2008; 68:570-5. [PMID: 18559195 DOI: 10.1157/13123288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Compare the variations of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) levels at birth and at the first year of age in children on extended breast-feeding, medium term breast-feeding and formula feeding. PATIENTS 77 healthy term infants divided in three groups: A (N=25): extended breast-feeding (more than 6 months), B (N=26): medium term breast-feeding (more than 3 and less than 5 months) and C (N=26): exclusive formula feeding. Fatty acids in plasma were measured at birth and at the first year of age. RESULTS There were no differences in the levels at birth. However, there is a significant decrease in the proportion of the main LCPUFA, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA), between birth and the first year of age. At one year of age, the percentage of DHA in Group A differs significantly between the other two: 2.46+/-0.84 vs. 1.80+/-0.48 and 1.89+/-0.75 (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS 1. At birth, there are no differences in LCPUFA. 2. A significant decrease in the main LCPUFA is observed with age. 3. The extended breast-feeding group shows higher DHA levels than the other two. Therefore, breast-feeding for more than 6 months is required to achieve higher plasma DHA values.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Sanjurjo Crespo
- Departamento de Pediatría, Hospital de Cruces, Barakaldo, Vizcaya, España.
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Burks W, Jones SM, Berseth CL, Harris C, Sampson HA, Scalabrin DMF. Hypoallergenicity and effects on growth and tolerance of a new amino acid-based formula with docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid. J Pediatr 2008; 153:266-71. [PMID: 18534230 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2007] [Revised: 12/12/2007] [Accepted: 02/21/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In study 1, to compare the effect on growth in healthy infants of a new amino acid-based formula (AAF) and a control extensively hydrolyzed formula (EHF), with both docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) at levels similar to those in human milk worldwide. In study 2, to evaluate the hypoallergenicity of this new AAF in infants and children with confirmed cow's milk allergy (CMA). STUDY DESIGN In study 1, a total of 165 healthy, full-term, formula-fed infants randomly received the new AAF or control formula. Anthropometric measurements, tolerance, and adverse events were recorded throughout the study. Plasma amino acid profiles were evaluated in a subset of the infants. In study 2, the hypoallergenicity of the new AAF was evaluated in 32 infants and children using a double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge; an open challenge; and a 7-day feeding. RESULTS In study 1, overall growth, tolerance, and safety outcomes were similar in both groups. In study 2, 29 of the 32 subjects completed both challenges; no allergic reaction was seen in any of the 32 subjects. CONCLUSIONS The new AAF with DHA and ARA at levels similar to those in human milk worldwide is hypoallergenic. It also is safe and supports growth in healthy, term infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley Burks
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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122
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Hanebutt FL, Demmelmair H, Schiessl B, Larqué E, Koletzko B. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) transfer across the placenta. Clin Nutr 2008; 27:685-93. [PMID: 18639956 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2008.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Fetal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) supply during pregnancy is of major importance, particularly with respect to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) that is an important component of the nervous system cell membranes. Growing evidence points to direct effects of DHA status on visual and cognitive outcomes in the offspring. Furthermore, DHA supply in pregnancy reduces the risk of preterm delivery. Because of limited fetal capacity to synthesize LC-PUFA, the fetus depends on LC-PUFA transfer across the placenta. Molecular mechanisms of placental LC-PUFA uptake and transport are not fully understood, but it has been clearly demonstrated that there is a preferential DHA transfer. Thus, the placenta is of pivotal importance for the selective channeling of DHA from maternal diet and body stores to the fetus. Several studies have associated various fatty acid transport and binding proteins (FATP) with the preferential DHA transfer, but also the importance of the different lipolytic enzymes has been shown. Although the exact mechanisms and the interaction of these factors remains elusive, recent studies have shed more light on the processes involved, and this review summarizes the current understanding of molecular mechanisms of LC-PUFA transport across the placenta and the impact on pregnancy outcome and fetal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne L Hanebutt
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Nutritional Medicine, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Lindwurmstrasse 4, 80337 Munich, Germany
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Koletzko B, Lien E, Agostoni C, Böhles H, Campoy C, Cetin I, Decsi T, Dudenhausen JW, Dupont C, Forsyth S, Hoesli I, Holzgreve W, Lapillonne A, Putet G, Secher NJ, Symonds M, Szajewska H, Willatts P, Uauy R. The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations. J Perinat Med 2008; 36:5-14. [PMID: 18184094 DOI: 10.1515/jpm.2008.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 404] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews current knowledge on the role of the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), in maternal and term infant nutrition as well as infant development. Consensus recommendations and practice guidelines for health-care providers supported by the World Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Early Nutrition Academy, and the Child Health Foundation are provided. The fetus and neonate should receive LC-PUFA in amounts sufficient to support optimal visual and cognitive development. Moreover, the consumption of oils rich in n-3 LC-PUFA during pregnancy reduces the risk for early premature birth. Pregnant and lactating women should aim to achieve an average daily intake of at least 200 mg DHA. For healthy term infants, we recommend and fully endorse breastfeeding, which supplies preformed LC-PUFA, as the preferred method of feeding. When breastfeeding is not possible, we recommend use of an infant formula providing DHA at levels between 0.2 and 0.5 weight percent of total fat, and with the minimum amount of AA equivalent to the contents of DHA. Dietary LC-PUFA supply should continue after the first six months of life, but currently there is not sufficient information for quantitative recommendations.
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125
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House SH. Nurturing the brain nutritionally and emotionally from before conception to late adolescence. Nutr Health 2008; 19:143-61. [PMID: 18309773 DOI: 10.1177/026010600701900217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Sound nurture requires skills concerning nutrition and emotions, skills that are particularly important in key stages relating to brain development. We are recognizing more clearly the way that serious changes from our hunter-gatherer waterside lifestyle are affecting both our diet and our emotional relationships: first the changes a few hundred generations ago in the agricultural revolution: and more recently in the industrial revolution. These effects have been aggravated in the last century by excessively profit-driven intensive farming, and recently by intensive food-marketing--particularly to children. People are gradually becoming aware how very susceptible is the most vulnerable stage of the lifecycle, the reproductive phase. From long before fertilization and conception, parental nutrition affects a person's development and health for life. Controlled trials show marked effects of nurture on the brain's subsequent acuity. Brain structure throughout development has become visible through modern scans, and also brain activity and mental response. The neural tube, forming at around 3 weeks, if undernourished may be inadequately sealed and demarcated, leading to incomplete interconnection between brain regions. Results vary, but can emanate as: autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder (AD/HD); difficulty with relationships and social sense; poor self-control, with risk of violence. Evidence indicates that over 80% of current reproductive hazards, including infertility and malformations, might be prevented purely by sound all-round nurture. Between the embryonic stage and adulthood the brain makes several developmental spurts. Particularly during these spurts, sound nutrition and activity help the brain reach its full genetic potential for capacity, acuity, and connections between regions. From the beginning, hormones and nutrients, or their deficits, are setting gene-switches for life. Good bonding and feeding sets gene-switches positively; shock, stress or poor nutrition, negatively. Forceps delivery combined with serious early separation, correlates with over 4 times the risk of criminal violence by the age of 18. So disruptions of nurture set at risk not only body and brain but a person's very spirituality. Understanding of the biochemistry and epigenetics highlights our urgent need to learn from our evolutionary ways, not only of childbearing, but of a physically active life nourished by foods from the water and the wild.
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126
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Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Muckle G, Kaplan-Estrin M, Ayotte P, Dewailly E. Beneficial effects of a polyunsaturated fatty acid on infant development: evidence from the inuit of arctic Quebec. J Pediatr 2008; 152:356-64. [PMID: 18280840 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2007] [Revised: 06/11/2007] [Accepted: 07/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To examine the relation of cord plasma docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentration to gestation length, birth size, growth, and infant visual acuity, cognitive, and motor development and the effects on growth and development associated with DHA intake from breast-feeding. STUDY DESIGN DHA, other polyunsaturated fatty acids, and 3 environmental contaminants (polychlorinated biphenyls, mercury, and lead) were assessed in cord plasma and maternal plasma and milk in 109 Inuit infants in Arctic Quebec. Multiple regression was used to examine the relation of cord DHA and DHA from breast-feeding on growth and development at 6 and 11 months, after controlling for contaminant exposure and other potential confounders. RESULTS Higher cord DHA concentration was associated with longer gestation, better visual acuity and novelty preference on the Fagan Test at 6 months, and better Bayley Scale mental and psychomotor performance at 11 months. By contrast, DHA from breast-feeding was not related to any indicator of cognitive or motor development in this full-term sample. CONCLUSIONS The association of higher cord DHA concentration with more optimal visual, cognitive, and motor development is consistent with the need for substantial increases in this critically important fatty acid during the third trimester spurt of synaptogenesis in brain and photoreceptor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph L Jacobson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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127
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Simmer K, Patole SK, Rao SC. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008:CD000376. [PMID: 18253974 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd000376.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The n-3 and n-6 fatty acids linolenic acid and linoleic acid are precursors of the n-3 and n-6 long chain fatty acids (LCPUFA). Infant formula has historically only contained the precursor fatty acids. Controversy exists over whether LCPUFA are also essential nutrients in infancy. Over the last few years, some manufacturers have added LCPUFA to formulae and marketed them as providing an advantage for the development of term infants. OBJECTIVES To assess whether supplementation of formula with LCPUFA is safe and of benefit to term infants. SEARCH STRATEGY Eligible studies were identified by searching MEDLINE (March 2007), EMBASE 1980 - 2007, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL, The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2007) and CINAHL (December 1982 - March 2007). Abstracts of the Society for Pediatric Research were hand searched from 1980 to 2006 inclusive. Reference lists of published narrative and systematic reviews were also reviewed. No language restrictions were applied. SELECTION CRITERIA All randomised and quasi randomised trials comparing LCPUFA supplemented formula milk vs. non-supplemented formula milk and with clinical endpoints were reviewed. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Methodological quality of eligible studies was assessed according to allocation concealment, blinding of intervention, blinding of outcome assessment and completeness of follow up. Data were sought regarding effects on visual acuity, neurodevelopmental outcomes and physical growth. When appropriate, meta-analysis was conducted to provide a pooled estimate of effect. Continuous data were analysed using weighted mean difference (WMD). There were no categorical outcomes in this review. MAIN RESULTS Twenty randomised studies were identified. Fourteen were included (n = 1719) and six excluded. Eleven included studies were of good quality. The main outcomes assessed were visual acuity, neurodevelopmental and physical growth. Visual acuity was measured at various stages throughout the first three years of life by nine studies. Visual evoked potential was used to assess visual acuity in five studies. The remaining four used Teller visual acuity cards. The results were inconsistent. Three studies reported beneficial effect of LCPUFA supplementation on visual acuity while the remaining six did not. Neurodevelopmental outcome was measured at different ages throughout the first two years by eleven studies. Bayley scales of infant development (BSID) was used in eight studies. Only one showed beneficial effect of LCPUFA supplementation on BSID scales. Pooled meta-analysis of the data also did not show any statistically significant benefit of LCPUFA supplementation on either mental or psychomotor developmental index of BSID. One study reported better novelty preference measured by Fagan Infant test at nine months in supplemented infants compared with controls. Another study reported better problem solving at 10 months with supplementation. One study used Brunet and Lezine developmental test to assess the developmental quotient and did not find beneficial effects of LCPUFA supplementation. Physical growth was measured at various ages throughout first three years of life by twelve studies. Some studies reported the actual measurements while some reported the rate of growth over a time period. Some studies z scores. Irrespective of the type of LCPUFA supplementation, duration of supplementation and method of assessment, none of the individual studies found beneficial or harmful effects of LCPUFA supplementation. Meta-analysis of relevant studies also did not show any effect of LCPUFA supplementation on growth of term infants. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS The results of most of the well conducted RCTS have not shown beneficial effects of LCPUFA supplementation of formula milk on the physical, visual and neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants born at term. Only one group of researchers have shown some beneficial effects on VEP acuity. Two groups of researchers have shown some beneficial effect on mental development. Routine supplementation of milk formula with LCPUFA to improve the physical, neurodevelopmental or visual outcomes of infants born at term can not be recommended based on the current evidence. Further research is needed to see if the beneficial effects demonstrated by Dallas 2005 trial of Birch et al can be replicated in different settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Simmer
- King Edward Memorial Hospital for Women and Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Neonatal Clinical Care Unit, Bagot Road, Subiaco, WA, Australia 6008.
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128
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Gomez-Pinilla F. The influences of diet and exercise on mental health through hormesis. Ageing Res Rev 2008; 7:49-62. [PMID: 17604236 PMCID: PMC3225189 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2007.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2007] [Revised: 04/17/2007] [Accepted: 04/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
It is likely that the capacity of the brain to remain healthy during aging depends upon its ability to adapt and nurture in response to environmental challenges. In these terms, main principles involved in hormesis can be also applied to understand relationships at a higher level of complexity such as those existing between the CNS and the environment. This review emphasizes the ability of diet, exercise, and other lifestyle adaptations to modulate brain function. Exercise and diet are discussed in relationship to their aptitude to impact systems that sustain synaptic plasticity and mental health, and are therefore important for combating the effects of aging. Mechanisms that interface energy metabolism and synaptic plasticity are discussed, as these are the frameworks for the actions of cellular stress on cognitive function. In particular, neurotrophins are emerging as main factors in the equation that may connect lifestyle factors and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Gomez-Pinilla
- Division of Neurosurgery, Brain Injury Research Center, UCLA Medical School, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Hoffman D, Ziegler E, Mitmesser SH, Harris CL, Diersen-Schade DA. Soy-based infant formula supplemented with DHA and ARA supports growth and increases circulating levels of these fatty acids in infants. Lipids 2008; 43:29-35. [PMID: 17912568 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-007-3116-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2007] [Accepted: 08/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Healthy term infants (n = 244) were randomized to receive: (1) control, soy-based formula without supplementation or (2) docosahexaenoic acid-arachidonic acid (DHA + ARA), soy-based formula supplemented with at least 17 mg DHA/100 kcal (from algal oil) and 34 mg ARA/100 kcal (from fungal oil) in a double-blind, parallel group trial to evaluate safety, benefits, and growth from 14 to 120 days of age. Anthropometric measurements were taken at 14, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days of age and 24-h dietary and tolerance recall were recorded at 30, 60, 90, and 120 days of age. Adverse events were recorded throughout the study. Blood samples were drawn from subsets of 25 infants in each group. Capillary column gas chromatography was used to analyze the percentages of fatty acids in red blood cell (RBC) lipids and plasma phospholipids. Compared with the control group, percentages of fatty acids such as DHA and ARA in total RBC and plasma phospholipids were significantly higher in infants in the DHA + ARA group at 120 days of age (P < 0.001). Growth rates did not differ significantly between feeding groups at any assessed time point. Supplementation did not affect the tolerance of formula or the incidence of adverse events. Feeding healthy term infants soy-based formula supplemented with DHA and ARA from single cell oil sources at concentrations similar to human milk significantly increased circulating levels of DHA and ARA when compared with the control group. Both formulas supported normal growth and were well tolerated.
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130
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Ford DA, Monda JK, Brush RS, Anderson RE, Richards MJ, Fliesler SJ. Lipidomic analysis of the retina in a rat model of Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome: alterations in docosahexaenoic acid content of phospholipid molecular species. J Neurochem 2007; 105:1032-47. [PMID: 18182048 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a complex hereditary disease caused by an enzymatic defect in the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Progressive retinal degeneration occurs in an AY9944-induced rat model of SLOS, with biochemical and electroretinographic hallmarks comparable with the human disease. We evaluated alterations in the non-sterol lipid components of the retina in this model, compared with age-matched controls, using lipidomic analysis. The levels of 16:0-22:6 and 18:0-22:6 phosphatidylcholine molecular species in retinas were less by > 50% and > 33%, respectively, in rats treated for either 2 or 3 months with AY9944. Relative to controls, AY9944 treatment resulted in > 60% less di-22:6 and > 15% less 18:0-22:6 phosphatidylethanolamine molecular species. The predominant phosphatidylserine (PS) molecular species in control retinas were 18:0-22:6 and di-22:6; notably, AY9944 treatment resulted in > 80% less di-22:6 PS, relative to controls. Remarkably, these changes occurred in the absence of n3 fatty acid deficiency in plasma or liver. Thus, the retinal lipidome is globally altered in the SLOS rat model, relative to control rats, with the most profound changes being less phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and PS molecular species containing docosahexaenoic acid (22:6). These findings suggest that SLOS may involve additional metabolic compromise beyond the primary enzymatic defect in the cholesterol pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Ford
- E. A. Doisy Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
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131
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Bakker EC, Hornstra G, Blanco CE, Vles JSH. Relationship between long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids at birth and motor function at 7 years of age. Eur J Clin Nutr 2007; 63:499-504. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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132
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Abstract
Human milk provides all the dietary essential fatty acids, linoleic acid (LA; 18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), as well as their longer-chain more-unsaturated metabolites, including arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and DHA (22:6n-3) to support the growth and development of the breast-fed infant. Human milk levels of LA have increased in Westernized nations from mean levels (g/100 g total fatty acids) of 6 to 12-16 over the last century, paralleling the increase in dietary intake of LA-rich vegetable oils. DHA levels (g/100 g total milk fatty acids) vary from 1% and are lowest in countries in which the intake of DHA from fish and other animal tissue lipids is low. The role of DHA in infant nutrition is of particular importance because DHA is accumulated specifically in the membrane lipids of the brain and retina, where it is important to visual and neural function. An important question is the extent to which many human diets that contain low amounts of n-3 fatty acids may compromise human development. The present paper reviews current knowledge on maternal diet and human milk fatty acids, the implications of maternal diet as the only source of essential fatty acids for infant development both before and after birth, and recent studies addressing the maternal intakes and milk DHA levels associated with risk of low infant neural system maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila M Innis
- Nutrition Research Program, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, 950 West 28th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada.
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133
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Production of phospholipids from spray-dried egg yolk by consecutive in situ solid phase extraction with acetone and ethanol. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2006.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Haubner L, Sullivan J, Ashmeade T, Saste M, Wiener D, Carver J. The effects of maternal dietary docosahexaenoic acid intake on rat pup myelin and the auditory startle response. Dev Neurosci 2007; 29:460-7. [PMID: 17684314 DOI: 10.1159/000107047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2006] [Accepted: 01/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We investigated the effects of maternal docosahexanoic acid (DHA) supplementation on pups' auditory startle responses and the composition of brain myelin. METHODS Timed-pregnant rats were fed throughout pregnancy and lactation diets that contained 0, 0.3, 0.7 or 3% of total fatty acids as DHA. Milk was collected from culled pups' stomachs on postnatal day (PND) 3, latency of the auditory startle reflex was measured on PND 15, and pups were killed and brains collected on PND 24. RESULTS Higher levels of DHA in maternal diet were reflected in milk and in pups' myelin. The latency of the auditory startle response was significantly longer in offspring of dams fed higher levels of DHA. There was a positive correlation between the myelin content of DHA and the latency of the startle response (p = 0.044), and a negative correlation between the myelin content of DHA and the myelin content of cholesterol (p = 0.005). CONCLUSION High levels of maternal DHA intake alter the lipid composition of rat pup myelin, and are associated with longer latencies of the auditory startle response--a myelin-dependent electrophysiologic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Haubner
- Department of Pediatrics, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Fla, USA.
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135
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Mitmesser SH, Jensen CL. Roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the term infant: developmental benefits. Neonatal Netw 2007; 26:229-34. [PMID: 17710956 DOI: 10.1891/0730-0832.26.4.229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are two long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) found naturally in human milk. DHA and ARA have been receiving increased attention from health care professionals and the public. Research suggests that DHA intake and status have a significant impact on visual and cognitive development in breastfed infants. For formula-fed infants, studies have shown mixed results from DHA or DHA plus ARA supplementation. There are several important differences among LCPUFA studies with term infants that may contribute to the differing results, including levels of LCPUFA added to the formula, variations in test methods, ages of infants evaluated, and sources of LCPUFA. Nevertheless, several expert groups recommend that infant formulas be supplemented with DHA and ARA. Recommendations for term infants for DHA and ARA range from 0.2 percent to 0.4 percent and from 0.35 percent to 0.7 percent of the fatty acids, respectively.
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136
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Koletzko B, Sauerwald T, Demmelmair H, Herzog M, von Schenck U, Böhles H, Wendel U, Seidel J. Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants with phenylketonuria: a randomized controlled trial. J Inherit Metab Dis 2007; 30:326-32. [PMID: 17431817 DOI: 10.1007/s10545-007-0491-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2006] [Revised: 01/16/2007] [Accepted: 02/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pre- and postnatal tissue accretion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) has been related to visual and cognitive development in healthy children in several studies. Children with phenylketonuria (PKU) consume diets with very low contents of preformed LCPUFA. We studied prospectively the LCPUFA status in infants with PKU without or with LCPUFA supplementation during the first year of life. SUBJECTS AND METHODS Infants with PKU were enrolled at diagnosis (<4 weeks of age) and randomized double blind to phenylalanine-free amino acid supplements without LCPUFA (n = 11) or with both arachidonic (AA, 0.46 wt%) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA, 0.27 wt%) (n = 10). At enrolment and again at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 and 12 months, plasma phospholipid fatty acids were measured and dietary intakes were calculated from dietary protocols. RESULTS Unsupplemented patients showed a marked LCPUFA depletion to levels clearly below those observed in healthy breast-fed infants. In contrast, supplemented infants had stable and higher LCPUFA levels than unsupplemented infants, reaching significant differences for AA values at 3, 4 and 6 months, and for DHA values at 1, 3, 4, 6, 9 and 12 months. Plasma phospholipid levels correlated closely with estimated dietary intakes of preformed LCPUFA. CONCLUSION Low LCPUFA intakes with PKU diets induce marked depletion of AA and particularly of DHA in the first year of life. Thus endogenous synthesis of LCPUFA from precursors supplied by diet seems unable to compensate for low LCPUFA intakes. LCPUFA supplementation of PKU diets during the first year of life effectively enhances LCPUFA status to levels comparable to those of healthy breast-fed infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Koletzko
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
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137
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López-Torres E, Doblas P, Guerrero del Valle V, de Linares M. Evaluación clínica de los ácidos grasos omega-3 en la gestación, la lactancia y el desarrollo infantil. CLINICA E INVESTIGACION EN GINECOLOGIA Y OBSTETRICIA 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/s0210-573x(07)74484-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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138
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Visual acuity and cognitive outcomes at 4 years of age in a double-blind, randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid-supplemented infant formula. Early Hum Dev 2007; 83:279-84. [PMID: 17240089 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2006] [Revised: 11/20/2006] [Accepted: 11/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While there is a large body of data on the effects of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of infant formula on visual and cognitive maturation during infancy, longterm visual and cognitive outcome data from randomized trials are scarce. AIM To evaluate docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA)-supplementation of infant formula on visual and cognitive outcomes at 4 years of age. METHODS Fifty-two of 79 healthy term infants who were enrolled in a single-center, double-blind, randomized clinical trial of DHA and ARA supplementation of infant formula were available for follow-up at 4 years of age. In addition, 32 breast-fed infants served as a "gold standard". Outcome measures were visual acuity and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence--Revised. RESULTS At 4 years, the control formula group had poorer visual acuity than the breast-fed group; the DHA- and DHA+ARA-supplemented groups did not differ significantly from the breast-fed group. The control formula and DHA-supplemented groups had Verbal IQ scores poorer than the breast-fed group. CONCLUSION DHA and ARA-supplementation of infant formula supports visual acuity and IQ maturation similar to that of breast-fed infants.
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139
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Beblo S, Reinhardt H, Demmelmair H, Muntau AC, Koletzko B. Effect of fish oil supplementation on fatty acid status, coordination, and fine motor skills in children with phenylketonuria. J Pediatr 2007; 150:479-84. [PMID: 17452220 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Revised: 09/16/2006] [Accepted: 12/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate effects of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) on motor skills in patients with phenylketonuria (PKU). STUDY DESIGN Thirty-six patients with PKU (1-11 years of age, good metabolic control: plasma phenylalanine < or = 360 micromol/L for > or = 6 months). We determined plasma phospholipid fatty acids, and in patients > 4 years of age (N = 24) the motometric Rostock-Oseretzky Scale (ROS), before and after supplementation with fish oil for 3 months (15 mg docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]/kg body weight daily). ROS was also assessed in 22 age-matched controls. RESULTS Patients had low n-3 LC-PUFA in plasma phospholipids (DHA, 2.37 +/- 0.10%; eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA], 0.4 +/- 0.03%) and poorer ROS performance than controls (motor development index [MQ] 107 +/- 3 vs 117 +/- 3, P = .010). Supplementation increased phospholipid n-3 LC-PUFA (DHA 7.05 +/- 0.24%; EPA 3.31 +/- 0.19%; P < .001), decreased n-6 LC-PUFA (arachidonic acid, 9.26 +/- 0.23% vs 6.76 +/- 0.16%; P < .001) and improved ROS (MQ 115 +/- 3.54, P = .011, paired t test). ROS was unchanged in 11 retested controls (MQ 115 +/- 5.16, P = NS, paired t test multivariate analysis of variance [MANOVA] for time by group, P = .027). Patients tolerated fish oil well. Plasma phenylalanine remained unchanged. CONCLUSION In patients with PKU, fish oil supplementation enhances n-3 LC-PUFA levels and improves motor skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skadi Beblo
- Division of Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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140
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Giovannini M, Verduci E, Salvatici E, Fiori L, Riva E. Phenylketonuria: dietary and therapeutic challenges. J Inherit Metab Dis 2007; 30:145-52. [PMID: 17347911 DOI: 10.1007/s10545-007-0552-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2007] [Revised: 01/31/2007] [Accepted: 02/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
PKU subjects need special attention in the definition of optimal supplementation of nutrients, which may be insufficient in relation to the type of diet and may otherwise manifest symptoms of deficit. In particular, it is necessary to pay great attention to the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) levels in relation to correct development of the central nervous system. On the basis of numerous beneficial effects currently known, a permanent supplementation with LC-PUFAs, in particular with docosahexaenoic acid, should be considered. Moreover, new formulas, Phe-free peptides, and 'modulated' amino acid preparations might help in preventing nutritional deficiencies and imbalances, with the ultimate aim of improving growth. New strategies--such as supply of tetrahydrobiopterin--need to be optimized in terms of targets, patients and expected outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Giovannini
- Department of Pediatrics, San Paolo Hospital, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
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141
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Eilander A, Hundscheid DC, Osendarp SJ, Transler C, Zock PL. Effects of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on visual and cognitive development throughout childhood: a review of human studies. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2007; 76:189-203. [PMID: 17376662 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2007.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2006] [Revised: 01/15/2007] [Accepted: 01/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The present paper evaluates the most recent randomized controlled trials assessing the efficacy of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation (with or without n-6 LCPUFA) during pregnancy, lactation, infancy and childhood on visual and cognitive development. Available evidence suggests a beneficial effect of maternal n-3 LCPUFA supplementation during pregnancy and lactation on cognitive development of infants and children, but not for visual development. Evidence for an effect of LCPUFA supplementation of preterm and term infants on cognitive development of infants remains inconclusive. However, supplementing term infants with daily doses of 100 mg docosahexaenoic acid plus 200 mg arachidonic acid improves visual development as measured by electrophysiological tests. Evidence for benefits of n-3 LCPUFA on cognitive development in healthy children older than 2 years of age is too limited to allow a clear conclusion. Taken together, the evidence for potential benefits of LCPUFA supplementation is promising but yet inconclusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Eilander
- Unilever Food and Health Research Institute, Unilever R and D, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands.
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142
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Fatty acid composition of white adipose tissue and breast milk of Mauritian and French mothers and erythrocyte phospholipids of their full-term breast-fed infants. Br J Nutr 2007. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114599001464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The fatty acid compositions of white adipose tissue, colostrum and mature milk triacylglycerols from Mauritian (n 13) and French (n 15) women were analysed and compared in order to highlight cultural differences in dietary intakes and their influence on milk fatty acid composition. Erythrocyte phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine fatty acid compositions were also investigated in their term infants, breast-fed over a period of 6 weeks. Fatty acid composition (g/100 g) of all samples was determined by GLC and anthropometric measurements were assessed in the two populations at birth and on day 42. Comparisons of white adipose tissue fatty acid compositions demonstrated lower levels of saturated (23·64 (se 1·54) v. 29·75 (se 0·67), P < 0·01) and monounsaturated (39·44 (se 1·27) v. 54·84 (se 0·75), P < 0·001) fatty acids and higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (n−6 series: 32·47 (se 1·31) v. 14·32 (se 0·47), P < 0·001 and n−3 series: 2·87 (se 0·49) v. 0·80 (se 0·07), P < 0·01) in Mauritian than in French samples respectively. Accordingly, milk fat of the Mauritian women contained higher levels of parent essential fatty acids and their longer-chain derivatives than did milk fat from French women. Higher levels of parent essential fatty acids but lower levels of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids were found in erythrocyte phospholipids of Mauritian infants compared with French infants. Infants' erythrocyte arachidonate and docosahexaenoate contents did not correlate with any anthropometric variables at birth or at day 42, neither did they correlate with anthropometric variation over the study period. Our results suggest the lack of a simple relationship between the amount of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk and their accretion in the erythrocyte phospholipids of breast-fed infants when provided concomitantly with high levels of both linoleic and α-linolenic acids in ratios which fall within recommended ranges.
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143
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The implications of condensed tannins on the nutritive value of temperate forages fed to ruminants. Br J Nutr 2007. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114599000501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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144
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The conditional nature of the dietary need for polyunsaturates: a proposal to reclassify ‘essential fatty acids’ as ‘conditionally-indispensable’ or ‘conditionally-dispensable’ fatty acids. Br J Nutr 2007. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114500002415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The term essential fatty acid no longer clearly identifies the fatty acids it was originally used to describe. It would be more informative if the concept of essentiality shifted away from the symptoms arising from the lack of de novo synthesis of linoleate or α-linolenate and towards the adequacy of the capacity for synthesis and conservation of both the parent and the derived long-chain polyunsaturates. For instance, despite the existence of the pathway for synthesis of docosahexaenoate from α-linolenate, the former would be more correctly classified as ‘conditionally indispensable’ because the capacity of the pathway appears insufficient during early development, although it may be sufficient later in life in healthy individuals. Similarly, despite the inability to synthesize linoleate de novo, abundant linoleate stores and its relatively slow turnover in healthy adults probably makes linoleate ‘conditionally dispensable’ for long periods. There are two other anomalies with the terms essential and non-essential fatty acids: (1) under several different experimental circumstances, the C-skeleton of essential fatty acids is avidly used in the synthesis of non-essential fatty acids; (2) to function normally, the brain is required to endogenously synthesize several non-essential fatty acids. As with essential amino acids, which have been reclassified as indispensable or conditionally indispensable, such a change in terminology should lead to an improved understanding of the function and metabolism of polyunsaturates in particular, and long-chain fatty acids in general.
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145
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Langdon JH. Has an aquatic diet been necessary for hominin brain evolution and functional development? Br J Nutr 2007; 96:7-17. [PMID: 16869985 DOI: 10.1079/bjn20061805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
A number of authors have argued that only an aquatic-based diet can provide the necessary quantity of DHA to support the human brain, and that a switch to such a diet early in hominin evolution was critical to human brain evolution. This paper identifies the premises behind this hypothesis and critiques them on the basis of clinical literature. Both tissue levels and certain functions of the developing infant brain are sensitive to extreme variations in the supply of DHA in artificial feeding, and it can be shown that levels in human milk reflect maternal diet. However, both the maternal and infant bodies have mechanisms to store and buffer the supply of DHA, so that functional deficits are generally resolved without compensatory diets. There is no evidence that human diets based on terrestrial food chains with traditional nursing practices fail to provide adequate levels of DHA or other n-3 fatty acids. Consequently, the hypothesis that DHA has been a limiting resource in human brain evolution must be considered to be unsupported.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Langdon
- Department of Biology, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46227, USA.
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146
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Dee DL, Li R, Lee LC, Grummer-Strawn LM. Associations between breastfeeding practices and young children's language and motor skill development. Pediatrics 2007; 119 Suppl 1:S92-8. [PMID: 17272591 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-2089n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We examined the associations of breastfeeding initiation and duration with language and motor skill development in a nationally representative sample of US children aged 10 to 71 months. METHODS Using cross-sectional data on 22399 children from the 2003 National Survey of Children's Health, we examined relationships between breastfeeding practices and children's language and motor skills development. Outcomes were based on each mother's response to questions regarding her level of concern (a lot, a little, not at all) about her child's development of expressive language, receptive language, fine motor skills, and gross motor skills. Breastfeeding data were based on mothers' recall. Methods of variance estimation were applied and multivariate polynomial regression modeling was done to estimate the effects of breastfeeding initiation and duration on children's development after adjustment for confounders. RESULTS Mean age of the sample was 2.79 years; 67% were non-Hispanic white, 16% were Hispanic, and 9% were non-Hispanic black. Approximately 17% of mothers reported concerns about their child's expressive language development; approximately 10% had receptive language concerns; approximately 6% had concerns about fine motor skills; and 5% reported general motor skills concerns. Multivariate analysis revealed that mothers who initiated breastfeeding were less likely than mothers of never-breastfed children to be concerned a lot about their child's expressive and receptive language development and fine and general motor skills. Mothers of children breastfed 3 to 5.9 months were less likely than mothers of never-breastfed children to be concerned a lot about their child's expressive and receptive language and fine and general motor skills. CONCLUSIONS As with all cross-sectional data, results should be interpreted with caution. Our findings suggest breastfeeding may protect against delays in young children's language and motor skill development. Fewer concerns about language and motor skill development were evident for children breastfed >or=3 months, and concerns generally decreased as breastfeeding continued >or=9 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah L Dee
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, and the Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27516-2524, USA.
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147
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Mazza M, Pomponi M, Janiri L, Bria P, Mazza S. Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in neurological and psychiatric diseases: an overview. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31:12-26. [PMID: 16938373 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2006] [Revised: 07/21/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Omega-3 fatty acids are known to play a role in nervous system activity, cognitive development, memory-related learning, neuroplasticity of nerve membranes, synaptogenesis and synaptic transmission. The brain is considered abnormally sensitive to oxidative damage, and aging is considered one of the most significant risk factors for degenerative neurological disorders. Recently, clinical trials of several neurodegenerative diseases have increasingly targeted the evaluation of the effectiveness of various antioxidants. OBJECTIVES The effects of omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants on the anatomic and functional central nervous system development and their possible therapeutical use in some neurological and psychiatric pathologies are evaluated. RESULTS A number of critical trials have confirmed the benefits of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids not only in several psychiatric conditions, but also in inflammatory and autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. Many evidences indicate that antioxidants are also essential in maintaining a correct neurophysiology. CONCLUSIONS Omega-3 fatty acids could be useful in the prevention of different pathologies, such as cardiovascular, psychiatric, neurological, dermatological and rheumatological disorders. A number of studies suggest that antioxidants can prevent the oxidation of various macromolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids. The ideal use of antioxidants should be a prophylactic and continue treatment before aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Mazza
- Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy.
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148
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Singhal A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Kennedy K, Sonksen P, Isaacs E, Fewtrell M, Elias-Jones A, Stephenson T, Lucas A. Infant nutrition and stereoacuity at age 4-6 y. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85:152-9. [PMID: 17209191 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/85.1.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Breastfeeding has been reported to benefit visual development in children. A higher concentration of docosahexaneoic acid (DHA) in breast milk than in formula has been proposed as one explanation for this association and as a rationale for adding DHA to infant formula, but few long-term data support this possibility. OBJECTIVE The objectives of the study were, first, to test the hypothesis that breastfeeding benefits stereoscopic visual maturation and, second, if that benefit is shown, to ascertain whether it is mediated by the dietary intake of DHA. DESIGN Stereoacuity was measured by using the random dot E test (primary outcome), and visual acuity was measured by using the Sonksen-Silver acuity system (secondary outcome) in previously breastfed (n = 78) or formula-fed (n = 184) children aged 4-6 y who had been followed prospectively from birth. In the formula-fed group, children were randomly assigned to receive formula with either DHA or arachidonic acid (n = 94) or a control formula (n = 90) for the first 6 mo. RESULTS Breastfed children had a significantly (P = 0.001) greater likelihood of foveal stereoacuity (high-grade or < 100 s/arc) than did formula-fed children (odds ratio: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.4, 4.5) independent of potential confounding (P = 0.005). Stereoacuity did not differ significantly between children randomly assigned to DHA-supplemented or control formula. None of the groups differed in Sonksen-Silver visual acuity. CONCLUSIONS These findings support the hypothesis that breastfeeding benefits long-term stereoscopic development. An effect of DHA cannot be excluded, but the lack of difference in stereoacuity between infants randomly assigned to DHA-containing and those assigned to control formula raises the hypothesis that factors in breast milk other than DHA account for the observed benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atul Singhal
- Medical Research Council Childhood Nutrition Research Center, Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.
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149
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Golfetto I, McGready R, Ghebremeskel K, Min Y, Dubowitz L, Nosten F, Drury P, Simpson JA, Arunjerdja R, Crawford MA. Fatty acid composition of milk of refugee Karen and urban Korean mothers. Is the level of DHA in breast milk of Western women compromised by high intake of saturated fat and linoleic acid? Nutr Health 2007; 18:319-332. [PMID: 18087864 DOI: 10.1177/026010600701800402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lower proportions of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and total n-3 metabolites have been reported in breast milk of European, Australian and North American women compared with milk of mothers from non-Western countries. This difference is not always explained by intakes of marine products. OBJECTIVE We investigated the possibility that the relative composition of DHA and total n-3 metabolites in breast milk of non-Western mothers with low fat intakes is higher than the levels commonly reported in their Western counterparts. SUBJECTS Mature milk of refugee Karen women from two different camps in Thailand (n=26 and n=53), and transition milk from urban Korean mothers (n=12) in Seoul was collected. In common with their respective community, the mothers have low fat intake, which is predominately of plant origin. RESULTS The percentage levels of DHA and n-3 metabolites in the milk of the Karen mothers were 0.52 +/- 0.14 and 0.85 +/- 0.24 (camp 1) and 0.54 +/- 0.22 and 0.92 +/- 0.42 (camp 2). In the Korean milk, DHA was 0.96 +/- 0.21 and total n-3 metabolites 1.51 +/- 0.3. CONCLUSION We postulate that the levels of DHA and total n-3 metabolites may be compromised in breast milk of mothers on the Western high fat diet. This calls into question the use of DHA composition of such milk as a reference for the formulation of milk designed, for infant feed or, to test the function of DHA in neuro-visual development.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Golfetto
- The Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition, London Metropolitan University, Holloway Road, London, UK
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150
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Pastor N, Soler B, Mitmesser SH, Ferguson P, Lifschitz C. Infants fed docosahexaenoic acid- and arachidonic acid-supplemented formula have decreased incidence of bronchiolitis/bronchitis the first year of life. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2006; 45:850-5. [PMID: 17041174 DOI: 10.1177/1073858406289801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
To assess the effect of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid supplementation in infant formula on the incidence of respiratory illnesses, pediatricians assigned infants to receive docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid-supplemented formula or control formula. Anthropometrics, medical history, and illnesses were reported. Among 1342 infants, there was a higher incidence of bronchiolitis in control versus docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid-supplemented groups at 5, 7, and 9 months (P < .01). Weight, length, and head circumference were similar for both groups. Infants fed formula supplemented with 0.32% docosahexaenoic acid and 0.64% arachidonic acid experienced a lower incidence of bronchiolitis compared with infants fed formula supplemented with no docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid or lower levels of docosahexaenoic acid/arachidonic acid in the first year of life.
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