Recent advances in lipid nanoparticle formulations with solid matrix for oral drug delivery

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Antiviral Drug Delivery: A Novel Route for COVID-19 Treatment

Chitosan has been investigated in several biological fields, including drug and gene delivery, tissue engineering antiviral and immunological adjuvant methods. It's a cationic copolymer of N-acetyl glucosamine and D-glucosamine with different molecular chain lengths, compositions, and sequences than N-acetyl glucosamine and D-glucosamine. It is biocompatible and cyto-compatible, as well as recyclable and bioresorbable. As effective drug delivery methods, chitosan nanoparticles are shaped into several pathways. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of its antiviral application as a nanocarrier for antiviral medications, highlighting the benefits, limitations, and downsides. In this review, we will report the most recent COVID-19 vaccination advances. It will also be discussed what the future holds for chitosan nanoparticles in the treatment of coronaviruses.

Improving the Physicochemical and Biopharmaceutical Properties of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Derived from Traditional Chinese Medicine through Cocrystal Engineering

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) extracted and isolated from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) are of interest for drug development due to their wide range of biological activities. However, the overwhelming majority of APIs in TCMs (T-APIs), including flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids and phenolic acids, are limited by their poor physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties, such as solubility, dissolution performance, stability and tabletability for drug development. Cocrystallization of these T-APIs with coformers offers unique advantages to modulate physicochemical properties of these drugs without compromising the therapeutic benefits by non-covalent interactions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current challenges, applications, and future directions of T-API cocrystals, including cocrystal designs, preparation methods, modifications and corresponding mechanisms of physicochemical and biopharmaceutical properties. Moreover, a variety of studies are presented to elucidate the relationship between the crystal structures of cocrystals and their resulting properties, along with the underlying mechanism for such changes. It is believed that a comprehensive understanding of cocrystal engineering could contribute to the development of more bioactive natural compounds into new drugs.

Design of Hybrid Polymeric-Lipid Nanoparticles Using Curcumin as a Model: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro Evaluation of Demethoxycurcumin and Bisdemethoxycurcumin-Loaded Nanoparticles

Polymeric lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNs) are the new generation of drug delivery systems that has emerged as a combination of a polymeric core and lipid shell. We designed and optimized a simple method for the preparation of Pluronic F-127-based PLHNs able to load separately demethoxycurcumin (DMC) and bisdemethoycurcumin (BDM). CUR was used as a model compound due to its greater availability from turmeric and its structure similarity with DMC and BDM. The developed method produced DMC and BDM-loaded PLHNs with a size average of 75.55 ± 0.51 and 15.13 ± 0.014 nm for DMC and BDM, respectively. An FT-IR analysis confirmed the encapsulation and TEM images showed their spherical shape. Both formulations achieved an encapsulation efficiency ≥ 92% and an exhibited significantly increased release from the PLHN compared with free compounds in water. The antioxidant activity was enhanced as well, in agreement with the improvement in water dissolution; obtaining IC₅₀ values of 12.74 ± 0.09 and 16.03 ± 0.55 for DMC and BDM-loaded PLHNs, respectively, while free curcuminoids exhibited considerably lower antioxidant values in an aqueous solution. Hence, the optimized PHLN synthesis method using CUR as a model and then successfully applied to obtain DMC and BDM-loaded PLHNs can be extended to curcuminoids and molecules with a similar backbone structure to improve their bioactivities.

Oromucosal Alginate Films with Zein Nanoparticles as a Novel Delivery System for Digoxin

Digoxin is a hydrophobic drug used for the treatment of heart failure that possesses a narrow therapeutic index, which raises safety concerns for toxicity. This is of utmost relevance in specific populations, such as the elderly. This study aimed to demonstrate the potential of the sodium alginate films as buccal drug delivery system containing zein nanoparticles incorporated with digoxin to reduce the number of doses, facilitating the administration with a quick onset of action. The film was prepared using the solvent casting method, whereas nanoparticles by the nanoprecipitation method. The nanoparticles incorporated with digoxin (0.25 mg/mL) exhibited a mean size of 87.20 ± 0.88 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.23 ± 0.00, and a zeta potential of 21.23 ± 0.07 mV. Digoxin was successfully encapsulated into zein nanoparticles with an encapsulation efficiency of 91% (±0.00). Films with/without glycerol and with different concentrations of ethanol were produced. The sodium alginate (SA) films with 10% ethanol demonstrated good performance for swelling (maximum of 1474%) and mechanical properties, with a mean tensile strength of 0.40 ± 0.04 MPa and an elongation at break of 27.85% (±0.58), compatible with drug delivery application into the buccal mucosa. The current study suggests that SA films with digoxin-loaded zein nanoparticles can be an effective alternative to the dosage forms available on the market for digoxin administration.

Current trends and future perspectives of nanomedicine for the management of colon cancer

Colon cancer (CC) kills countless people every year throughout the globe. It persists as one of the highly lethal diseases to be treated because the overall survival rate for CC is meagre. Early diagnosis and efficient treatments are two of the biggest hurdles in the fight against cancer. In the present work, we will review thriving strategies for CC targeted drug delivery and critically explain the most recent progressions on emerging novel nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology-based animal and human clinical trial studies targeting CC are discussed. Advancements in nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems intended to enhance cellular uptake, improved pharmacokinetics and effectiveness of anticancer drugs have facilitated the powerful targeting of specific agents for CC therapy. This review provides insight into current progress and future opportunities for nanomedicines as potential curative targets for CC treatment. This information could be used as a platform for the future expansion of multi-functional nano constructs for CC's advanced detection and functional drug delivery.

Development, optimization, and in vitro evaluation of atorvastatin calcium and vinpocetine codelivery by solid lipid nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Background

The main objective of the present study was to formulate, optimize and characterize solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded with Atorvastatin Calcium (ATS) and Vinpocetine (VIN) as a potential drug delivery system to improve its solubility and assess its anti-tumor activity on cell lines. The SLNs were formulated by emulsification with high speed homogenization followed by probe sonication. Central composite design was selected for optimization. Drug: lipid ratio, surfactant: co-surfactant ratio and homogenization speed were considered critical process parameters (CPP) to study the effects on critical quality attributes (CQA) of SLNs i.e. particle size, percent entrapment efficiency (% EE) and percent drug loading (% DL).

Results

The optimized (F3) SLNs formulations were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X- ray diffraction (X-RD), in vitro drug release by dialysis bag method and stability studies. In vitro cell line studies were performed on HepG2, MCF 7 and melanoma B16 F10 cell line. The optimized F3 formulation showed a particle size of 323 ± 6 nm, poly dispersity index (PDI) 0.333 ± 0.02, Zeta potential (ZP) − 30.4 ± 0.66 emv with % EE 64.69 ± 1.1; 65.98 ± 0.91 of ATS and VIN respectively. In vitro release (F3) of ATS and VIN in PBS pH 7.4 was found to be 89.45% and 91.86%, respectively, up to 24 h.

Conclusions

In vitro cell line study demonstrated that SLNs enhanced the anti-cancer activity of ATS, VIN on all the stated cell lines when compared with free drugs. Combination index (CI) for HEPG2 was 0.8, which signified synergistic effect. The results exhibited that SLNs is effective, stable and had enhanced activity against HepG2, MCF 7 and melanoma B16 F10 cell lines.

Primaquine Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN), Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC), and Nanoemulsion (NE): Effect of Lipid Matrix and Surfactant on Drug Entrapment, in vitro Release, and ex vivo Hemolysis

Primaquine (PQ), an 8-aminoquinoline antimalarial drug, has been widely used for the eradication of hypnozoites from the liver and, therefore, recognized as the radical cure of malaria. However, the clinical applications of PQ are restricted to patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency due to severe dose-related hemolytic side effects. Nanoparticle carriers have shown great potential in achieving higher PQ concentrations in the target site, thereby reducing dose-related systemic toxicity caused by non-specific exposure. This work aims to develop, compare, and evaluate three PQ-loaded lipid-based drug carriers including solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), and nano-emulsions (NE). The optimized PQ-SLN, PQ-NLC, and PQ-NE had a particle size of 250 nm, a PDI range of 0.1 to 0.3, a zeta potential of - 30 mV, and entrapment efficiency of ~ 90%. All lipid formulations showed sustained release in both simulated gastric and intestinal fluids over 6 h. Four empirical models - including zero-order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer-Peppas, and Hixson-Crowell models - were tested to understand the drug release mechanisms of PQ-SLN, PQ-NLC, and PQ-NE. The model fitness was found to be the highest in the Korsmeyer-Peppas model for all the PQ-loaded lipid formulations (R²: 0.88-0.94). No significant changes were observed in the entrapment efficiency, particle size, and PDI of lipid formulations throughout 1 month of storage at 4 °C and 25 °C. PQ-SLN and PQ-NLC can be further lyophilized with cryoprotectants to improve long-term stability. Finally, the treatment of erythrocytes with PQ-SLN, PQ-NLC, and PQ-NE reduced erythrocyte hemolysis by approximately 4.5-fold compared to the free drug solution.

Oral delivery of solid lipid nanoparticles: underlining the physicochemical characteristics and physiological condition affecting the lipolysis rate

INTRODUCTION

Lipid-based nano-drug delivery systems (LBNDDSs) have gained widespread attention in oral drug delivery due to their tunable and versatile properties such as biocompatibility and biodegradability, which makes them promising delivery systems for a variety of therapeutics. Currently, different types of LBNDDSs including liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are developed for drug delivery applications. SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

AREAS COVERED

In the present work, we highlighted different factors affecting the digestion rate/level of SLNs in the gastrointestinal tract. This paper can be most useful for those researchers who are keen to develop a properly controlled drug delivery system based on SLNs for oral delivery applications.

EXPERT OPINION

SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

Nanoencapsulation of Polyphenols as Drugs and Supplements for Enhancing Therapeutic Profile - A Review

Polyphenolic phytoconstituents have been widely in use worldwide since ages and are categorised as secondary metabolites of plants. The application of polyphenols such as quercetin, resveratrol. curcumin as nutritional supplement has been researched widely. The use of polyphenols, and specifically quercetin for improving the memory and mental endurance have shown significant effects among rats. Even though similar results has not been resonated among human but encouraging preclinical results have encouraged researchers to explore other polyphenols to study the effects as supplements among athletes. The phytopharmacological research has elucidated the use of natural polyphenols to prevent and treat various physiological and metabolic disorders owing to its free radical scavenging properties, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and immunomodulatory effects. In spite of the tremendous pharmacological profile, one of the most dominant problem regarding the use of polyphenolic compounds is their low bioavailability. Nanonization is considered as one of the most prominent approaches among many. This article aims to review and discuss the molecular mechanisms of recently developed nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for polyphenols and its application as drugs and supplements. Nanoformulations of natural polyphenols are bioactive agents, such as quercetin, kaempferol, fisetin, rutin, hesperetin, and naringenin epigalloccatechin-3-gallate, genistein, ellagic acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, curcuminoids and stilbenes is expected to have better efficacy. These delivery systems are expected to provide higher penetrability of polyphenols at cellular levels and exhibit a controlled release of the drugs. It is widely accepted that natural polyphenols do demonstrate significant therapeutic effect. However, the hindrances in their absorption, specificity and bioavailability can be overcome using nanotechnology.

Traditional Chinese medicine for prevention and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: A focus on epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent malignant cancers worldwide. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which endows epithelial cells with mesenchymal properties, plays an important role in the early stages of metastasis. Conventional cancer therapies have promising effects, but issues remain, such as high rates of metastasis and drug resistance. Thus, exploring and evaluating new therapies is an urgent need. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been acknowledged for their multi-target and coordinated intervention effects against HCC. Accumulating evidence indicates that TCM can inhibit the malignancy of cells and the progression of EMT in HCC. However, studies on the effects of TCM on EMT in HCC are scarce. In this review, we summarized recent developments in anti-EMT TCMs and formulae, focusing on their underlying pharmacological mechanisms, to provide a foundation for further research on the exact mechanisms through which TCM affects EMT in HCC.

Comparative Analysis of the Chemical Composition and Physicochemical Properties of the Mucilage Extracted from Fresh and Dehydrated Opuntia ficus indica Cladodes

The development of sustainable extraction methods to obtain natural products constitutes a challenge for the food industry. The aim of this work was to compare yield, separation efficiency, chemical composition, and physicochemical properties of the mucilage extracted from fresh cladodes (FNM) and mucilage extracted from dehydrated cladodes (DNM) of O. ficus indica. Suspensions of fresh and dehydrated cladodes (4% w/w) were prepared for mucilage extraction by using a mechanical separation process. Subsequently, the separated mucilage was precipitated with ethyl alcohol (1:2 v/v) then, yield and separation efficiency were determined. The mucilage was characterized by measuring Z potential, viscosity, color, and texture attributes. Additionally, chemical proximate analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were conducted. No significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected in the yield and separation efficiencies between samples. Nevertheless, the dehydration process of cladodes prior to mucilage extraction increased protein, ashes, nitrogen free extract, and calcium content. The viscosity was higher in DNM than in FNM. The TGA revealed a different thermal behavior between samples. In addition, the DNM showed lower L (darkness/lightness), cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and springiness values than those of FNM. These results support that differences found between the chemical and physicochemical properties of DNM and those of FNM will determine the applications of the mucilage obtained from the O. ficus indica cladodes in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

Manufacturing Bacteriophages (Part 2 of 2): Formulation, Analytics and Quality Control Considerations

Within this second piece of the two-part series of phage manufacturing considerations, we are examining the creation of a drug product from a drug substance in the form of formulation, through to fill-finish. Formulation of a drug product, in the case of bacteriophage products, is often considered only after many choices have been made in the development and manufacture of a drug substance, increasing the final product development timeline and difficulty of achieving necessary performance parameters. As with the preceding review in this sequence, we aim to provide the reader with a framework to be able to consider pharmaceutical development choices for the formulation of a bacteriophage-based drug product. The intent is to sensitize and highlight the tradeoffs that are necessary in the development of a finished drug product, and to be able to take the entire spectrum of tradeoffs into account, starting with early-stage R&D efforts. Furthermore, we are arming the reader with an overview of historical and current analytical methods with a special emphasis on most relevant and most widely available methods. Bacteriophages pose some challenges that are related to but also separate from eukaryotic viruses. Last, but not least, we close this two-part series by briefly discussing quality control (QC) aspects of a bacteriophage-based product, taking into consideration the opportunities and challenges that engineered bacteriophages uniquely present and offer.

Lipid nanostructures for targeting brain cancer

Advancements in both material science and bionanotechnology are transforming the health care sector. To this end, nanoparticles are increasingly used to improve diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. Huge research is being carried out to improve the design, efficiency, and performance of these nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are also considered as a major area of research and development to meet the essential requirements for use in nanomedicine where safety, compatibility, biodegradability, biodistribution, stability, and effectiveness are requirements towards the desired application. In this regard, lipids have been used in pharmaceuticals and medical formulations for a long time. The present work focuses on the use of lipid nanostructures to combat brain tumors. In addition, this review summarizes the literature pertaining to solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (LNC), methods of preparation and characterization, developments achieved to overcome blood brain barrier (BBB), and modifications used to increase their effectiveness.

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) as drug delivery platform: Advances in formulation and delivery strategies

NLCs have provoked the incessant impulsion for the development of safe and valuable drug delivery systems owing to their exceptional physicochemical and then biocompatible characteristics. Throughout the earlier period, a lot of studies recounting NLCs based formulations have been noticeably increased. They are binary system which contains both solid and liquid lipids aiming to produce less ordered lipidic core. Their constituents particularly influence the physicochemical properties and effectiveness of the final product. NLCs can be fabricated by different techniques which are classified according to consumed energy. More utilization NLCs is essential due to overcome barriers surrounded by the technological procedure of lipid-based nanocarriers' formulation and increased information of the core mechanisms of their transport via various routes of administration. They can be used in different applications and by different routes such as oral, cutaneous, ocular and pulmonary. This review article seeks to present an overview on the existing situation of the art of NLCs for future clinics through exposition of their applications which shall foster their lucid use. The reported records evidently demonstrate the promise of NLCs for innovate therapeutic applications in the future.

Perfluorocarbons therapeutics in modern cancer nanotechnology for hypoxia-induced anti-tumor therapy

With an estimated failure rate of about 90%, immunotherapies that are intended for the treatment of solid tumors have caused an anomalous rise in the mortality rate over the past decades. It is apparent that resistance towards such therapies primarily occurs due to elevated levels of HIF-1 (Hypoxia-induced factor) in tumor cells, which are caused by disrupted microcirculation and diffusion mechanisms. With the advent of nanotechnology, several innovative advances were brought to the fore; and, one such promising direction is the use of perfluorocarbon nanoparticles in the management of solid tumors. Perfluorocarbon nanoparticles enhance the response of hypoxia-based agents (HBAs) within the tumor cells and have been found to augment the entry of HBAs into the tumor micro-environment. The heightened penetration of HBAs causes chronic hypoxia, thus aiding in the process of cell quiescence. In addition, this technology has also been applied in photodynamic therapy, where oxygen self-enriched photosensitizers loaded perfluorocarbon nanoparticles are employed. The resulting processes initiate a cascade, depleting tumour oxygen and turning it into a reactive oxygen species eventually to destroy the tumour cell. This review elaborates on the multiple applications of nanotechnology based perfluorocarbon formulations that are being currently employed in the treatment of tumour hypoxia.

Molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate translocation and permeation of active from lipid nanoparticle to skin: complemented by experiments

One of the most realistic approaches for delivering actives (pharmaceuticals/cosmetics) deep into skin layers is encapsulation into nanoparticles (NPs). Nonetheless, molecular-level mechanisms related to active delivery from NPs to the skin have scarcely been studied despite the large number of synthesis and characterization studies. We herein report the underlying mechanism of active translocation and permeation through the outermost layer of skin, the stratum corneum (SC), via molecular dynamics (MD) simulations complemented by experimental studies. A SC molecular model is constructed using current state-of-the-art methodology via incorporating the three most abundant skin lipids: ceramides, free fatty acids, and cholesterol. As a potent antioxidant, ferulic acid (FA) is used as the model active, and it is loaded into Gelucire 50/13 NP. MD simulations elucidate that, first, FA-loaded NP approaches the skin surface quickly, followed by slight penetration and adsorption onto the upper skin surface; FA then translocates from the NP surface to the skin surface due to stronger NP-skin interactions compared to the FA-NP interactions; then, once FA is released onto the skin surface, it slowly permeates deep into the skin bilayer. Both the free energy and resistance to permeation not only indicate the spontaneous transfer of FA from the bulk to the skin surface, but they also reveal that the main barrier against permeation exists in the middle of the lipid hydrophobic tails. Significantly lower diffusion of FA is obtained in the main barrier region compared to the bulk. The estimated permeability coefficient (log P) values are found to be higher than the experimental values. Importantly, the permeation process evaluated via MD simulations perfectly matches with experiments. The study suggests a molecular simulation platform that provides various crucial insights relating to active delivery from loaded NP to skin, and it could facilitate the design and development of novel NP-based formulations for transdermal delivery and the topical application of drugs/cosmetics.

Hybrid lipid core chitosan-TPGS shell nanocomposites as a promising integrated nanoplatform for enhanced oral delivery of sulpiride in depressive disorder therapy

Sulpiride (SUL), a benzamide derivative, acts as a multitarget drug with extensive biological properties. However, being a P-glycoprotein efflux substrate with a limited oral bioavailability imposes a challenge to its clinical efficacy. The current research explores the impact of tailored hybrid lipid-polysaccharide nanocomposites in augmenting the biological performance of SUL. Chitosan-graft-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) copolymers were synthesized and integrated as a polysaccharide shell into a SUL-loaded lipid nanocore. The optimized nanohybrids revealed a nanocore-shell structure with 110.1 nm particle size, 23.7 mV zeta potential, 85.42% encapsulation efficiency, a pH-dependent-release profile, and an acceptable mucoadhesive tendency. Employing TPGS into the chitosan backbone alleviated the cellular internalization of nanohybrids into the Caco-2 intestinal cells and hence increased the intestinal permeation and the oral bioavailability of SUL by 3.3, and 8.7-folds, respectively. Reserpine-induced depression rat model confirmed the superior antidepressant activity of nanohybrids, compared with free SUL and a marketed product. The nanohybrids exhibited 1.87- and 1.47-folds enhancement in both serotonin and dopamine levels, respectively. Additionally, nanohybrids were shown to attenuate brain oxidative stress state and SUL irritant effect on different body tissues. Overall, the newly tailored nanohybrids pave the way for an advance in the field of oral drug delivery.

Delivery strategies of amphotericin B for invasive fungal infections

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) represent a growing public concern for clinicians to manage in many medical settings, with substantial associated morbidities and mortalities. Among many current therapeutic options for the treatment of IFIs, amphotericin B (AmB) is the most frequently used drug. AmB is considered as a first-line drug in the clinic that has strong antifungal activity and less resistance. In this review, we summarized the most promising research efforts on nanocarriers for AmB delivery and highlighted their efficacy and safety for treating IFIs. We have also discussed the mechanism of actions of AmB, rationale for treating IFIs, and recent advances in formulating AmB for clinical use. Finally, this review discusses some practical considerations and provides recommendations for future studies in applying AmB for combating IFIs.

SN38 loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs); preparation and in vitro evaluations against glioblastoma

SN38 is the active metabolite of irinotecan with 1000-fold greater cytotoxicity compared to the parent drug. Despite the potential, its application as a drug is still seriously limited due to its stability concerns and low solubility in acceptable pharmaceutical solvents. To address these drawbacks here nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) containing SN38 was prepared and its cytotoxicity against U87MG glioblastoma cell line was investigated. The formulations were prepared using hot ultrasonication and solvent evaporation/emulsification methods. NLCs with a mean size of 140 nm and particle size distribution (PDI) of 0.25 were obtained. The average loading efficiency was 9.5% and its entrapment efficiency was 81%. In order to obtain an accurate determination of released amount of SN38 a novel medium and extraction method was designed, which lead to an appropriate in vitro release profile of the drug from the prepared NLCs. The MTT test results revealed the significant higher cytotoxicity of NLCs on U87MG human glioblastoma cell line compared with the free drug. The confocal microscopy images confirmed the proper penetration of the nanostructures into the cells within the first 4 h. Consequently, the results indicated promising potentials of the prepared NLCs as a novel treatment for glioblastoma.

Structured edible lipid-based particle systems for oral drug-delivery

Oral administration is the most popular and patient-compliant route for drug delivery, though it raises great challenges due to the involvement of the gastro-intestine (GI) system and the drug bioavailability. Drug bioavailability is directly related to its ability to dissolve, transport and/or absorb through the physiological environment. A great number of drugs are characterized with low water solubility due to their hydrophobic nature, thus limiting their oral bioavailability and clinical use. Therefore, new strategies aiming to provide a protective shell through the GI system and improve drug solubility and permeability in the intestine were developed to overcome this limitation. Lipid-based systems have been proposed as good candidates for such a task owing to their hydrophobic nature which allows high drug loading, drug micellization ability during intestinal digestion due to the lipid content, and the vehicle physical protective environment. The use of edible lipids with high biocompatibility paves the bench-to-bedside translation. Four main types of structured lipid-based drug delivery systems differing in the physical state of the lipid phase have been described in the literature, namely emulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and oleogel-based particles. The current review provides a comprehensive overview of the different structured edible lipid-based oral delivery systems investigated up to date and emphasizes the contribution of each system component to the delivery performance, and the oral delivery path of lipids.

An Overview on Topical Administration of Carotenoids and Coenzyme Q10 Loaded in Lipid Nanoparticles

Carotenoids and coenzyme Q10 are naturally occurring antioxidant compounds that are also found in human skin. These bioactive compounds have been the focus of considerable research due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and photoprotective properties. In this review, the current state of the art in the encapsulation of carotenoids and coenzyme Q10 in lipid nanoparticles to improve their bioavailability, chemical stability, and skin absorption is discussed. Additionally, the main findings are highlighted on the cytotoxic and photoprotective effects of these systems in the skin.

Tailoring of Retinyl Palmitate-Based Ethosomal Hydrogel as a Novel Nanoplatform for Acne Vulgaris Management: Fabrication, Optimization, and Clinical Evaluation Employing a Split-Face Comparative Study

AIM

Retinyl palmitate (RP), the most stable vitamin A derivative, is used to treat photoaging and other skin disorders. The need to minimize the adverse effects of topical drug administration has led to an enhanced interest in loading RP on ethosomes for topical drug delivery. The aim of the current study was to prepare and compare the performance of RP decorated ethosomal hydrogel with tretinoin cream in the treatment of acne vulgaris as an approach to improve drug efficacy and decrease its side effects.

METHODS

RP-loaded ethosomes were prepared using the injection sonication technique. A Box-Behnken design using Design Expert® software was used for the optimization of formulation variables. Particle size, zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency percent (EE%), % drug release, and permeation over 24 h of different formulations were determined. The optimal formulation was incorporated into a hydrogel. Finally, the efficacy and tolerability of the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel were clinically evaluated for acne treatment using a split-face comparative clinical study.

RESULTS

The optimized ethosomal RP showed particle size of 195.8±5.45 nm, ZP of -62.1±2.85 mV, EE% of 92.63±4.33%, drug release % of 96.63±6.81%, and drug permeation % of 85.98 ±4.79%. Both the optimized RP ethosomal hydrogel and tretinoin effectively reduced all types of acne lesions (inflammatory, non-inflammatory, and total lesions). However, RP resulted in significantly lower non-inflammatory and total acne lesion count than the marketed tretinoin formulation. Besides, RP-loaded ethosomes showed significantly improved tolerability compared to marketed tretinoin with no or minimal skin irritation symptoms.

CONCLUSION

RP ethosomal hydrogel is considerably effective in controlling acne vulgaris with excellent skin tolerability. Therefore, it represents an interesting alternative to conventional marketed tretinoin formulation for topical acne treatment.

Herbal Drugs and Natural Products in the light of Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine for Developing Drug Formulations

Natural products and medicinal plants have played a vital role in providing healthcare and ensuring well-being for many civilizations since antiquity. It is estimated that around 50% of drugs in the market have a natural product origin especially medicinal plants and herbal drugs, animals, fungi, and marine organisms. Some of these biologically active constituents of extracts have low absorption and distribution which, as a result, lead to loss of bioavailability and efficacy and might hamper their applications in the clinic. To overcome these impediments for the formulation of herbal drugs, food supplements, and essential oils, several nanomedical approaches such as liposomes, microemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liquid crystal systems (LC), and precursor systems for liquid crystals (PSLCs) have been proposed. Nanoparticles have been used to modify and ameliorate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of different drugs, thus incorporating biotechnological systems may be useful to enhance the bioavailability and bioactivity of herbal drug formulations. Consequently, essential for any natural compounds is the extent of its absorption after being ingested and its ability to be distributed in various tissues or organs of the body. The present review article aims to give an overview of the recent advancements in developing herbal drug formulations based on nanoparticle technologies.

Pectin based multi-particulate carriers for colon-specific delivery of therapeutic agents

In case of colon-specific delivery of therapeutic agents through oral route, microbial/enzyme-triggered release approach has several advantages over other approaches due to unique microbial ecosystem in the colon. Multiple-unit carriers have an edge over single-unit carriers for this purpose. Among different materials/polymers explored, pectin appears as a promising biopolymer to construct microbial-triggered colon-specific carriers. Pectin is specifically degraded by colonic enzymes but insusceptible to upper gastro-intestinal enzymes. In this article, utilization of pectin solely or in combination with other polymers and/or colonic-delivery approaches is critically discussed in detail in the context of multi-particulate systems. Several studies showed that pectin-based carriers can prevent the release of payload in the stomach but start to release in the intestine. Hence, pectin alone may construct delayed release formulation but may not be sufficient for effective colon-targeting. On the other hand, combination of pectin with other materials/polymers (e.g., chitosan and Eudragit® S-100) has demonstrated huge promise for colon-specific release of payload. Hence, smartly designed pectin-based multi-particulate carriers, especially in combination with other polymers and/or colon-targeting approaches (e.g., microbial-triggered + pH-triggered or microbial-triggered + pH-triggered + time-release or microbial-triggered + pH-triggered + pressure-based), can be successful colon-specific delivery systems. However, more clinical trials are necessary to bring this idea from bench to bedside.

Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery Systems as Potential for Skin Application: A Review

Administration of substances through the skin represents a promising alternative, in relation to other drug administration routes, due to its large body surface area, in order to offer ideal and multiple sites for drug administration. In addition, the administration of drugs through the skin avoids the first-pass metabolism, allowing an increase in the bioavailability of drugs, as well as reducing their side effects. However, the stratum corneum (SC) comprises the main barrier of protection against external agents, mainly due to its structure, composition and physicochemical properties, becoming the main limitation for the administration of substances through the skin. In view of the above, pharmaceutical technology has allowed the development of multiple drug delivery systems (DDS), which include liquid crystals (LC), cubosomes, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), nanoemulsions (NE), as well as cyclodextrins (CD) and dendrimers (DND). It appears that the DDS circumvents the problems of drug absorption through the SC layer of the skin, ensuring the release of the drug, as well as optimizing the therapeutic effect locally. This review aims to highlight the DDS that include LC, cubosomes, lipid systems, PNP, as well as CD and DND, to optimize topical skin therapies.

Different Microfluidic Environments for In Vitro Testing of Lipid Nanoparticles against Osteosarcoma

The use of lipid nanoparticles as biodegradable shells for controlled drug delivery shows promise as a more effective and targeted tumor treatment than traditional treatment methods. Although the combination of target therapy with nanotechnology created new hope for cancer treatment, methodological issues during in vitro validation of nanovehicles slowed their application. In the current work, the effect of methotrexate (MTX) encapsulated in different matrices was evaluated in a dynamic microfluidic platform. Effects on the viability of osteosarcoma cells in the presence of recirculation of cell media, free MTX and two types of blank and drug-containing nanoparticles were successfully assessed in different tumor-mimicking microenvironments. Encapsulated MTX was more effective than the equal dose free drug treatment, as cell death significantly increased under the recirculation of both types of drug-loaded nanoparticles in all concentrations. In fact, MTX-nanoparticles reduced cell population 50 times more than the free drug when 150-µM drug dose was recirculated. Moreover, when compared to the equivalent free drug dose recirculation, cell number was reduced 60 and 100 points more under recirculation of each nanoparticle with a 15-µM drug concentration. Thus, the results obtained with the microfluidic model present MTX-lipid nanoparticles as a promising and more effective therapy for pediatric osteosarcoma treatment than current treatment options.

Molecular prospect of type-2 diabetes: Nanotechnology based diagnostics and therapeutic intervention

About ninety percent of all diabetic conditions account for T2D caused due to abnormal insulin secretion/ action or increased hepatic glucose production. Factors that contribute towards the aetiology of T2D could be well explained through biochemical, molecular, and cellular aspects. In this review, we attempt to explain the recent evolving molecular and cellular advancement associated with T2D pathophysiology. Current progress fabricated in T2D research concerning intracellular signaling cascade, inflammasome, autophagy, genetic and epigenetics changes is discretely explained in simple terms. Present available anti-diabetic therapeutic strategies commercialized and their limitations which are needed to be acknowledged are addressed in the current review. In particular, the pre-eminence of nanotechnology-based approaches to nullify the inadequacy of conventional anti-diabetic therapeutics and heterogeneous nanoparticulated systems exploited in diabetic researches are also discretely mentioned and are also listed in a tabular format in the review. Additionally, as a future prospect of nanotechnology, the review presents several strategic hypotheses to ameliorate the austerity of T2D by an engineered smart targeted nano-delivery system. In detail, an effort has been made to hypothesize novel nanotechnological based therapeutic strategies, which exploits previously described inflammasome, autophagic target points. Utilizing graphical description it is explained how a smart targeted nano-delivery system could promote β-cell growth and development by inducing the Wnt signaling pathway (inhibiting Gsk3β), inhibiting inflammasome (inhibiting NLRP3), and activating autophagic target points (protecting Atg3/Atg7 complex from oxidative stress) thereby might ameliorate the severity of T2D. Additionally, several targeting molecules associated with autophagic and epigenetic factors are also highlighted, which can be exploited in future diabetic research.

Improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology

This review highlights main bioactive compounds and important biological functions especially anticancer effects of the garlic. In addition, we review current literature on the stability and bioavailability of garlic components. Finally, this review aims to provide a potential strategy for using nanotechnology to increase the stability and solubility of garlic components, providing guidelines for the qualities of garlic products to improve their absorption and prevent their early degradation, and extend their circulation time in the body. The application of nanotechnology to improve the bioavailability and targeting of garlic compounds are expected to provide a theoretical basis for the functional components of garlic to treat human health. We review the improvement of bioavailability and bioactivity of garlic bioactive compounds via nanotechnology, which could promisingly overcome the limitations of conventional garlic products, and would be used to prevent and treat cancer and other diseases in the near future.

Oral lipid nanomedicines: Current status and future perspectives in cancer treatment

Oral anticancer drugs have earned a seat at the table, as the need for homecare treatment in oncology has increased. Interest in this field is growing as a result of their proven efficacy, lower costs and positive patient uptake. However, the gastrointestinal barrier is still the main obstacle to surmount in chemotherapeutic oral delivery. Anticancer nanomedicines have been proposed to solve this quandary. Among these, lipid nanoparticles are described to be efficiently absorbed while protecting drugs from early degradation in hostile environments. Their intestinal lymphatic tropism or mucoadhesive/penetrative properties give them unique characteristics for oral administration. Considering that chronic cancer cases are increasing over time, it is important to be able to provide treatments with low toxicity and low prices. The challenges, opportunities and therapeutic perspectives of lipid nanoparticles in this area will be discussed in this review, taking into consideration the pre-clinical and clinical progress made in the last decade.

Nanomaterials for cancer therapy: current progress and perspectives

Cancer is a disease with complex pathological process. Current chemotherapy faces problems such as lack of specificity, cytotoxicity, induction of multi-drug resistance and stem-like cells growth. Nanomaterials are materials in the nanorange 1–100 nm which possess unique optical, magnetic, and electrical properties. Nanomaterials used in cancer therapy can be classified into several main categories. Targeting cancer cells, tumor microenvironment, and immune system, these nanomaterials have been modified for a wide range of cancer therapies to overcome toxicity and lack of specificity, enhance drug capacity as well as bioavailability. Although the number of studies has been increasing, the number of approved nano-drugs has not increased much over the years. To better improve clinical translation, further research is needed for targeted drug delivery by nano-carriers to reduce toxicity, enhance permeability and retention effects, and minimize the shielding effect of protein corona. This review summarizes novel nanomaterials fabricated in research and clinical use, discusses current limitations and obstacles that hinder the translation from research to clinical use, and provides suggestions for more efficient adoption of nanomaterials in cancer therapy.

Formulation of Piperine-Chitosan-Coated Liposomes: Characterization and In Vitro Cytotoxic Evaluation

The present research work is designed to prepare and evaluate piperine liposomes and piperine–chitosan-coated liposomes for oral delivery. Piperine (PPN) is a water-insoluble bioactive compound used for different diseases. The prepared formulations were evaluated for physicochemical study, mucoadhesive study, permeation study and in vitro cytotoxic study using the MCF7 breast cancer cell line. Piperine-loaded liposomes (PLF) were prepared by the thin-film evaporation method. The selected liposomes were coated with chitosan (PLFC) by electrostatic deposition to enhance the mucoadhesive property and in vitro therapeutic efficacy. Based on the findings of the study, the prepared PPN liposomes (PLF3) and chitosan coated PPN liposomes (PLF3C1) showed a nanometric size range of 165.7 ± 7.4 to 243.4 ± 7.5, a narrow polydispersity index (>0.3) and zeta potential (−7.1 to 29.8 mV). The average encapsulation efficiency was found to be between 60 and 80% for all prepared formulations. The drug release and permeation study profile showed biphasic release behavior and enhanced PPN permeation. The in vitro antioxidant study results showed a comparable antioxidant activity with pure PPN. The anticancer study depicted that the cell viability assay of tested PLF3C2 has significantly (p < 0.001)) reduced the IC₅₀ when compared with pure PPN. The study revealed that oral chitosan-coated liposomes are a promising delivery system for the PPN and can increase the therapeutic efficacy against the breast cancer cell line.

Triphenylphosphonium functionalized Ficus religiosa L. extract loaded nanoparticles improve the mitochondrial function in oxidative stress induced diabetes

The present study was aimed to enhance the mitochondrial function in oxidative stress-induced diabetes. To achieve this, Ficus religiosa L. extract loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (ETNPs) were prepared and functionalized by using triphenylphosphonium. Developed nanoparticles demonstrated desired quality attributes with sustained release for up to 24 h and excellent storage stability for up to 180 days at 40 ± 2°C and 75 ± 5% relative humidity. In vitro cytotoxicity assessment showed no toxicity of ETNPs. Interestingly, oral administration of ETNPs to diabetic rats demonstrated improved mitochondrial function by normalizing the mitochondrial morphology, intracellular calcium ion concentration, complexes I, II, IV, and V activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and antioxidant levels. Further, reduction in apoptotic markers viz. cytochrome-C, caspase-3, and caspase-9 was observed following the ETNP treatment. Moreover, significant reduction in blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin while significant improvement in plasma insulin was observed as compared to the diabetic group following the treatment with developed formulation. Furthermore, histopathology studies confirmed the safety of the developed formulation and thus, data in hand collectively suggest that proposed strategy can be effectively used to improve the mitochondrial function in oxidative stress-induced diabetes along with better control over blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin.

Design, Preparation, and Characterization of Effective Dermal and Transdermal Lipid Nanoparticles: A Review

Limited permeability through the stratum corneum (SC) is a major obstacle for numerous skin care products. One promising approach is to use lipid nanoparticles as they not only facilitate penetration across skin but also avoid the drawbacks of conventional skin formulations. This review focuses on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs), and nanoemulsions (NEs) developed for topical and transdermal delivery of active compounds. A special emphasis in this review is placed on composition, preparation, modifications, structure and characterization, mechanism of penetration, and recent application of these nanoparticles. The presented data demonstrate the potential of these nanoparticles for dermal and transdermal delivery.

A polymeric micellar drug delivery system developed through a design of Experiment approach improves pancreatic tumor accumulation of calcipotriol and paclitaxel

The aim of this study was to develop optimal micelles loaded with calcipotriol (Cal) and paclitaxel (PTX) for the treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) using a Design of Experiment (DOE) approach. The central composite design (CCD), a type of DOE was used to tune the size and drug release properties of the drug-loaded micelles. This approach yielded optimal Cal and PTX co-loaded micelles (M-Cal/PTX) with size of 40-100 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.25 and a zeta potential (ζ) of − 6.2 ± 0.8 mV. When evaluated in vitro, drug release from the micelles showed a biphasic pattern. The initial release, defined as the cumulative 2-hr drug release was less than 25% in all relevant media. This phase was followed by a gradual release with less than 80% of drugs released after 5 days. In vivo, the micelles prolonged the apparent biological half-life of Cal by more than 3 times and a marginal increase for PTX in an orthotopic mouse model of PDAC. The micelle-encapsulated drugs showed extended tumor accumulation when compared to non-encapsulated Cal and PTX at equivalent dose levels. Future studies on the antitumor activity of this novel dual drug payload delivery system are warranted.

Special Focus Issue Part II: Recruitment of solid lipid nanoparticles for the delivery of CRISPR/Cas9: primary evaluation of anticancer gene editing

Aim: The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a promising gene-editing tool for various anticancer therapies; however, development of a biocompatible, nonviral and efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 expression systems remains a challenge. Materials & methods: Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were produced based on pseudo and 3D ternary plots. Obtained SLNs and their complexes with PX458 plasmid DNA were characterized and evaluated in terms of cytotoxicity and transfection efficiency. Results: SLNs were found to be nanosized, monodispersed, stable and nontoxic. Furthermore, they revealed similar transfection efficiency as the positive control. Conclusion: Overall, we have achieved a good SLN basis for CRISPR/Cas9 delivery and have the potential to produce SLNs with targeted anticancer properties by modifying production parameters and components to facilitate translating CRISPR/Cas9 into preclinical studies.

Investigation of water-insoluble hydrophobic polyethylenimines as RNAi vehicles in chronic myeloid leukemia therapy

The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) more than two decades ago opened avenues for avant-garde cancer treatments that possess the ability to evade issues hampering current chemotherapeutic strategies, owing to its specific gene sequence-driven mechanism of action. A potent short interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery vehicle designed to overcome physiological barriers is imperative for successful RNAi therapy. For this purpose, this study explored the characteristics and therapeutic efficacy of low-molecular weight (MW) polyethylenimine (PEI) with high cholesterol substitution, yielding water-insoluble polymers, in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) K562 cells. A strong impact of cholesterol grafting on the physicochemical attributes of the resultant polymers and their corresponding complexes with siRNA was observed, with the siRNA binding capacity of polymers increasing and complex dissociation sensitivity decreasing with increase in cholesterol content of the polymers. The modified polymer complexes were significantly smaller in size and possessed higher cationic charge compared to the parent polymer. The interaction with anionic heparan sulfate preoteoglycans present on the cell surface was significant in cellular uptake of the complexes. The therapeutic efficacy of siRNA/polymer complexes was reflected in their ability to effectively silence the reporter green fluorescent protein gene and endogenous CML oncogene BCR-ABL as well as significantly inhibit colony formation by K562 cells post BCR-ABL silencing. The results of this study demonstrated beneficial effects of high levels of hydrophobic substitution on low MW PEI on their functional performance bestowing them the potential to be potent RNAi agents for CML therapy.

Development of Perphenazine-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Statistical Optimization and Cytotoxicity Studies

OBJECTIVE

Perphenazine (PPZ), as a typical antipsychotic medical substance, has the same effectiveness compared to atypical antipsychotic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia. Despite the lipophilic essence, PPZ encounters limited bioavailability caused by the first-pass metabolism following oral administration. In the present study, PPZ-containing solid lipid nanoparticles (PPZ-SLNs) were prepared and optimized based on different factors, including lipid and surfactant amount, to develop appropriate and safe novel oral dosage forms of PPZ.

METHODS

The solvent emulsification-evaporation method was utilized to form SLNs by using soybean lecithin, glycerol monostearate (GMS), and Tween 80. Statistical optimization was done by the Box-Behnken design method to achieve formulation with optimized particle size, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential. Also, transmission electron microscopy, in vitro release behavior, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and powder X-ray diffractometry (P-XRD) studies and cytotoxicity studies were assessed.

RESULTS

Optimization exhibited the significant effect of various excipients on SLN characteristics. Our finding indicated that the mean particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of optimized PPZ-SLN were, respectively, 104 ± 3.92 nm, -28 ± 2.28 mV, and 83% ± 1.29. Drug release of PPZ-SLN was observed to be greater than 90% for 48 h that emphasized a sustained-release pattern. The DSC and P-XRD studies revealed the amorphous state of PPZ-SLN. FTIR spectra showed no incompatibility between the drug and the lipid. Performing cytotoxicity studies indicated no significant cytotoxicity on HT-29 cell culture.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that PPZ-SLNs can make a promising vehicle for a suitable therapy of schizophrenia for the oral drug delivery system.

A study to enhance the oral bioavailability of s-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe): SLN and SLN nanocomposite particles

The endogenous molecule, S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe) is a key factor due to its role in the methylation cycle and modulation of monoaminergic neurotransmission. Since many mental disorders have linked to the monoaminergic system, the level of SAMe in blood and cerebrospinal fluid is important in the treatment of major depression. In this study, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were prepared in order to increase the limited oral bioavailability of SAMe, and SLN based nanocomposite particles (SAMe-SLN-NC) were further developed using an enteric polymer for passive targeting of intestinal lymphatic system. In this manner, it was also aimed to protect SAMe loaded SLN from harsh gastric environment as well as hepatic first-pass metabolism. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis of SLN was performed, drug content was measured, SAMe release patterns were examined and the permeation ability of SAMe was investigated by the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA) to characterize SAMe loaded SLN formulation. According to the PAMPA results, SAMe-SLN with the average particle size of 242 nm showed enhanced SAMe permeability in comparison to pure drug. Delayed drug release obtained by SLN nanocomposite particles indicated the protection of drug-loaded SLN in the acidic gastric medium and their intact presence in the intestine. SAMe solution or particle suspensions were prepared using 0.45 (w/v) hydroxypropyl methylcellulose aqueous solution to be applied to groups of animals for pharmacokinetic studies. In vivo pharmacokinetic parameters revealed enhancement in relative bioavailability of SAMe upon oral administration of SLN based formulations. This was attributed to intact absorption of lipid matrix through lymphatic path. A statistically significant increase in SAMe plasma levels was obtained at 15th and 30th minutes with SAMe-SLN and at 2nd and 4th hours with SAMe-SLN-NC. Overall results suggest that SLN is a promising carrier to passive lymphatic targeting of SAMe and novel SLN nanocomposite particles which presented efficient oral bioavailability is a potential way for oral delivery of SAMe and treatment of major depression.

The Effects of Solid and Liquid Lipids on the Physicochemical Properties of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The aim of this work was to identify from a review of current literature the effects of lipids used in the development of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) on the physicochemical properties of the resulting formulation. The size of the solid lipid, affected by the molecular weight and the complexity of the structure, tends to affect the particle size of the final formulation proportionally; the higher the molecular weight and the more complex the molecular structure, the bigger the particle size of the NLCs. However, there is no straight correlation between the size and the structure of the liquid lipid and the particle size. Moreover, there seems to be a correlation of the solid to liquid lipid ratio which affects the particle size; there has been a trend of increasing particle size when more solid lipid was used. Regarding the entrapment efficiency, it is highly affected by the drug and its interaction with the lipids, as its solubility in the lipids needs to be high so the drug can stay entrapped within the lipid core. There was no direct correlation between the type of lipid used or the ratio and the zeta potential, which affects the stability of the NLCs.

Current approaches in lipid-based nanocarriers for oral drug delivery

Lipid-based nanocarriers have gained much interest as carriers of drugs with poor oral bioavailability because of their remarkable advantages like low toxicity, affordable scale-up manufacture, strong biocompatibility or high drug loading efficiency. The potential of these nanocarriers lies in their ability to improve the gastrointestinal stability, solubility and permeability of their cargo drugs. However, achieving efficient oral drug delivery through lipid-based nanocarriers is a challenging task, since they encounter multiple physicochemical barriers along the gastrointestinal tract, e.g. the gastric acidic content, the intestinal mucus layer or the enzymatic degradation, that they must surmount to reach their target. These limitations may be turned into opportunities through a rational design of lipid-based nanocarriers. For that purpose, this review focuses on the main challenges of the oral route indicating the strategies undertaken for lipid-based nanocarriers in order to overcome them. Understanding their shortcomings and identifying their strengths will determine the future clinical success of lipid-based nanocarriers.