101
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Bhandari RK, Sadler-Riggleman I, Clement TM, Skinner MK. Basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor TCF21 is a downstream target of the male sex determining gene SRY. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19935. [PMID: 21637323 PMCID: PMC3101584 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The cascade of molecular events involved in mammalian sex determination has been
shown to involve the SRY gene, but specific downstream events have eluded
researchers for decades. The current study identifies one of the first direct
downstream targets of the male sex determining factor SRY as the
basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor TCF21. SRY was found to bind
to the Tcf21 promoter and activate gene expression. Mutagenesis
of SRY/SOX9 response elements in the Tcf21 promoter eliminated
the actions of SRY. SRY was found to directly associate with the
Tcf21 promoter SRY/SOX9 response elements in
vivo during fetal rat testis development. TCF21 was found to
promote an in vitro sex reversal of embryonic ovarian cells to
induce precursor Sertoli cell differentiation. TCF21 and SRY had similar effects
on the in vitro sex reversal gonadal cell transcriptomes.
Therefore, SRY acts directly on the Tcf21 promoter to in part
initiate a cascade of events associated with Sertoli cell differentiation and
embryonic testis development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramji K. Bhandari
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of
America
| | - Ingrid Sadler-Riggleman
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of
America
| | - Tracy M. Clement
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of
America
| | - Michael K. Skinner
- Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Biological Sciences,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
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102
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Lopez-Sanchez C, Garcia-Martinez V. Molecular determinants of cardiac specification. Cardiovasc Res 2011; 91:185-95. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvr127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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103
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Bauwens CL, Song H, Thavandiran N, Ungrin M, Massé S, Nanthakumar K, Seguin C, Zandstra PW. Geometric control of cardiomyogenic induction in human pluripotent stem cells. Tissue Eng Part A 2011; 17:1901-9. [PMID: 21417693 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Although it has been observed that aggregate size affects cardiac development, an incomplete understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyogenesis has limited the development of robust defined-condition cardiac cell generation protocols. Our objective was thus to elucidate cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the endogenous control of human embryonic stem cell (hESC) cardiac tissue development, and to test the hypothesis that hESC aggregate size influences extraembryonic endoderm (ExE) commitment and cardiac inductive properties. hESC aggregates were generated with 100, 1000, or 4000 cells per aggregate using microwells. The frequency of endoderm marker (FoxA2 and GATA6)-expressing cells decreased with increasing aggregate size during early differentiation. Cardiogenesis was maximized in aggregates initiated from 1000 cells, with frequencies of 0.49±0.06 cells exhibiting a cardiac progenitor phenotype (KDR(low)/C-KIT(neg)) on day 5 and 0.24±0.06 expressing cardiac Troponin T on day 16. A direct relationship between ExE and cardiac differentiation efficiency was established by forming aggregates with varying ratios of SOX7 (a transcription factor required for ExE development) overexpressing or knockdown hESCs to unmanipulated hESCs. We demonstrate, in a defined, serum-free cardiac induction system, that robust and efficient cardiac differentiation is a function of endogenous ExE cell concentration, a parameter that can be directly modulated by controlling hESC aggregate size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine L Bauwens
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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104
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Abstract
Our limited ability to improve the survival of patients with heart failure is attributable, in part, to the inability of the mammalian heart to meaningfully regenerate itself. The recent identification of distinct families of multipotent cardiovascular progenitor cells from endogenous, as well as exogenous, sources, such as embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells, has raised much hope that therapeutic manipulation of these cells may lead to regression of many forms of cardiovascular disease. Although the exact source and cell type remains to be clarified, our greater understanding of the scientific underpinning behind developmental cardiovascular progenitor cell biology has helped to clarify the origin and properties of diverse cells with putative cardiogenic potential. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the understanding of cardiovascular progenitor cell biology from embryogenesis to adulthood and their implications for therapeutic cardiac regeneration. We believe that a detailed understanding of cardiogenesis will inform future applications of cardiovascular progenitor cells in heart failure therapy and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony C Sturzu
- CPZN 3224 Simches Building, Massachusetts General Hospital, 185 Cambridge St, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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105
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Wong SSY, Bernstein HS. Cardiac regeneration using human embryonic stem cells: producing cells for future therapy. Regen Med 2011; 5:763-75. [PMID: 20868331 DOI: 10.2217/rme.10.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) has generated much interest in the field of regenerative medicine. Because of their ability to differentiate into any cell type in the body, hESCs offer a novel therapeutic paradigm for myocardial repair by furnishing a supply of cardiomyocytes (CMs) that would ultimately restore normal myocardial function when delivered to the damaged heart. Spontaneous CM differentiation of hESCs is an inefficient process that yields very low numbers of CMs. In addition, it is not clear that fully differentiated CMs provide the benefits sought from cell transplantation. The need for new methods of directed differentiation of hESCs into functional CMs and cardiac progenitors has led to an explosion of research utilizing chemical, genetic, epigenetic and lineage selection strategies to direct cardiac differentiation and enrich populations of cardiac cells for therapeutic use. Here, we review these approaches and highlight their increasingly important roles in stem cell biology and cardiac regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon S Y Wong
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-1346, USA
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106
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Abstract
In mammals, the heart arises from the differentiation of 2 sources of multipotent cardiovascular progenitors (MCPs). Different studies indicated that an evolutionary conserved transcriptional regulatory network controls cardiovascular development from flies to humans. Whereas in Drosophila, Tinman acts as a master regulator of cardiac development, the identification of such a master regulator in mammals remained elusive for a long time. In this review, we discuss the recent findings suggesting that Mesp1 acts as a key regulator of cardiovascular progenitors in vertebrates. Lineage tracing in mice demonstrated that Mesp1 represents the earliest marker of cardiovascular progenitors, tracing almost all the cells of the heart including derivatives of the primary and second heart fields. The inactivation of Mesp1/2 indicated that Mesp genes are essential for early cardiac mesoderm formation and MCP migration. Several recent studies have demonstrated that Mesp1 massively promotes cardiovascular differentiation during embryonic development and pluripotent stem cell differentiation and indicated that Mesp1 resides at the top of the cellular and transcriptional hierarchy that orchestrates MCP specification. In primitive chordates, Mesp also controls early cardiac progenitor specification and migration, suggesting that Mesp arises during chordate evolution to regulate the earliest step of cardiovascular development. Defining how Mesp1 regulates the earliest step of MCP specification and controls their migration is essential to understand the root of cardiovascular development and how the deregulation of these processes can lead to congenital heart diseases. In addition, these findings will be very useful to boost the production of cardiovascular cells for cellular therapy, drug and toxicity screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Bondue
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 808, route de Lennik, BatC, C6-130, 1070 Bruxelles, Belgium
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107
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Noseda
- From the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence (M.N., M.D.S.), National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London; and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (T.P., F.C.S., R.P.), University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tessa Peterkin
- From the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence (M.N., M.D.S.), National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London; and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (T.P., F.C.S., R.P.), University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Filipa C. Simões
- From the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence (M.N., M.D.S.), National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London; and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (T.P., F.C.S., R.P.), University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Roger Patient
- From the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence (M.N., M.D.S.), National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London; and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (T.P., F.C.S., R.P.), University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael D. Schneider
- From the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence (M.N., M.D.S.), National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London; and the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine (T.P., F.C.S., R.P.), University of Oxford, United Kingdom
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108
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Cardiovascular Stem Cells. Regen Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9075-1_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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109
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Zimmermann WH. Embryonic and embryonic-like stem cells in heart muscle engineering. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2010; 50:320-6. [PMID: 21040727 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2010.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac muscle engineering is evolving rapidly and may ultimately be exploited to (1) model cardiac development, physiology, and pathology; (2) identify and validate drug targets; (3) assess drug safety and efficacy; and (4) provide therapeutic substitute myocardium. The ultimate success in any of these envisioned applications depends on the utility of human cells and their assembly into myocardial equivalents with structural and functional properties of mature heart muscle. Embryonic stem cells appear as a promising cell source in this respect, because they can be cultured reliably and differentiated robustly into cardiomyocytes. Despite their unambiguous cardiogenicity, data on advanced maturation and seamless myocardial integration of embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes in vivo are sparse. Additional concerns relate to the limited control over cardiomyogenic specification and cardiomyocyte maturation in vitro as well as the risk of teratocarcinoma formation and immune rejection of stem cell implants in vivo. Through the invent of embryonic-like stem cells - such as parthenogenetic stem cells, male germline stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells - some but certainly not all of these issues may be addressed, albeit at the expense of additional concerns. This review will discuss the applicability of embryonic and embryonic-like stem cells in myocardial tissue engineering and address issues that require particular attention before the potential of stem cell-based heart muscle engineering may be fully exploited. This article is part of a special issue entitled, "Cardiovascular Stem Cells Revisited".
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfram-Hubertus Zimmermann
- Department of Pharmacology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Goettingen, Germany.
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110
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Kuhn EN, Wu SM. Origin of cardiac progenitor cells in the developing and postnatal heart. J Cell Physiol 2010; 225:321-5. [PMID: 20568226 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian heart lacks the capacity to replace the large numbers of cardiomyocytes lost due to cardiac injury. Several different cell-based routes to myocardial regeneration have been explored, including transplantation of cardiac progenitors and cardiomyocytes into injured myocardium. As seen with cell-based therapies in other solid organ systems, inherent limitations, such as host immune response, cell death and long-term graft instability have hampered meaningful cardiac regeneration. An understanding of the cell biology of cardiac progenitors, including their developmental origin, lineage markers, renewal pathways, differentiation triggers, microenvironmental niche, and mechanisms of homing and migration to the site of injury, will enable further refinement of therapeutic strategies to enhance clinically meaningful cardiac repair.
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111
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Schneider MD. Making muscle: overview to "Cardiovascular lineage commitment during development and regeneration" series. Circ Res 2010; 107:575-8. [PMID: 20814027 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.110.223784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Schneider
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
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112
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Gessert S, Kühl M. The multiple phases and faces of wnt signaling during cardiac differentiation and development. Circ Res 2010; 107:186-99. [PMID: 20651295 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.110.221531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Understanding heart development on a molecular level is a prerequisite for uncovering the causes of congenital heart diseases. Therapeutic approaches that try to enhance cardiac regeneration or that involve the differentiation of resident cardiac progenitor cells or patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells will also benefit tremendously from this knowledge. Wnt proteins have been shown to play multiple roles during cardiac differentiation and development. They are extracellular growth factors that activate different intracellular signaling branches. Here, we summarize our current understanding of how these factors affect different aspects of cardiogenesis, starting from early specification of cardiac progenitors and continuing on to later developmental steps, such as morphogenetic processes, valve formation, and establishment of the conduction system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Gessert
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
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113
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Di Nardo P, Forte G, Ahluwalia A, Minieri M. Cardiac progenitor cells: potency and control. J Cell Physiol 2010; 224:590-600. [PMID: 20578234 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Stem cell-based regeneration of the heart has focused much scientific and public attention being cardiac diseases the major cause of disability and death in industrialized countries. Innumerable efforts have been taken to unveil the mechanisms undergoing stem cell proliferation and fate, but much remains to be endeavoured for their application in clinical practice. Nevertheless, the discovery of progenitor cells resident within the cardiac tissue has sparked off enthusiasm about the possibility of efficiently and safely engineering them to repair the injured myocardium. Indeed, the early applications of the cardiac progenitor cells, mostly based on simplistic concepts and techniques, have failed highlighting the prerequisite of expanding the knowledge about progenitor cell features and microenvironmental conditioning. In this review, recent information on resident cardiac progenitor cells has been systematically gathered in order to create a valuable instrument to support investigators in their efforts to establish an efficient cardiac cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Di Nardo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Interna, Laboratorio di Cardiologia Molecolare e Cellulare, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy.
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114
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Abstract
RATIONALE The proepicardial organ (PE) contributes to the cellular diversity of the developing heart by giving rise to the epicardium as well as vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. Despite the importance of these cells in cardiac development, function and regeneration, the signals required for the specification of the PE remain largely unexplored. OBJECTIVE We aim to identify the signaling molecules and transcription factors that regulate PE specification. METHODS AND RESULTS Here, we present the first genetic evidence that bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) signaling in conjunction with the T-box transcription factor Tbx5a is essential for PE specification in zebrafish. Specifically, Bmp4 from the cardiac region, but not the liver bud, acting through the type I BMP receptor Acvr1l, is required for PE specification. By overexpressing a dominant-negative form of a Bmp receptor at various embryonic stages, we determined when Bmp signaling was required for PE specification. We also found that overexpression of bmp2b right before PE specification led to the ectopic expression of PE specific markers including tbx18. Furthermore, using loss-of-function approaches, we discovered a previously unappreciated PE specification role for Tbx5a at early somite stages; this role occurs earlier than, and appears to be independent from, the requirement for Bmp signaling in this process. CONCLUSION Altogether, these data lead us to propose that Tbx5a confers anterior lateral plate mesodermal cells the competence to respond to Bmp signals and initiate PE development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiandong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Programs in Developmental Biology, Genetics and Human Genetics, Cardiovascular Research Institute, and Liver Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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115
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Thiery JP, Acloque H, Huang RYJ, Nieto MA. Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions in development and disease. Cell 2009; 139:871-90. [PMID: 19945376 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7440] [Impact Index Per Article: 496.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays crucial roles in the formation of the body plan and in the differentiation of multiple tissues and organs. EMT also contributes to tissue repair, but it can adversely cause organ fibrosis and promote carcinoma progression through a variety of mechanisms. EMT endows cells with migratory and invasive properties, induces stem cell properties, prevents apoptosis and senescence, and contributes to immunosuppression. Thus, the mesenchymal state is associated with the capacity of cells to migrate to distant organs and maintain stemness, allowing their subsequent differentiation into multiple cell types during development and the initiation of metastasis.
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116
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Moretti A, Bellin M, Jung CB, Thies TM, Takashima Y, Bernshausen A, Schiemann M, Fischer S, Moosmang S, Smith AG, Lam JT, Laugwitz KL. Mouse and human induced pluripotent stem cells as a source for multipotent Isl1+ cardiovascular progenitors. FASEB J 2009; 24:700-11. [PMID: 19850773 DOI: 10.1096/fj.09-139477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Ectopic expression of defined sets of genetic factors can reprogram somatic cells to create induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. The capacity to direct human iPS cells to specific differentiated lineages and to their progenitor populations can be used for disease modeling, drug discovery, and eventually autologous cell replacement therapies. During mouse cardiogenesis, the major lineages of the mature heart, cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells arise from a common, multipotent cardiovascular progenitor expressing the transcription factors Isl1 and Nkx2.5. Here we show, using genetic fate-mapping, that Isl1(+) multipotent cardiovascular progenitors can be generated from mouse iPS cells and spontaneously differentiate in all 3 cardiovascular lineages in vivo without teratoma. Moreover, we report the identification of human iPS-derived ISL1(+) progenitors with similar developmental potential. These results support the possibility to use patient-specific iPS-generated cardiovascular progenitors as a model to elucidate the pathogenesis of congenital and acquired forms of heart diseases.-Moretti, A., Bellin, M., Jung, C. B., Thies, T.-M., Takashima, Y., Bernshausen, A., Schiemann, M., Fischer, S., Moosmang, S., Smith, A. G., Lam, J. T., Laugwitz, K.-L. Mouse and human induced pluripotent stem cells as a source for multipotent Isl1(+) cardiovascular progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Moretti
- Klinikum rechts der Isar and Deutsches Herzzentrum, Technical University of Munich, I. Medical Department, Molecular Cardiology, Ismaninger Strasse 22, 81675 Munich, Germany
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117
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Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimarães-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E. Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells. Dev Cell 2009; 16:822-32. [PMID: 19531353 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2008] [Revised: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 05/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Adult skeletal muscle possesses a remarkable regenerative capacity, due to the presence of satellite cells, adult muscle stem cells. We used fate-mapping techniques in avian and mouse models to show that trunk (Pax3(+)) and cranial (MesP1(+)) skeletal muscle and satellite cells derive from separate genetic lineages. Similar lineage heterogeneity is seen within the head musculature and satellite cells, due to their shared, heterogenic embryonic origins. Lineage tracing experiments with Isl1Cre mice demonstrated the robust contribution of Isl1(+) cells to distinct jaw muscle-derived satellite cells. Transplantation of myofiber-associated, Isl1-derived satellite cells into damaged limb muscle contributed to muscle regeneration. In vitro experiments demonstrated the cardiogenic nature of cranial- but not trunk-derived satellite cells. Finally, overexpression of Isl1 in the branchiomeric muscles of chick embryos inhibited skeletal muscle differentiation in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that this gene plays a role in the specification of cardiovascular and skeletal muscle stem cell progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itamar Harel
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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118
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Boogerd CJJ, Moorman AFM, Barnett P. Protein interactions at the heart of cardiac chamber formation. Ann Anat 2009; 191:505-17. [PMID: 19647421 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2009.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Accepted: 06/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate heart is a muscular pump that contracts in a rhythmic fashion to propel the blood through the body. During evolution, the morphologically complex four-chambered heart of birds and mammals has evolved from a single-layered tube with peristaltic contractility. The heart of Drosophila, referred to as the dorsal vessel, is a blind sac composed of myogenic cells that contract rhythmically. The fish heart is composed of a single atrial chamber connected to a single ventricular chamber. The evolutionary development of fast-contracting chambers allowed the heart to build up high blood pressures. In amphibians two atrial chambers exist, separated by a septum, connecting to a single ventricle. The division of a common atrium and ventricle into right and left-sided chambers represents an evolutionary milestone in the development of the four-chambered heart and is necessary for separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. In amphibians and reptiles, pulmonary and systemic circulations are incompletely separated allowing adaptable blood flows to both circulations. In contrast, the hearts of birds and mammals, in which septa completely separate the pulmonary and systemic circulations, both circulations have similar flows, but blood pressures can be regulated separately. In this review we focus, in a morphologically integrated fashion, on the molecular interactions that govern the intricate cardiac design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis J J Boogerd
- Heart Failure Research Center, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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119
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D'Aniello C, Lonardo E, Iaconis S, Guardiola O, Liguoro AM, Liguori GL, Autiero M, Carmeliet P, Minchiotti G. G protein-coupled receptor APJ and its ligand apelin act downstream of Cripto to specify embryonic stem cells toward the cardiac lineage through extracellular signal-regulated kinase/p70S6 kinase signaling pathway. Circ Res 2009; 105:231-8. [PMID: 19574549 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.109.201186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pluripotent stem cells represent a powerful model system to study the early steps of cardiac specification for which the molecular control is largely unknown. The EGF-CFC (epidermal growth factor-Cripto/FRL-1/Cryptic) Cripto protein is essential for cardiac myogenesis in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). OBJECTIVE Here, we study the role of apelin and its G protein-coupled receptor, APJ, as downstream targets of Cripto both in vivo and in ESC differentiation. METHODS AND RESULTS Gain-of-function experiments show that APJ suppresses neuronal differentiation and restores the cardiac program in Cripto(-/-) ESCs. Loss-of-function experiments point for a central role for APJ/apelin in the gene regulatory cascade promoting cardiac specification and differentiation in ESCs. Remarkably, we show for the first time that apelin promotes mammalian cardiomyogenesis via activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase/p70S6 through coupling to a Go/Gi protein. CONCLUSIONS Together our data provide evidence for a previously unrecognized function of APJ/apelin in the Cripto signaling pathway governing mesoderm patterning and cardiac specification in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina D'Aniello
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics "A. Buzzati-Traverso," CNR, Via Pietro Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy
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120
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Multipotent progenitor cells in regenerative cardiovascular medicine. Pediatr Cardiol 2009; 30:690-8. [PMID: 19415155 DOI: 10.1007/s00246-009-9450-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Regenerative therapies for heart diseases require the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern the fates and differentiation of the diverse muscle and nonmuscle cell lineages that form during heart development. During mouse cardiogenesis, the major lineages of the mature heart, cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle, endothelial cells, and cardiac mesenchyme, arise from multipotent cardiovascular progenitors expressing the transcription factors Mesp1, Isl1, Nkx2-5, and Tbx18. Recent identification of stem/progenitor cells of embryonic origin with intrinsic competence to differentiate into multiple lineages of the heart offers exciting new possibilities for cardiac regeneration. When combined with new advances in nuclear reprogramming, the prospect of achieving autologous, cardiomyogenic, stem-cell-based therapy might be within reach.
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121
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David R, Stieber J, Fischer E, Brunner S, Brenner C, Pfeiler S, Schwarz F, Franz WM. Forward programming of pluripotent stem cells towards distinct cardiovascular cell types. Cardiovasc Res 2009; 84:263-72. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvp211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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122
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Acloque H, Adams MS, Fishwick K, Bronner-Fraser M, Nieto MA. Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions: the importance of changing cell state in development and disease. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:1438-49. [PMID: 19487820 DOI: 10.1172/jci38019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1035] [Impact Index Per Article: 69.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The events that convert adherent epithelial cells into individual migratory cells that can invade the extracellular matrix are known collectively as epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Throughout evolution, the capacity of cells to switch between these two cellular states has been fundamental in the generation of complex body patterns. Here, we review the EMT events that build the embryo and further discuss two prototypical processes governed by EMT in amniotes: gastrulation and neural crest formation. Cells undergo EMT to migrate and colonize distant territories. Not surprisingly, this is also the mechanism used by cancer cells to disperse throughout the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Acloque
- Instituto de Neurociencias (CSIC-UMH), San Juan de Alicante, Spain
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123
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Rust W, Balakrishnan T, Zweigerdt R. Cardiomyocyte enrichment from human embryonic stem cell cultures by selection of ALCAM surface expression. Regen Med 2009; 4:225-37. [PMID: 19317642 DOI: 10.2217/17460751.4.2.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The production of a homogenous population of human cardiomyocytes that can be expanded in vitro may facilitate development of replacement tissue lost as a result of cardiac disease and injury. MATERIALS AND METHODS We evaluated the utility of activated leukocyte cell-adhesion molecule, CD166 (ALCAM) expression as a marker for isolating cardiomyocytes from differentiating cultures of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). Using RT-qPCR, immunohistochemistry and DNA methylation studies, we evaluated the developmental age of hESC-derived cardiomyocytes. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate that cardiomyocytes derived from hESC cultures express ALCAM and that this surface antigen can be used to select a population of differentiated cells that are enriched for cardiomyocytes. Expression of contractile proteins and ion channels, and DNA methylation patterns, suggest that ALCAM-enriched cardiomyocytes have an embryonic phenotype. Selected cardiomyocyte populations survive sorting, adhere to collagen-coated tissue culture plastic and proliferate in short-term culture. Long-term in vitro survival of cardiomyocytes was achieved by culturing cells in 3D aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Rust
- Lonza Walkersville, Inc., 8830 Biggs Ford Road, Walkersville, MD 21793, USA.
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124
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EphrinB2 coordinates the formation of a morphological boundary and cell epithelialization during somite segmentation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:7467-72. [PMID: 19380726 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0902859106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During early morphogenesis, tissue segregation is often accompanied by changes in cell shape. To understand how such coordination is regulated, somitogenesis was used as a model. When a somite forms in the anterior end of the presomitic mesoderm, an intersomitic boundary (gap) emerges, and it is rapidly followed by cell epithelialization at this border. It has been known that the gap formation is regulated by intercellular signals. We here demonstrate that cMeso-1, the chicken homolog of mouse Mesp2, up-regulates EphA4 in the cells located posteriorly to a forming boundary. This in turn activates EphrinB2-reverse signals in the anteriorly juxtaposed cells, where the EphrinB2 signal is sufficient to cause a gap formation and cell epithelialization cell-autonomously. During these processes, Cdc42 needs to be repressed via tyrosine phosphorylation of EphrinB2. This is the first demonstration that Ephrin-reverse signal acts as a platform that couples distinct morphogenetic changes in cell polarity and tissue shape.
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125
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Satou Y, Satoh N, Imai KS. Gene regulatory networks in the early ascidian embryo. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2009; 1789:268-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2008] [Revised: 03/06/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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126
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Arnold SJ, Robertson EJ. Making a commitment: cell lineage allocation and axis patterning in the early mouse embryo. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2009; 10:91-103. [PMID: 19129791 DOI: 10.1038/nrm2618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 553] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies have identified the key signalling pathways and developmentally regulated transcription factors that govern cell lineage allocation and axis patterning in the early mammalian embryo. Recent advances have uncovered details of the molecular circuits that tightly control cell growth and differentiation in the mammalian embryo from the blastocyst stage, through the establishment of initial anterior-posterior polarity, to gastrulation, when the germ cells are set aside and the three primary germ layers are specified. Relevant studies in lower vertebrates indicate the conservation and divergence of regulatory mechanisms for cell lineage allocation and axis patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Arnold
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
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127
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Turnpenny PD. Defective somitogenesis and abnormal vertebral segmentation in man. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 638:164-89. [PMID: 21038776 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-09606-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
In recent years molecular genetics has revolutionized the study of somitogenesis in developmental biology and advances that have taken place in animal models have been applied successfully to human disease. Abnormal segmentation in man is a relatively common birth defect and advances in understanding have come through the study of cases clustered in families using DNA linkage analysis and candidate gene approaches, the latter stemming directly from knowledge gained through the study of animal models. Only a minority of abnormal segmentation phenotypes appear to follow Mendelian inheritance but three genes--DLL3, MESP2 and LNFG--have now been identified for spondylocostal dysostosis (SCD), a spinal malformation characterized by extensive hemivertebrae, trunkal shortening and abnormally aligned ribs with points of fusion. In affected families autosomal recessive inheritance is followed. These genes are all important components of the Notch signaling pathway. Other genes within the pathway cause diverse phenotypes such as Alagille syndrome (AGS) and CADASIL, conditions that may have their origin in defective vasculogenesis. This review deals mainly with SCD, with some consideration of AGS. Significant future challenges lie in identifying causes of the many abnormal segmentation phenotypes in man but it is hoped that combined approaches in collaboration with developmental biologists will reap rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D Turnpenny
- Clinical Genetics Department, Royal Devon & Exeter Hospital, Gladstone Road, Exeter EX1 2ED, United Kingdom.
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128
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Saga Y, Takahashi Y. Mesp-Family Genes Are Required for Segmental Patterning and Segmental Border Formation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 638:113-23. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-09606-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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129
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Shirinsky VP, Khapchaev AY, Stepanova OV. Molecular mechanisms of cardiomyogenesis and the prospects for cardiomyocyte regeneration in cardiac failure. Mol Biol 2008. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893308050130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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130
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Bondue A, Lapouge G, Paulissen C, Semeraro C, Iacovino M, Kyba M, Blanpain C. Mesp1 acts as a master regulator of multipotent cardiovascular progenitor specification. Cell Stem Cell 2008; 3:69-84. [PMID: 18593560 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Revised: 06/11/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During embryonic development, multipotent cardiovascular progenitor cells are specified from early mesoderm. Using mouse ESCs in which gene expression can be temporally regulated, we have found that transient expression of Mesp1 dramatically accelerates and enhances multipotent cardiovascular progenitor specification through an intrinsic and cell autonomous mechanism. Genome-wide transcriptional analysis indicates that Mesp1 rapidly activates and represses a discrete set of genes, and chromatin immunoprecipitation shows that Mesp1 directly binds to regulatory DNA sequences located in the promoter of many key genes in the core cardiac transcriptional machinery, resulting in their rapid upregulation. Mesp1 also directly represses the expression of key genes regulating other early mesoderm and endoderm cell fates. Our results demonstrate that Mesp1 acts as a key regulatory switch during cardiovascular specification, residing at the top of the hierarchy of the gene network responsible for cardiovascular cell-fate determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Bondue
- Université Libre de Bruxelles, IRIBHM, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
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131
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Lindsley RC, Gill JG, Murphy TL, Langer EM, Cai M, Mashayekhi M, Wang W, Niwa N, Nerbonne JM, Kyba M, Murphy KM. Mesp1 coordinately regulates cardiovascular fate restriction and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in differentiating ESCs. Cell Stem Cell 2008; 3:55-68. [PMID: 18593559 PMCID: PMC2497439 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2007] [Revised: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Wnt signaling is required for development of mesoderm-derived lineages and expression of transcription factors associated with the primitive streak. In a functional screen, we examined the mesoderm-inducing capacity of transcription factors whose expression was Wnt-dependent in differentiating ESCs. In contrast to many inactive factors, we found that mesoderm posterior 1 (Mesp1) promoted mesoderm development independently of Wnt signaling. Transient Mesp1 expression in ESCs promotes changes associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and induction of Snai1, consistent with a role in gastrulation. Mesp1 expression also restricted the potential fates derived from ESCs, generating mesoderm progenitors with cardiovascular, but not hematopoietic, potential. Thus, in addition to its effects on EMT, Mesp1 may be capable of generating the recently identified multipotent cardiovascular progenitor from ESCs in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Coleman Lindsley
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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132
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133
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Galvez BG, Sampaolesi M, Barbuti A, Crespi A, Covarello D, Brunelli S, Dellavalle A, Crippa S, Balconi G, Cuccovillo I, Molla F, Staszewsky L, Latini R, DiFrancesco D, Cossu G. Cardiac mesoangioblasts are committed, self-renewable progenitors, associated with small vessels of juvenile mouse ventricle. Cell Death Differ 2008; 15:1417-28. [DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2008.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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134
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Zhao R, Watt AJ, Battle MA, Li J, Bondow BJ, Duncan SA. Loss of both GATA4 and GATA6 blocks cardiac myocyte differentiation and results in acardia in mice. Dev Biol 2008; 317:614-9. [PMID: 18400219 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2008] [Revised: 03/05/2008] [Accepted: 03/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Despite significant advances in identifying signaling molecules that induce cardiogenesis in mammals, the transcription factors that control the onset of cardiac myocyte gene expression have remained elusive. Candidates include the zinc finger transcription factors GATA binding proteins 4 and 6 (GATA4, GATA6). The individual loss of either protein in mice results in lethality prior to the onset of heart development due to defects in the extra-embryonic endoderm; however, when this extra-embryonic deficiency is circumvented using tetraploid embryo complementation, cardiac myocyte differentiation initiates normally. Here we show that these factors have redundant roles in controlling the onset of cardiac myocyte differentiation. As a consequence, Gata4(-/-)Gata6(-/-) embryos completely lack hearts, although second heart field progenitor cells are still generated. Our data support a model whereby GATA4 or GATA6 are essential for expression of the network of transcription factors that regulate the onset of cardiac myocyte gene expression during mammalian development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roong Zhao
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, USA
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135
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David R, Brenner C, Stieber J, Schwarz F, Brunner S, Vollmer M, Mentele E, Müller-Höcker J, Kitajima S, Lickert H, Rupp R, Franz WM. MesP1 drives vertebrate cardiovascular differentiation through Dkk-1-mediated blockade of Wnt-signalling. Nat Cell Biol 2008; 10:338-45. [PMID: 18297060 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
ES-cell-based cardiovascular repair requires an in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the differentiation of cardiovascular ES cells. A candidate cardiovascular-fate inducer is the bHLH transcription factor MesP1. As one of the earliest markers, it is expressed specifically in almost all cardiovascular precursors and is required for cardiac morphogenesis. Here we show that MesP1 is a key factor sufficient to induce the formation of ectopic heart tissue in vertebrates and increase cardiovasculogenesis by ES cells. Electrophysiological analysis showed all subtypes of cardiac ES-cell differentiation. MesP1 overexpression and knockdown experiments revealed a prominent function of MesP1 in a gene regulatory cascade, causing Dkk-1-mediated blockade of canonical Wnt-signalling. Independent evidence from ChIP and in vitro DNA-binding studies, expression analysis in wild-type and MesP knockout mice, and reporter assays confirm that Dkk-1 is a direct target of MesP1. Further analysis of the regulatory networks involving MesP1 will be required to preprogramme ES cells towards a cardiovascular fate for cell therapy and cardiovascular tissue engineering. This may also provide a tool to elicit cardiac transdifferentiation in native human adult stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- R David
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum Grosshadern der LMU, D-81377 München, Germany.
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136
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Oginuma M, Hirata T, Saga Y. Identification of presomitic mesoderm (PSM)-specific Mesp1 enhancer and generation of a PSM-specific Mesp1/Mesp2-null mouse using BAC-based rescue technology. Mech Dev 2008; 125:432-40. [PMID: 18328678 DOI: 10.1016/j.mod.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2007] [Revised: 01/28/2008] [Accepted: 01/29/2008] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) modification technology is a powerful method for the identification of enhancer sequences and genetic modifications. Using this method, we have analyzed the Mesp1 and/or Mesp2 enhancers and identified P1-PSME, a PSM-specific enhancer of Mesp1, which contains a T-box binding site similar to the previously identified P2-PSME. Hence, Mesp1 and Mesp2 use different enhancers for their PSM-specific expression. In addition, we find that these two genes also use distinct enhancers for their early mesodermal expression. Based on these results, we generated a PSM-specific Mesp1/Mesp2-null mouse by introducing a BAC clone, from which only early mesodermal Mesp1 expression is possible, into the Mesp1/Mesp2 double knockout (dKO) genetic background. This successfully rescued gastrulation defects due to the lack of the early mesoderm in the dKO mouse and we thereby obtained a PSM-specific Mesp1/Mesp2-null mouse showing a lack of segmented somites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Oginuma
- Department of Genetics, SOKENDAI, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
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137
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Hart DO, Raha T, Lawson ND, Green MR. Initiation of zebrafish haematopoiesis by the TATA-box-binding protein-related factor Trf3. Nature 2007; 450:1082-5. [PMID: 18046332 PMCID: PMC2150749 DOI: 10.1038/nature06349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 10/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
TATA-box-binding protein (TBP)-related factor 3, TRF3 (also called TBP2), is a vertebrate-specific member of the TBP family that has a conserved carboxy-terminal region and DNA-binding domain virtually identical to that of TBP (ref. 1). TRF3 is highly expressed during embryonic development, and studies in zebrafish and Xenopus have shown that it is required for normal embryogenesis. Here we show that zebrafish embryos depleted of Trf3 exhibit multiple developmental defects and, in particular, fail to undergo haematopoiesis. Expression profiling for Trf3-dependent genes identified mespa, which encodes a transcription factor whose murine orthologue is required for mesoderm specification, and chromatin immunoprecipitation verified that Trf3 binds to the mespa promoter. Depletion of Mespa resulted in developmental and haematopoietic defects markedly similar to those induced by Trf3 depletion. Injection of mespa messenger RNA (mRNA) restored normal development to a Trf3-depleted embryo, indicating mespa is the single Trf3 target gene required for zebrafish embryogenesis. Zebrafish embryos depleted of Trf3 or Mespa also failed to express cdx4, a caudal-related gene required for haematopoiesis. Mespa binds to the cdx4 promoter, and epistasis analysis revealed an ordered trf3-mespa-cdx4 pathway. Thus, in zebrafish, commitment of mesoderm to the haematopoietic lineage occurs through a transcription factor pathway initiated by a TBP-related factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel O Hart
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
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138
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Saga Y. Segmental border is defined by the key transcription factor Mesp2, by means of the suppression of Notch activity. Dev Dyn 2007; 236:1450-5. [PMID: 17394251 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elaborate somite patterning is based upon dynamic gene regulation within the presomitic mesoderm (PSM), which is derived from the primitive streak and tail bud in the later stage mouse embryo. The Notch signaling pathway and its regulators are major components of most of the events required for temporally and spatially coordinated somite formation. The PSM can be subdivided into at least two domains, based upon transcriptional regulation and gene function. In the posterior PSM, the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) protein Hes7 plays a central role in generating a traveling wave of gene expression by negatively regulating the transcription of its target genes. This in turn may define the somite spacing and future segmental units. In the anterior PSM, cells begin to form segmental patterning by acquiring rostral or caudal identities of somite primordia and by defining the segmental border, which must be coupled with the segmentation clock. The link between the clock and segmental border formation is of fundamental importance during somitogenesis. During this process, Mesp2, another basic HLH protein, plays a critical role in the anterior PSM. In this review, I further clarify the dynamic processes leading to segmental border formation in the developing mouse embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumiko Saga
- Division of Mammalian Development, National Institute of Genetics, and Department of Genetics, Sokendai, Mishima, Japan.
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139
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Takahashi Y, Takagi A, Hiraoka S, Koseki H, Kanno J, Rawls A, Saga Y. Transcription factors Mesp2 and Paraxis have critical roles in axial musculoskeletal formation. Dev Dyn 2007; 236:1484-94. [PMID: 17477400 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesp2 and Paraxis are basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) -type transcription factors coexpressed in the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) and are required for normal somite formation. Here, we show that Mesp2/Paraxis double-null mice exhibit a distinct phenotype unexpected from either Mesp2 or Paraxis single-null mice. In the posterior region of the body, most of the skeletal components of both the vertebral body and neural arches are severely reduced and only a rudimental lamina and ribs remain, indicating a strong genetic interaction in the sclerotomal cell lineage. However, yeast two-hybrid analyses revealed no direct interaction between Mesp2 and Paraxis. The Mesp2/Paraxis double-null embryo has caudalized somites, revealed by expanded Uncx4.1 expression pattern observed in the Mesp2-null embryo, but the expression level of Uncx4.1 was significantly decreased in mature somites, indicative of hypoplasia of lateral sclerotome derivatives. By focusing on vertebral column formation, we found that expressions of Pax1, Nkx3.1, and Bapx1 are regulated by Paraxis and that Pax9 expression was severely affected in the Mesp2/Paraxis double-null embryo. Furthermore, the expression of Pax3, a crucial factor for hypaxial muscle differentiation, is regulated by both Mesp2 and Paraxis in the anteriormost PSM and nascent somite region. The present data strongly suggest that patterning events by bHLH-type transcription factors have deep impacts on regional chondrogenic and myogenic differentiation of somitic cells, mainly by means of control of Pax genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Takahashi
- Cellular & Molecular Toxicology Division, National Institute of Health Sciences, Setagayaku, Tokyo, Japan.
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140
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Turnpenny PD, Alman B, Cornier AS, Giampietro PF, Offiah A, Tassy O, Pourquié O, Kusumi K, Dunwoodie S. Abnormal vertebral segmentation and the notch signaling pathway in man. Dev Dyn 2007; 236:1456-74. [PMID: 17497699 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormal vertebral segmentation (AVS) in man is a relatively common congenital malformation but cannot be subjected to the scientific analysis that is applied in animal models. Nevertheless, some spectacular advances in the cell biology and molecular genetics of somitogenesis in animal models have proved to be directly relevant to human disease. Some advances in our understanding have come through DNA linkage analysis in families demonstrating a clustering of AVS cases, as well as adopting a candidate gene approach. Only rarely do AVS phenotypes follow clear Mendelian inheritance, but three genes-DLL3, MESP2, and LNFG-have now been identified for spondylocostal dysostosis (SCD). SCD is characterized by extensive hemivertebrae, trunkal shortening, and abnormally aligned ribs with points of fusion. In familial cases clearly following a Mendelian pattern, autosomal recessive inheritance is more common than autosomal dominant and the genes identified are functional within the Notch signaling pathway. Other genes within the pathway cause diverse phenotypes such as Alagille syndrome (AGS) and CADASIL, conditions that may have their origin in defective vasculogenesis. Here, we deal mainly with SCD and AGS, and present a new classification system for AVS phenotypes, for which, hitherto, the terminology has been inconsistent and confusing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D Turnpenny
- Clinical Genetics, Royal Devon & Exeter Hospital, and Peninsula Medical School, Exeter, United Kingdom.
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141
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Abstract
The vertebrate heart comprises a variety of cell types, the majority of which are cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle and endothelial cells. Their origin is still an intriguing research topic and the question is whether these cells derive from a common or from multiple distinct progenitor cell(s). Three recent publications not only suggest the existence of a single progenitor cell that can give rise to cardiovascular lineages but additionally uncovered, at least in part, the molecular identity of such a multipotent precursor cell. These findings constitute major progress in the quest for stem-cell therapies for cardiac diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Anton
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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142
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Takahashi Y, Yasuhiko Y, Kitajima S, Kanno J, Saga Y. Appropriate suppression of Notch signaling by Mesp factors is essential for stripe pattern formation leading to segment boundary formation. Dev Biol 2007; 304:593-603. [PMID: 17306789 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2006] [Revised: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 01/04/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mesp1 and Mesp2 are homologous transcription factors that are co-expressed in the anterior presomitic mesoderm (PSM) during mouse somitogenesis. The loss of Mesp2 alone in our conventional Mesp2-null mice results in the complete disruption of somitogenesis, including segment border formation, rostro-caudal patterning and epithelialization of somitic mesoderm. This has led us to interpret that Mesp2 is solely responsible for somitogenesis. Our novel Mesp2 knock-in alleles, however, exhibit a remarkable upregulation of Mesp1. Removal of the pgk-neo cassette from the new allele leads to localization of Mesp1 and several gene expression, and somite formation in the tail region. Moreover, a reduction in the gene dosage of Mesp1 by one copy disrupts somite formation, confirming the involvement of Mesp1 in the rescue events. Furthermore, we find that activated Notch1 knock-in significantly upregulates Mesp1 expression, even in the absence of a Notch signal mediator, Psen1. This indicates that the Psen1-independent effects of activated Notch1 are mostly attributable to the induction of Mesp1. However, we have also confirmed that Mesp2 enhances the expression of the Notch1 receptor in the anterior PSM. The activation and subsequent suppression of Notch signaling might thus be a crucial event for both stripe pattern formation and boundary formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Takahashi
- Cellular and Molecular Toxicology Division, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagayaku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan.
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143
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Scott IC, Masri B, D'Amico LA, Jin SW, Jungblut B, Wehman AM, Baier H, Audigier Y, Stainier DYR. The G Protein-Coupled Receptor Agtrl1b Regulates Early Development of Myocardial Progenitors. Dev Cell 2007; 12:403-13. [PMID: 17336906 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2007.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2006] [Revised: 12/18/2006] [Accepted: 01/17/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
While many factors that modulate the morphogenesis and patterning of the embryonic heart have been identified, relatively little is known about the molecular events that regulate the differentiation of progenitor cells fated to form the myocardium. Here, we show that zebrafish grinch (grn) mutants form a reduced number of myocardial progenitor cells, which results in a profound deficit in cardiomyocyte numbers in the most severe cases. We show that grn encodes the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) Agtrl1b, a known regulator of adult cardiovascular physiology. Ectopic expression of Apelin, an Agtrl1b ligand, results in the complete absence of cardiomyocytes. Data from transplantation and transgenic approaches indicate that Agtrl1 signaling plays a cell-autonomous role in myocardial specification, with activity being required coincident with the onset of gastrulation movements. These results support a model in which agtrl1b regulates the migration of cells fated to form myocardial progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C Scott
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Programs in Developmental Biology, Genetics and Human Genetics, and Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th Street, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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144
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Liu Y, Asakura M, Inoue H, Nakamura T, Sano M, Niu Z, Chen M, Schwartz RJ, Schneider MD. Sox17 is essential for the specification of cardiac mesoderm in embryonic stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:3859-64. [PMID: 17360443 PMCID: PMC1820674 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0609100104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Early steps for cardiac specification are problematic for the study of mammalian embryos, which has favored using pluripotent cells that recapitulate cardiac myogenesis. Furthermore, circuits governing cardiac specification have relevance to the application of ES cells and other cells for heart repair. In mouse teratocarcinoma cells, canonical Wnts that inhibit heart formation in avian or amphibian embryos and explants activate cardiogenesis, paradoxically. Here, we show that the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway also is essential for cardiac myogenesis to occur in ES cells, acting at a gastrulation-like stage, mediating mesoderm formation and patterning (two prerequisites for cardiac myogenesis itself). Among genes associated temporally with this step was Sox17, encoding an endodermal HMG-box transcription factor. Using lentiviral vectors for RNA interference in differentiating ES cells, an essential role for Sox17 was proven in cardiac muscle cell formation. Sox17 short-hairpin RNA suppresses cardiac myogenesis selectively, acting subsequent to mesoderm formation yet before induction of Mesp1 and Mesp2, a pair of related basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors that together are indispensable for creating heart mesoderm. Sox17 short-hairpin RNA blocks cardiac myogenesis non-cell autonomously and impairs the induction of Hex, a homeodomain transcription factor that is known to be required for the production of endoderm-derived heart-inducing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Masanori Asakura
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Hironori Inoue
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Teruya Nakamura
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Motoaki Sano
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Zhiyv Niu
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | | | - Robert J. Schwartz
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
| | - Michael D. Schneider
- *Center for Cardiovascular Development, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030; and
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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145
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Kattman SJ, Huber TL, Keller GM. Multipotent flk-1+ cardiovascular progenitor cells give rise to the cardiomyocyte, endothelial, and vascular smooth muscle lineages. Dev Cell 2007; 11:723-32. [PMID: 17084363 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2006.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 596] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2006] [Revised: 09/16/2006] [Accepted: 10/05/2006] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Cell-tracing studies in the mouse indicate that the cardiac lineage arises from a population that expresses the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2, Flk-1), suggesting that it may develop from a progenitor with vascular potential. Using the embryonic stem (ES) cell differentiation model, we have identified a cardiovascular progenitor based on the temporal expression of the primitive streak (PS) marker brachyury and Flk-1. Comparable progenitors could also be isolated from head-fold stage embryos. When cultured with cytokines known to function during cardiogenesis, individual cardiovascular progenitors generated colonies that displayed cardiomyocyte, endothelial, and vascular smooth muscle (VSM) potential. Isolation and characterization of this previously unidentified population suggests that the mammalian cardiovascular system develops from multipotential progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Kattman
- Department of Gene and Cell Medicine, The Black Family Stem Cell Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029, USA
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146
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147
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Sparrow DB, Chapman G, Turnpenny PD, Dunwoodie SL. Disruption of the somitic molecular clock causes abnormal vertebral segmentation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 81:93-110. [PMID: 17600782 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Somites are the precursors of the vertebral column. They segment from the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) that is caudally located and newly generated from the tailbud. Somites form in synchrony on either side of the embryonic midline in a reiterative manner. A molecular clock that operates in the PSM drives this reiterative process. Genetic manipulation in mouse, chick and zebrafish has revealed that the molecular clock controls the activity of the Notch and WNT signaling pathways in the PSM. Disruption of the molecular clock impacts on somite formation causing abnormal vertebral segmentation (AVS). A number of dysmorphic syndromes manifest AVS defects. Interaction between developmental biologists and clinicians has lead to groundbreaking research in this area with the identification that spondylocostal dysostosis (SCD) is caused by mutation in Delta-like 3 (DLL3), Mesoderm posterior 2 (MESP2), and Lunatic fringe (LFNG); three genes that are components of the Notch signaling pathway. This review describes our current understanding of the somitic molecular clock and highlights how key findings in developmental biology can impact on clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan B Sparrow
- Developmental Biology Program, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
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148
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Abstract
The primitive chordate Ciona intestinalis has emerged as a significant model system for the study of heart development. The Ciona embryo employs a conserved heart gene network in the context of extremely low cell numbers and reduced genetic redundancy. Here, I review recent studies on the molecular genetics of Ciona cardiogenesis as well as classic work on heart anatomy and physiology. I also discuss the potential of employing Ciona to decipher a comprehensive chordate gene network and to determine how this network controls heart morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad Davidson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Genetics & Development, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States.
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149
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Morimoto M, Kiso M, Sasaki N, Saga Y. Cooperative Mesp activity is required for normal somitogenesis along the anterior–posterior axis. Dev Biol 2006; 300:687-98. [PMID: 16996494 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2006] [Revised: 07/10/2006] [Accepted: 08/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mesp2 is a bHLH-type transcription factor that plays a key role during somitogenesis. Mesp2 is transiently expressed and is quickly degraded once translated. In our current study, we find that Mesp2 contains a degradation domain, which acts as a target of proteasome-mediated proteolysis and appears to play this role in vivo. We have also defined the nuclear localization signals (NLS) and constructed a minimum Mesp2 protein (P2-HD) composed of the NLS, bHLH and the degradation domains. The ability of the P2-HD as a transcription factor in vivo was examined. Some of the defects that had been previously observed in the Mesp2-null mice were rescued in the knock-in mice but only in the posterior half of the body, indicating differential effects of P2-HD along the anterior-posterior (AP) axis. In addition, quantitative analysis of the expression along the AP axis revealed that the relative levels of Mesp2 increased, whereas Mesp1 is down-regulated in the later stages of development by the activities of Mesp2 in the wild-type embryo. Moreover, we have found that somitogenesis in the early stages is more susceptible to changes in the Mesp gene dosage, indicating that a threshold level of Mesp activity must be required for the progression of normal somitogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuru Morimoto
- Division of Mammalian Development, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima 411-8540, Japan
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150
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Davidson B, Shi W, Beh J, Christiaen L, Levine M. FGF signaling delineates the cardiac progenitor field in the simple chordate, Ciona intestinalis. Genes Dev 2006; 20:2728-38. [PMID: 17015434 PMCID: PMC1578698 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1467706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2006] [Accepted: 08/18/2006] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Comprehensive gene networks in Ciona intestinalis embryos provide a foundation for characterizing complex developmental processes, such as the initial phases of chordate heart development. The basic helix-loop-helix regulatory gene Ci-Mesp is required for activation of cardiac transcription factors. Evidence is presented that Ci-Ets1/2, a transcriptional effector of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling, acts downstream from Mesp to establish the heart field. Asymmetric activation of Ets1/2, possibly through localized expression of FGF9, drives heart specification within this field. During gastrulation, Ets1/2 is expressed in a group of four cells descended from two Mesp-expressing founder cells (the B7.5 cells). After gastrulation, these cells divide asymmetrically; the smaller rostral daughters exhibit RTK activation (phosphorylation of ERK) and form the heart lineage while the larger caudal daughters form the anterior tail muscle lineage. Inhibition of RTK signaling prevents heart specification. Targeted inhibition of Ets1/2 activity or FGF receptor function also blocks heart specification. Conversely, application of FGF or targeted expression of constitutively active Ets1/2 (EtsVp16) cause both rostral and caudal B7.5 lineages to form heart cells. This expansion produces an unexpected phenotype: transformation of a single-compartment heart into a functional multicompartment organ. We discuss these results with regard to the development and evolution of the multichambered vertebrate heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad Davidson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Genetics and Development, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
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