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Isidro J, Menezes J, Serrano M, Borges V, Paixão P, Mimoso M, Martins F, Toscano C, Santos A, Henriques AO, Oleastro M. Genomic Study of a Clostridium difficile Multidrug Resistant Outbreak-Related Clone Reveals Novel Determinants of Resistance. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2994. [PMID: 30574133 PMCID: PMC6291485 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background:Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is prevalent in healthcare settings. The emergence of hypervirulent and antibiotic resistant strains has led to an increase in CDI incidence and frequent outbreaks. While the main virulence factors are the TcdA and TcdB toxins, antibiotic resistance is thought to play a key role in the infection by and dissemination of C. difficile. Methods: A CDI outbreak involving 12 patients was detected in a tertiary care hospital, in Lisbon, which extended from January to July, with a peak in February, in 2016. The C. difficile isolates, obtained from anaerobic culture of stool samples, were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing with Etest®strips against 11 antibiotics, determination of toxin genes profile, PCR-ribotyping, multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) and whole genome sequencing (WGS). Results: Of the 12 CDI cases detected, 11 isolates from 11 patients were characterized. All isolates were tcdA-/tcdB+ and belonged to ribotype 017, and showed high level resistance to clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin, imipenem, moxifloxacin, rifampicin and tetracycline. The isolates belonged to four genetically related MLVA types, with six isolates forming a clonal cluster. Three outbreak isolates, each from a different MLVA type, were selected for WGS. Bioinformatics analysis showed the presence of several antibiotic resistance determinants, including the Thr82Ile substitution in gyrA, conferring moxifloxacin resistance, the substitutions His502Asn and Arg505Lys in rpoB for rifampicin resistance, the tetM gene, associated with tetracycline resistance, and two genes encoding putative aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes, aadE and aac(6′)-aph(2″). Furthermore, a not previously described 61.3 kb putative mobile element was identified, presenting a mosaic structure and containing the genes ermG, mefA/msrD and vat, associated with macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramins resistance. A substitution found in a class B penicillin-binding protein, Cys721Ser, is thought to contribute to imipenem resistance. Conclusion: We describe an epidemic, tcdA-/tcdB+, multidrug resistant clone of C. difficile from ribotype 017 associated with a hospital outbreak, providing further evidence that the lack of TcdA does not impair the infectious potential of these strains. We identified several determinants of antimicrobial resistance, including new ones located in mobile elements, highlighting the importance of horizontal gene transfer in the pathogenicity and epidemiological success of C. difficile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Isidro
- Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal.,Departamento de Genética Humana, Unidade de Tecnologia e Inovação, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Juliana Menezes
- Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Mónica Serrano
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Vítor Borges
- Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Pedro Paixão
- Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Ocidental, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | | | | | - Andrea Santos
- Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Adriano O Henriques
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Mónica Oleastro
- Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge, Lisbon, Portugal
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Kullin BR, Reid S, Abratt V. Clostridium difficile in patients attending tuberculosis hospitals in Cape Town, South Africa, 2014-2015. Afr J Lab Med 2018; 7:846. [PMID: 30568907 PMCID: PMC6295828 DOI: 10.4102/ajlm.v7i2.846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Diarrhoea due to Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) poses a significant burden on healthcare systems around the world. However, there are few reports on the current status of the disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Objectives This study examined the occurrence of CDI in a South African population of tuberculosis patients, as well as the molecular epidemiology and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of C. difficile strains responsible for disease. Methods Toxigenic C. difficile in patients with suspected CDI attending two specialist tuberculosis hospitals in the Cape Town area were detected using a PCR-based diagnostic assay (Xpert® C. difficile). C. difficile strains isolated from PCR-positive specimens were characterised by ribotyping, multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis and antibiotic susceptibility testing. Results The period prevalence of CDI was approximately 70.07 cases per 1000 patient admissions. Strains belonging to ribotype 017 (RT017) made up over 95% of the patient isolates and all of them were multi-drug resistant. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis revealed several clusters of highly related C. difficile RT017 strains present in tuberculosis patients in several wards at each hospital. Conclusion Tuberculosis patients represent a population that may be at an increased risk of developing CDI and, in addition, may constitute a multi-drug resistant reservoir of this bacterium. This warrants further investigation and surveillance of the disease in this patient group and other high-risk patient groups in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Kullin
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sharon Reid
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Valerie Abratt
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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The predictive value of quantitative nucleic acid amplification detection of Clostridium difficile toxin gene for faecal sample toxin status and patient outcome. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205941. [PMID: 30517094 PMCID: PMC6281240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) remains unsettled, despite updated guidelines. We investigated the potential utility of quantitative data from a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) for C. difficile toxin gene (tg) for patient management. METHODS Using data from the largest ever C. difficile diagnostic study (8853 diarrhoeal samples from 7335 patients), we determined the predicative value of C. difficile tgNAAT (Cepheid Xpert C.diff) low cycle threshold (CT) value for patient toxin positive status, CDI severity, mortality and CDI recurrence. Reference methods for CDI diagnosis were cytotoxicity assay (CTA) and cytotoxigenic culture (CTC). RESULTS Of 1281 tgNAAT positive faecal samples, 713 and 917 were CTA and CTC positive, respectively. The median tgNAAT CT for patients who died was 25.5 vs 27.5 for survivors (p = 0.021); for toxin-positivity was 24.9 vs 31.6 for toxin-negative samples (p<0.001) and for patients with a recurrence episode was 25.6 vs 27.3 for those who did not have a recurrent episode (p = 0.111). Following optimal cut-off determination, low CT was defined as ≤25 and was significantly associated with a toxin-positive result (P<0.001, positive predictive value 83.9%), presence of PCR-ribotype 027 (P = 0.025), and mortality (P = 0.032). Recurrence was not associated with low CT (p 0.111). CONCLUSIONS Low tgNAAT CT could indicate CTA positive patients, have more severe infection, increased risk of mortality and possibly recurrence. Although, the limited specificity of tgNAAT means it cannot be used as a standalone test, it could augment a more timely diagnosis, and optimise management of these at-risk patients.
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104
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Kociolek LK, Perdue ER, Fawley WN, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN, Johnson S. Correlation between restriction endonuclease analysis and PCR ribotyping for the identification of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile clinical strains. Anaerobe 2018; 54:1-7. [PMID: 30009944 PMCID: PMC6924008 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Restriction endonuclease analysis (REA) and PCR ribotyping are two typing systems that have been frequently utilized for molecular epidemiologic characterization of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile. To correlate typing data obtained from each method, we performed both REA and PCR ribotyping on a large and diverse set of historical and contemporary C. difficile infection clinical isolates. Eighty isolates were selected from each reference laboratory in the United States (Microbiology Reference Laboratory, Hines VA Medical Center) and United Kingdom (Clostridium difficile Network for England and Northern Ireland laboratory, University of Leeds). The 160 isolates were assigned to 82 unique ribotypes and 51 unique REA groups (116 unique REA types). In general, concordance between typing methods was good. Dendrogram analysis of PCR ribotype band patterns demonstrated close genetic relationships among strain types with discordant REA and ribotype assignments. While REA typing was more discriminatory, several REA types in this study were further discriminated by PCR ribotyping, indicating that discriminatory value of these typing methods may be strain dependent. These data will assist with molecular epidemiologic surveillance of strains identified by these two commonly used C. difficile typing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry K Kociolek
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 420 E. Superior St, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, 225 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| | - Eric R Perdue
- Edward Hines, Jr. Veterans Administration Hospital, 5000 5th Ave., Hines, IL, 60141, USA.
| | - Warren N Fawley
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Mark H Wilcox
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Dale N Gerding
- Edward Hines, Jr. Veterans Administration Hospital, 5000 5th Ave., Hines, IL, 60141, USA; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, 2160 S 1st Ave., Maywood, IL, 60153, USA.
| | - Stuart Johnson
- Edward Hines, Jr. Veterans Administration Hospital, 5000 5th Ave., Hines, IL, 60141, USA; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, 2160 S 1st Ave., Maywood, IL, 60153, USA.
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Krutova M, Zouharova M, Matejkova J, Tkadlec J, Krejčí J, Faldyna M, Nyc O, Bernardy J. The emergence of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 in piglets in the Czech Republic clusters with Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 isolates from Germany, Japan and Taiwan. Int J Med Microbiol 2018; 308:770-775. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
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Comparison of Common Molecular Typing Methods for Differentiation of Clostridium difficile Strains in the Study of Hospital Acquired Infections. ARCHIVES OF CLINICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/archcid.61030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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107
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Burt SA, Meijer K, Burggraaff P, Kamerich WS, Harmanus C. Wild mice in and around the city of Utrecht, the Netherlands, are carriers of Clostridium difficile but not ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, Salmonella spp. or MRSA. Lett Appl Microbiol 2018; 67:513-519. [PMID: 30144118 DOI: 10.1111/lam.13066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mice in buildings are a hygiene hazard because they harbour several zoonoses and animal diseases. The aim of this study was to gather information on specific bacteria in house mice caught in the urban environment. Mice caught in snap traps during pest control activities were collected in and around the city of Utrecht, the Netherlands, during May-June 2014, October-November 2015 and September-November 2016. The gut contents were analysed for ESBL/AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae, Salmonella spp., and Clostridium difficile and the buccal cavities were swabbed for methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In total, 109 house mice (Mus musculus) and 22 wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) were examined. One mouse was found positive for Enterobacter spp. Salmonella spp. and MRSA were not found. Of n = 80 mice, 35·0% carried C. difficile (ribotypes in descending order of frequency: 014/020, 258, 002, 005, 013, 056, 081 and two unknown ribotypes). In conclusion, mouse droppings are a hazard for transmission of C. difficile to humans and their environment. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study shows that mice in buildings can carry Clostridium difficile ribotypes that are associated with clinical disease in humans. Whether the mice are the source or whether they picked up these bacteria from the human environment has not been investigated. Either way, mouse droppings in the indoor environment are a hazard for transmission of C. difficile to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Burt
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - K Meijer
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - P Burggraaff
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - W S Kamerich
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - C Harmanus
- Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Grześkowiak Ł, Riedmüller J, de Thomasson H, Bordessoule S, Seyboldt C, Zentek J, Vahjen W. Porcine and bovine Clostridium difficile ribotype 078 isolates demonstrate similar growth and toxigenic properties. Int Microbiol 2018; 21:215-221. [PMID: 30810901 DOI: 10.1007/s10123-018-0018-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Clostridioides (C.) difficile are found in cows, pigs and poultry suggesting that this pathogen is present and more importantly animals could act as a reservoir, via food or environment, of human C. difficile infection. Molecular methods together with phenotypical characterisation bring integrated and important tools to describe diversity and nature of bacteria including C. difficile. Moreover, similar or identical C. difficile types are found in different farm animals. This study aimed to phenotypically characterise C. difficile isolates belonging to ribotype 078 and to identify differences such as growth and toxicity between porcine and bovine isolates. C. difficile isolates were assessed for the growth behaviour (turbidimetry), metabolic potential (Biolog AN) and toxin production (ELISA method) in vitro. The concentration of released either toxin A (TcdA) or toxin B (TcdB) varied greatly between the isolates tested; however, it did not differ between the porcine and bovine ribotypes. Also, the TcdA/TcdB ratio of the isolates did not show a difference either. The most common metabolised substrates were pyruvic acid followed by α-ketobutyric acid. The results show that both porcine and bovine C. difficile RT 078 share similar phenotypical characteristics including growth and production of toxins. The findings may help understand the virulence of C. difficile RT 078 in porcine and bovine species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Grześkowiak
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Königin-Luise-Str. 49, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Jonathan Riedmüller
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Königin-Luise-Str. 49, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Solenne Bordessoule
- Ecole de Biologie Industrielle, 49 Avenue des Genottes, 95800, Cergy, France
| | - Christian Seyboldt
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Naumburger Straße 96a, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Zentek
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Königin-Luise-Str. 49, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Wilfried Vahjen
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Königin-Luise-Str. 49, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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Mallia G, Van Toen J, Rousseau J, Jacob L, Boerlin P, Greer A, Metcalf D, Weese J. Examining the epidemiology and microbiology of Clostridium difficile carriage in elderly patients and residents of a healthcare facility in southern Ontario, Canada. J Hosp Infect 2018; 99:461-468. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2018.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Álvarez-Pérez S, Blanco JL, Astorga RJ, Gómez-Laguna J, Barrero-Domínguez B, Galán-Relaño A, Harmanus C, Kuijper E, García ME. Distribution and tracking of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in a free-range pig abattoir and processing plant. Food Res Int 2018; 113:456-464. [PMID: 30195542 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The presence and genetic diversity of Clostridium difficile and C. perfringens along the slaughtering process of pigs reared in a free-range system was assessed. A total of 270 samples from trucks, lairage, slaughter line and quartering were analyzed, and recovered isolates were toxinotyped and genotyped. C. difficile and C. perfringens were retrieved from 14.4% and 12.6% of samples, respectively. The highest percentage of positive samples for C. difficile was detected in trucks (80%) whereas C. perfringens was more prevalent in cecal and colonic samples obtained in the slaughter line (85% and 45%, respectively). C. difficile isolates (n = 105) were classified into 17 PCR ribotypes (including 010, 078, and 126) and 95 AFLP genotypes. C. perfringens isolates (n = 85) belonged to toxinotypes A (94.1%) and C (5.9%) and were classified into 80 AFLP genotypes. The same genotypes of C. difficile and C. perfringens were isolated from different pigs and occasionally from environmental samples, suggesting a risk of contaminated meat products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Álvarez-Pérez
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L Blanco
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rafael J Astorga
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Jaime Gómez-Laguna
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Belén Barrero-Domínguez
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Angela Galán-Relaño
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Celine Harmanus
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ed Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marta E García
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Krehelova M, Nyč O, Sinajová E, Krutova M. The predominance and clustering of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile PCR ribotype 001 isolates in three hospitals in Eastern Slovakia, 2017. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2018; 64:49-54. [PMID: 29971567 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-018-0629-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to implement a toxigenic culture as an optional third diagnostic step for glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH)-positive and toxin A/B-negative diarrheal stool samples into a diagnostic algorithm for Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CDI), and to characterise C. difficile isolates for epidemiological purposes. During the 5-month study, 481 diarrhoeal stool samples from three Slovak hospitals were investigated and 66 non-duplicated GDH-positive stool samples were found. Of them, 36 were also toxin A/B-positive. Twenty-three GDH-positive and toxin A/B-negative stool samples were shown subsequently to be positive following toxigenic culture (TC). Molecular characterisation of C. difficile isolates showed the predominance of PCR ribotype (RT) 001 (n = 37, 56.1%) and the occurrence of RT 176 (n = 3, 4.5%). C. difficile RT 001 isolates clustered to eight clonal complexes (CCs) using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeats analysis (MLVA). Interestingly, one third of RT 001 isolates clustering in these CCs were cultured from toxin A/B-negative stool samples. Our observations highlight the need of use multiple step diagnostic algorithm in CDI diagnosis in order to detect all CDI cases and to avoid the spread of C. difficile in healthcare settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Otakar Nyč
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Uvalu 84, 150 06, Prague 5, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Sinajová
- Department of Microbiology, Medirex Group, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Uvalu 84, 150 06, Prague 5, Czech Republic.
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112
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Evaluation of the Use of Rectal Swabs for Laboratory Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile Infection. J Clin Microbiol 2018; 56:JCM.00426-18. [PMID: 29720433 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00426-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
For the diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), microbiological testing is almost always accomplished through the analysis of stool specimens. We evaluated the performances of rectal swabs with liquid transport medium (FS) and nylon flocked dry swabs for the detection of C. difficile Additionally, the impact on the diagnostic yield of storing swabs at -80°C for up to 3 months was evaluated. Sixty clinical stool samples positive for C. difficile by PCR were used for simulating rectal swabbing. FS and dry swabs were dipped into the stool and tested by PCR directly after swabbing at 1 and 3 months after storage at -80°C. Stool and the liquid medium of FS were additionally tested by a combination of glutamate dehydrogenase antigen (GDH) testing and toxin A/B enzyme immunoassay (EIA), as well as by toxigenic culture (TC). Using dry swabs, the PCR-based detection rate of C. difficile was equal to the rate using stool samples (30/30 [100%]), whereas the detection rate in FS was significantly lower (25/30 [83.2%]; P = 0.019). The sensitivities of FS for detecting C. difficile by PCR, TC, GDH testing, and toxin A/B EIA were 83.3%, 85.7%, 88%, and 68.9%, respectively. Storage of swabs at -80°C had no impact on the detection rate. FS cannot replace stool samples in the two-step laboratory diagnosis of CDI, as the sensitivities were too low, probably due to diluting effects of the fecal sample in the liquid medium. For simple PCR-based detection of C. difficile, dry swabs proved to be a suitable alternative to the use of stool samples.
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Riley TV, Collins DA, Karunakaran R, Kahar MA, Adnan A, Hassan SA, Zainul NH, Rustam FRM, Wahab ZA, Ramli R, Lee YY, Hassan H. High Prevalence of Toxigenic and Nontoxigenic Clostridium difficile Strains in Malaysia. J Clin Microbiol 2018; 56:e00170-18. [PMID: 29563206 PMCID: PMC5971540 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00170-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence shows a high prevalence of Clostridium difficile in Southeast Asia associated with a range of clinical presentations. However, severe infections are rarely reported. We investigated C. difficile infection (CDI) across four hospitals in Kuala Lumpur and Kota Bharu, Malaysia. Enzyme immunoassays for glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and toxin A or B were performed on diarrheal stool specimens collected from patients in 2015 and 2016. Specimens were also cultured and isolates of C. difficile characterized by PCR ribotyping and detection of toxin genes. In total, 437 specimens were collected and fecal toxin was detected in 3.0%. A further 16.2% of specimens were GDH positive and toxin negative. After culture, toxigenic strains were isolated from 10.3% and nontoxigenic strains from 12.4% of specimens. The most prevalent PCR ribotypes (RTs) were RT 017 (20.0%) and RT 043 (10.0%). The high prevalence of RT 017 and nontoxigenic strains in Malaysia and in neighboring Thailand and Indonesia suggests that they localize to the region of Southeast Asia, with an implication that they may mediate the burden of CDI in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas V Riley
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands, Australia
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Australia
| | - Deirdre A Collins
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Rina Karunakaran
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Maria Abdul Kahar
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Ariza Adnan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Siti Asma Hassan
- School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Z Abd Wahab
- Sungai Buloh Hospital, Sungai Buloh, Malaysia
| | - Ramliza Ramli
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yeong Yeh Lee
- School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Hamimah Hassan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Eyre DW, Fawley WN, Rajgopal A, Settle C, Mortimer K, Goldenberg SD, Dawson S, Crook DW, Peto TEA, Walker AS, Wilcox MH. Comparison of Control of Clostridium difficile Infection in Six English Hospitals Using Whole-Genome Sequencing. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 65:433-441. [PMID: 28575285 PMCID: PMC5850028 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. Variation in Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) rates between healthcare institutions suggests overall incidence could be reduced if the lowest rates could be achieved more widely. Methods. We used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of consecutive C. difficile isolates from 6 English hospitals over 1 year (2013–14) to compare infection control performance. Fecal samples with a positive initial screen for C. difficile were sequenced. Within each hospital, we estimated the proportion of cases plausibly acquired from previous cases. Results. Overall, 851/971 (87.6%) sequenced samples contained toxin genes, and 451 (46.4%) were fecal-toxin-positive. Of 652 potentially toxigenic isolates >90-days after the study started, 128 (20%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 17–23%) were genetically linked (within ≤2 single nucleotide polymorphisms) to a prior patient’s isolate from the previous 90 days. Hospital 2 had the fewest linked isolates, 7/105 (7%, 3–13%), hospital 1, 9/70 (13%, 6–23%), and hospitals 3–6 had similar proportions of linked isolates (22–26%) (P ≤ .002 comparing hospital-2 vs 3–6). Results were similar adjusting for locally circulating ribotypes. Adjusting for hospital, ribotype-027 had the highest proportion of linked isolates (57%, 95% CI 29–81%). Fecal-toxin-positive and toxin-negative patients were similarly likely to be a potential transmission donor, OR = 1.01 (0.68–1.49). There was no association between the estimated proportion of linked cases and testing rates. Conclusions. WGS can be used as a novel surveillance tool to identify varying rates of C. difficile transmission between institutions and therefore to allow targeted efforts to reduce CDI incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Eyre
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford
| | - Warren N Fawley
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust
| | - Anu Rajgopal
- Calderdale and Huddersfield NHS Foundation Trust
| | | | - Kalani Mortimer
- St. Helens and Knowsley Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Merseyside
| | | | - Susan Dawson
- Great Western Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Swindon, United Kingdom
| | | | - Tim E A Peto
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford
| | | | - Mark H Wilcox
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust
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115
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New York City House Mice (Mus musculus) as Potential Reservoirs for Pathogenic Bacteria and Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants. mBio 2018; 9:mBio.00624-18. [PMID: 29666289 PMCID: PMC5904414 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00624-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
House mice (Mus musculus) thrive in large urban centers worldwide. Nonetheless, little is known about the role that they may play in contributing to environmental contamination with potentially pathogenic bacteria. Here, we describe the fecal microbiome of house mice with emphasis on detection of pathogenic bacteria and antimicrobial resistance genes by molecular methods. Four hundred sixteen mice were collected from predominantly residential buildings in seven sites across New York City over a period of 13 months. 16S rRNA sequencing identified Bacteroidetes as dominant and revealed high levels of Proteobacteria A targeted PCR screen of 11 bacteria, as indicated by 16S rRNA analyses, found that mice are carriers of several gastrointestinal disease-causing agents, including Shigella, Salmonella, Clostridium difficile, and diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Furthermore, genes mediating antimicrobial resistance to fluoroquinolones (qnrB) and β-lactam drugs (blaSHV and blaACT/MIR) were widely distributed. Culture and molecular strain typing of C. difficile revealed that mice harbor ribotypes associated with human disease, and screening of kidney samples demonstrated genetic evidence of pathogenic Leptospira species. In concert, these findings support the need for further research into the role of house mice as potential reservoirs for human pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in the built environment.IMPORTANCE Mice are commensal pests often found in close proximity to humans, especially in urban centers. We surveyed mice from seven sites across New York City and found multiple pathogenic bacteria associated with febrile and gastrointestinal disease as well as an array of antimicrobial resistance genes.
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Subtyping of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotypes 591, 106 and 002, the dominant strain types circulating in Medellin, Colombia. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195694. [PMID: 29649308 PMCID: PMC5896986 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to achieve a higher typing resolution within the three dominant Clostridium difficile ribotypes (591,106 and 002) circulating in Colombia. A total of 50 C. difficile isolates we had previously typed by PCR-ribotyping, representing the major three ribotypes circulating in Colombia, were analyzed. Twenty-seven isolates of ribotype 591, 12 of ribotype 106 and 11 of ribotype 002 were subtyped by multiple locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA). The presence of the PaLoc genes (tcdA/tcdB), toxin production in culture and antimicrobial susceptibility were also determined. From the total C. difficile ribotypes analyzed, 20 isolates (74%) of ribotype 591, nine (75%) of ribotype 106 and five (45.5%) of ribotype 002 were recovered from patients with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). MLVA allowed us to recognize four and two different clonal complexes for ribotypes 591 and 002, respectively, having a summed tandem-repeat difference (STRD) <2, whereas none of the ribotype 106 isolates were grouped in a cluster or clonal complex having a STRD >10. Six ribotype 591 and three ribotype 002 isolates belonging to a defined clonal complex were isolated on the same week in two different hospitals. All ribotypes harbored either tcdA+/tcdB+ or tcdA-/tcdB+ PaLoc genes. Moreover, 94% of the isolates were positive for toxin in culture. All isolates were susceptible to vancomycin and metronidazole, while 75% to 100% of the isolates were resistant to clindamycin, and less than 14.8% of ribotype 591 isolates were resistant to moxifloxacina. No significant differences were found among ribotypes with respect to demographic and clinical patients’ data; however, our results demonstrated a high molecular heterogeneity of C. difficile strains circulating in Colombia.
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117
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Smits WK, Weese JS, Roberts AP, Harmanus C, Hornung B. A helicase-containing module defines a family of pCD630-like plasmids in Clostridium difficile. Anaerobe 2018; 49:78-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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118
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Karlowsky JA, Adam HJ, Kosowan T, Baxter MR, Nichol KA, Laing NM, Golding G, Zhanel GG. PCR ribotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility testing of isolates of Clostridium difficile cultured from toxin-positive diarrheal stools of patients receiving medical care in Canadian hospitals: the Canadian Clostridium difficile Surveillance Study (CAN-DIFF) 2013-2015. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 91:105-111. [PMID: 29456070 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2018.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile toxin-positive diarrheal stool specimens submitted to eight Canadian hospital laboratories from 2013 to 2015 were cultured. Polymerase chain reaction ribotyping of isolates was performed using an internationally standardized, high-resolution capillary gel-based electrophoresis protocol and antimicrobial susceptibility testing conducted by CLSI-defined agar dilution (M11-A8, 2012). Among the 1310 isolates of C. difficile cultured, 141 different ribotypes were identified; the most common ribotypes were 027 (24.5% of isolates), 014 (7.7%), 020 (6.6%), 106 (6.1%), and 002 (4.6%). Ribotype 027 was the commonest ribotype in all geographic regions of Canada and was more frequently isolated from patients aged ≥80 years (40.6%) than younger patients (P<0.00001). Ribotype 027 isolates were frequently moxifloxacin-resistant (92.2% of isolates) and multidrug-resistant (49.5%). Fidaxomicin demonstrated the greatest in vitro potency (lowest MIC90, 0.5 μg/mL; lowest maximum MIC, 2 μg/mL) of eight antimicrobial agents tested and was the most active agent against each of the five commonest ribotypes (MIC90, 0.25-1 μg/mL).
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Karlowsky
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; Diagnostic Services Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Heather J Adam
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; Diagnostic Services Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Tyler Kosowan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; National Microbiology Laboratory-Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Melanie R Baxter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Kim A Nichol
- Diagnostic Services Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Nancy M Laing
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - George Golding
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; National Microbiology Laboratory-Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - George G Zhanel
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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119
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Epidemiological aspects of healthcare-associated infections and microbial genomics. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 37:823-831. [PMID: 29340898 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-017-3170-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are a cause of continuously increasing morbidity and mortality. Most of these infections are caused by a limited set of bacterial species, which share the capability to efficiently spread from patient to patient and to easily acquire antibiotic resistance determinants. This renders correct and rapid species identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) important and underscores the relevance of bacterial epidemiological typing. The latter is needed for the sensitive detection and exact tracing of nosocomial spread of these potentially multidrug-resistant microorganisms (MDRO). Many microbial typing technologies have been developed and put to some level of executive practice, but it seems that the continued evolution in methodology has currently reached an apex: there is likely to be scientific and practical consensus on the ultimate typing potential of bacterial whole-genome sequencing (WGS). The possibility to perform pan-genomic nucleotide-to-nucleotide comparisons between strains belonging to a single species and to detect even minute changes in nucleotide order will identify closely related organisms, while upon accumulation of such mutations, independent descend can be assumed. Calibration of difference levels [i.e. number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)] into categories of inter-strain relatedness needs to be performed in order to generate robust, portable typing schemes. Here, we will briefly discuss the state of affairs regarding bacterial epidemiology based upon WGS, its relatedness with the nomenclature of former typing approaches and the continuing need for a global typing language.
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120
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Woo N, Kim SK, Sun Y, Kang SH. Enhanced capillary electrophoretic screening of Alzheimer based on direct apolipoprotein E genotyping and one-step multiplex PCR. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1072:290-299. [PMID: 29202360 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Human apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is associated with high cholesterol levels, coronary artery disease, and especially Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we developed an ApoE genotyping and one-step multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based-capillary electrophoresis (CE) method for the enhanced diagnosis of Alzheimer's. The primer mixture of ApoE genes enabled the performance of direct one-step multiplex PCR from whole blood without DNA purification. The combination of direct ApoE genotyping and one-step multiplex PCR minimized the risk of DNA loss or contamination due to the process of DNA purification. All amplified PCR products with different DNA lengths (112-, 253-, 308-, 444-, and 514-bp DNA) of the ApoE genes were analyzed within 2min by an extended voltage programming (VP)-based CE under the optimal conditions. The extended VP-based CE method was at least 120-180 times faster than conventional slab gel electrophoresis methods In particular, all amplified DNA fragments were detected in less than 10 PCR cycles using a laser-induced fluorescence detector. The detection limits of the ApoE genes were 6.4-62.0pM, which were approximately 100-100,000 times more sensitive than previous Alzheimer's diagnosis methods In addition, the combined one-step multiplex PCR and extended VP-based CE method was also successfully applied to the analysis of ApoE genotypes in Alzheimer's patients and normal samples and confirmed the distribution probability of allele frequencies. This combination of direct one-step multiplex PCR and an extended VP-based CE method should increase the diagnostic reliability of Alzheimer's with high sensitivity and short analysis time even with direct use of whole blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nain Woo
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Kang Kim
- Kohwang Medical Research Institute, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yucheng Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Ho Kang
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea; Department of Applied Chemistry and Institute of Natural Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea.
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121
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Couturier J, Davies K, Gateau C, Barbut F. Ribotypes and New Virulent Strains Across Europe. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1050:45-58. [PMID: 29383663 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-72799-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is a major bacterial cause of post-antibiotic diarrhoea. The epidemiology of C. difficile infections (CDI) has dramatically changed since the early 2000s, with an increasing incidence and severity across Europe. This trend is partly due to the emergence and rapid worldwide spread of the hypervirulent and epidemic PCR ribotype 027. Profiles of patients with CDI have also evolved, with description of community-acquired (CA) infections in patients with no traditional risk factors for CDI. However, recent epidemiological studies indicated that some European countries have successfully controlled the dissemination of the 027 clone whereas other countries recently reported the emergence of other virulent or unusual strains. The aims of this review are to summarize the current European CDI epidemiology and to describe the new virulent C. difficile strains circulating in Europe, as well as other potential emerging strains described elsewhere. Standardized typing methods and surveillance programmes are mandatory for a better understanding and monitoring of CDI in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Couturier
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France. .,Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Pharmacie, Paris, France.
| | - Kerrie Davies
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Cécile Gateau
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Barbut
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Pharmacie, Paris, France
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122
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Diagnostic Guidance for C. difficile Infections. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1050:27-44. [PMID: 29383662 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-72799-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) can be challenging. First of all, there has been debate on which of the two reference assays, cell cytotoxicity neutralization assay (CCNA) or toxigenic culture (TC) should be considered the gold standard for CDI detection. Although the CCNA suffers most from suboptimal storage conditions and subsequent toxin degradation, TC is reported to falsely increase CDI detection rates as it cannot differentiate CDI patients from patients asymptomatically colonised by toxigenic C. difficile. Several rapid assays are available for CDI detection and fall into three broad categories: (1) enzyme immunoassays for glutamate dehydrogenase, (2) enzyme immunoassays for toxins A/B and (3) nucleic acid amplification tests detecting toxin genes. All three categories have their own limitations, being suboptimal specificity and/or sensitivity or the inability to discern colonised patients from CDI patients. In light of these limitations, multi-step algorithmic testing has now been advocated by international guidelines in order to optimize diagnostic accuracy. Despite these recommendations, testing methods between hospitals vary widely, which impacts CDI incidence rates. CDI incidence rates are also influenced by sample selection criteria, as several studies have shown that if not all unformed stool samples are tested for CDI, many cases may be missed due to an absence of clinical suspicion. Since methods for diagnosing CDI remain imperfect, there has been a growing interest in alternative testing strategies like faecal biomarkers, immune modulating interleukins, cytokines and imaging methods. At the moment, these alternative methods might play an adjunctive role, but they are not suitable to replace conventional CDI testing strategies.
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123
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Nagy E. What do we know about the diagnostics, treatment and epidemiology of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in Europe? J Infect Chemother 2017; 24:164-170. [PMID: 29289484 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile, recently reclassified as Clostridioides difficile is responsible for a significant part of diarrheal diseases in the hospitals and in the community. Besides the main pathogenic factors, toxin A, toxin B and the binary toxin, several other putative virulence factors have been investigated. This manuscript summarize recent findings in Europe concerning source of infection, epidemiology of CDI, the changing pattern of PCR ribotypes of C. difficile strains in different European countries, recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of CDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Nagy
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
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124
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Krutova M, Kinross P, Barbut F, Hajdu A, Wilcox MH, Kuijper EJ. How to: Surveillance of Clostridium difficile infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 24:469-475. [PMID: 29274463 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increasing incidence of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) in healthcare settings in Europe since 2003 has affected both patients and healthcare systems. The implementation of effective CDI surveillance is key to enable monitoring of the occurrence and spread of C. difficile in healthcare and the timely detection of outbreaks. AIMS The aim of this review is to provide a summary of key components of effective CDI surveillance and to provide some practical recommendations. We also summarize the recent and current national CDI surveillance activities, to illustrate strengths and weaknesses of CDI surveillance in Europe. SOURCES For the definition of key components of CDI surveillance, we consulted the current European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) CDI-related guidance documents and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) protocol for CDI surveillance in acute care hospitals. To summarize the recent and current national CDI surveillance activities, we discussed international multicentre CDI surveillance studies performed in 2005-13. In 2017, we also performed a new survey of existing CDI surveillance systems in 33 European countries. CONTENT Key components for CDI surveillance are appropriate case definitions of CDI, standardized CDI diagnostics, agreement on CDI case origin definition, and the presentation of CDI rates with well-defined numerators and denominators. Incorporation of microbiological data is required to provide information on prevailing PCR ribotypes and antimicrobial susceptibility to first-line CDI treatment drugs. In 2017, 20 European countries had a national CDI surveillance system and 21 countries participated in ECDC-coordinated CDI surveillance. Since 2014, the number of centres with capacity for C. difficile typing has increased to 35 reference or central laboratories in 26 European countries. IMPLICATIONS Incidence rates of CDI, obtained from a standardized CDI surveillance system, can be used as an important quality indicator of healthcare at hospital as well as country level.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridium difficile (ESGCD).
| | - P Kinross
- Surveillance and Response Support Unit, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - F Barbut
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridium difficile (ESGCD)
| | - A Hajdu
- Department of Hospital Hygiene and Communicable Disease Control, Ministry of Human Capacities, Budapest, Hungary
| | - M H Wilcox
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust & University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridium difficile (ESGCD)
| | - E J Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridium difficile (ESGCD)
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125
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Couturier J, Eckert C, Barbut F. Spatio-temporal variability of the epidemic 027 Clostridium difficile strains in France based on MLVA typing. Anaerobe 2017; 48:179-183. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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126
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Chandrasekaran R, Lacy DB. The role of toxins in Clostridium difficile infection. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2017; 41:723-750. [PMID: 29048477 PMCID: PMC5812492 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fux048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is a bacterial pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis worldwide. The incidence, severity, mortality and healthcare costs associated with C. difficile infection (CDI) are rising, making C. difficile a major threat to public health. Traditional treatments for CDI involve use of antibiotics such as metronidazole and vancomycin, but disease recurrence occurs in about 30% of patients, highlighting the need for new therapies. The pathogenesis of C. difficile is primarily mediated by the actions of two large clostridial glucosylating toxins, toxin A (TcdA) and toxin B (TcdB). Some strains produce a third toxin, the binary toxin C. difficile transferase, which can also contribute to C. difficile virulence and disease. These toxins act on the colonic epithelium and immune cells and induce a complex cascade of cellular events that result in fluid secretion, inflammation and tissue damage, which are the hallmark features of the disease. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the structure and mechanism of action of the C. difficile toxins and their role in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramyavardhanee Chandrasekaran
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - D. Borden Lacy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- The Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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127
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Grześkowiak Ł, Martínez-Vallespín B, Dadi TH, Radloff J, Amasheh S, Heinsen FA, Franke A, Reinert K, Vahjen W, Zentek J, Pieper R. Formula Feeding Predisposes Neonatal Piglets to Clostridium difficile Gut Infection. J Infect Dis 2017; 217:1442-1452. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Temesgen H Dadi
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Computer Science, Kiel, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Kiel, Germany
| | - Judith Radloff
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Kiel, Germany
| | - Salah Amasheh
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Kiel, Germany
| | - Femke-Anouska Heinsen
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, University Hospital Schleswig Holstein, Kiel, Germany
| | - Andre Franke
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, University Hospital Schleswig Holstein, Kiel, Germany
| | - Knut Reinert
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Computer Science, Kiel, Germany
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128
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Mikamo H, Aoyama N, Sawata M, Fujimoto G, Dorr MB, Yoshinari T. The effect of bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in Japanese patients. J Infect Chemother 2017; 24:123-129. [PMID: 29097028 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection is considered as a significant health care burden. The global study (MODIFY II) of antibody treatment (bezlotoxumab) for the prevention of recurrent C. difficile infection includes Japanese patients (95 subjects); The aim of this subgroup analysis is to report the data obtained from Japanese patients. Patients with C. difficile infection receiving standard of care antibiotic treatment and a single infusion of bezlotoxumab 10 mg/kg, actoxumab 10 mg/kg + bezlotoxumab 10 mg/kg or placebo. Recurrent C. difficile infection through Week 12 was evaluated. In the Full Analysis Set (93 subjects), 91% were older than 65 years of age and 93% were hospitalized at the time of study entry. The standard of care antibiotic for C. difficile infection was metronidazole for 57 subjects and vancomycin for 36 subjects. The recurrent C. difficile infection rate was 46% in the placebo, 21% in the bezlotoxumab (p = 0.0197) and 28% in the actoxumab + bezlotoxumab group. No additive recurrent C. difficile infection-reducing effect with the addition of actoxumab was demonstrated. There were no events representing safety concern in bezlotoxumab. Among 54 clinical isolates of C. difficile as a baseline culture in Japanese patients, the common ribotypes were 052 (28%), 018 (19%), 002 (15%) and 369 (9%). It showed distinctly different distribution from that in the United States and Europe. The superior effect of bezlotoxumab 10 mg/kg in the prevention of recurrent C. difficile infection suggests that the agent will be useful in the rapidly aging Japanese society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshige Mikamo
- Department of Infection Control and Prevention, Aichi Medical University Hospital, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Mary Beth Dorr
- Clinical Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA
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Kachrimanidou M, Tsachouridou O, Ziogas IA, Christaki E, Protonotariou E, Metallidis S, Skoura L, Kuijper E. Clostridium difficile infections in a university hospital in Greece are mainly associated with PCR ribotypes 017 and 126. J Med Microbiol 2017; 66:1774-1781. [PMID: 29087273 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Data regarding the incidence and molecular epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infections (CDIs) in Greece are limited. METHODOLOGY A retrospective study of all laboratory-confirmed CDI cases in a university hospital during a 9-month period. Stool samples from inpatients with diarrhoea were tested with a combined glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and toxin enzyme immunoassay (EIA) test, as part of a two-step algorithm for CDI testing. All GDH-positive samples were cultured and isolates were further tested for the presence of toxin genes and characterized by PCR ribotyping. RESULTS The incidence of CDI in our hospital was 25 per 10 000 hospital admissions. Of 33 CDI cases, 72.7 % were hospital-acquired. Fourteen different PCR ribotypes were identified, of which 017 (21.2 %), 078/126 (15.1 %) and RT202 and RT106 (9 %) were the most prevalent. Most patients had a risk profile of recent antibiotic use, older age and comorbidities. Despite mild CDI clinical characteristics, six cases showed complications and led to 18.2 % mortality. CONCLUSION The CDI incidence was comparable to that in other European countries. The hypervirulent PCR ribotype 027 was not found, whereas ribotypes 017 and 126 predominated. Most CDI cases were in patients who used antibiotics, emphasizing that antimicrobial stewardship should be considered as a cornerstone for the prevention of CDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melina Kachrimanidou
- First Department of Microbiology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Medical School, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Olga Tsachouridou
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioannis A Ziogas
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eirini Christaki
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Efthymia Protonotariou
- Department of Microbiology, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Symeon Metallidis
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Lemonia Skoura
- Department of Microbiology, AHEPA University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ed Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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130
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Tamez-Torres KM, Torres-González P, Leal-Vega F, García-Alderete A, López García NI, Mendoza-Aguilar R, Galindo-Fraga A, Bobadilla-Del Valle M, Ponce de León A, Sifuentes-Osornio J. Impact of Clostridium difficile infection caused by the NAP1/RT027 strain on severity and recurrence during an outbreak and transition to endemicity in a Mexican tertiary care center. Int J Infect Dis 2017; 65:44-49. [PMID: 28986313 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2017.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe the clinical characteristics, outcomes, and factors associated with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) due to ribotype 027 (RT027) and recurrence, including an outbreak period, with transition to endemicity. METHODS A case-control study was performed. Clinical and demographic data were collected for patients with CDI during the period January 2008 to December 2015. Ribotyping of the isolates and PCR for toxin A, B, and binary were performed. RESULTS Among 324 episodes of CDI, 27.7% were caused by RT027. Previous fluoroquinolone use (odds ratio (OR) 1.79, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01-3.17), previous gastrointestinal endoscopy (OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.29-3.65), chemotherapy (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.19-0.95), and total enteral nutrition (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.18-0.97) were associated with RT027. Age >65 years (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.02-4.10), severe initial episode (OR 3.35, 95% CI 1.60-6.15), previous proton pump inhibitor use (OR 2.34, 95% CI 1.15-4.74), and continued fluoroquinolones (OR 3.08, 95% CI 1.11-8.51) were associated with recurrence. Among the non-RT027, 59.8% were not assigned by the ribotyping database and 50.7% presented binary toxin. CONCLUSIONS In this population, CDI due to the RT027 strain was not associated with poorer outcomes. This study reinforces the importance of avoiding fluoroquinolones and PPIs to prevent recurrences. The presence of virulence factors among non-RT027 C. difficile strains underscores the importance of performing molecular epidemiology surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla María Tamez-Torres
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Pedro Torres-González
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Francisco Leal-Vega
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ariana García-Alderete
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Norma Irene López García
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Raquel Mendoza-Aguilar
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Arturo Galindo-Fraga
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hospital Epidemiology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Miriam Bobadilla-Del Valle
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alfredo Ponce de León
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Sifuentes-Osornio
- Department of Medicine, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.
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131
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Azimirad M, Krutova M, Nyc O, Hasani Z, Afrisham L, Alebouyeh M, Zali MR. Molecular typing of Clostridium difficile isolates cultured from patient stool samples and gastroenterological medical devices in a single Iranian hospital. Anaerobe 2017; 47:125-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Martín-Burriel I, Andrés-Lasheras S, Harders F, Mainar-Jaime RC, Ranera B, Zaragoza P, Falceto V, Bolea Y, Kuijper E, Bolea R, Bossers A, Chirino-Trejo M. Molecular analysis of three Clostridium difficile strain genomes isolated from pig farm-related samples. Anaerobe 2017; 48:224-231. [PMID: 28928035 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic spore-forming bacillus that usually causes gastrointestinal disorders in man and other animal species. Most of the strains isolated from animals are toxigenic being the virulent ribotype (RT) 078 predominant in several animal species. Although C. difficile is pathogenic to both humans and animals, there is no direct evidence of zoonosis. Deep genome sequencing provides sufficient resolution to analyse which strains found in animals might be related to human pathogens. So far, there are only a few fully sequenced genomes of C. difficile strains isolated from domestic and wild animals. Using Illumina technology, we have sequenced the genome of three isolates; a strain isolated from the vagina of a sow (5754), one from rat (Rattus spp) intestinal content (RC10) and a third one isolated from environmental rat faeces (RF17). Both, rat and rat faeces were sampled in fattening pig farms. Our study reveals a close genetic relationship of two of these isolates with the virulent strain M120 (RT078) isolated from a human patient. The analysis of the sequences has revealed the presence of antibiotic resistance genes, mobile elements, including the transposon linked with virulence Tn6164, and the similarity of virulence factors between these isolates and human strains. This is the first study focused on the sequencing of C. difficile genomes obtained from wild animals like rats, which can be considered as potential reservoirs for humans and other animal species. This study can help to understand the genome composition and epidemiology of this bacterium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Martín-Burriel
- Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica (LAGENBIO), Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - S Andrés-Lasheras
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - F Harders
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - R C Mainar-Jaime
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - B Ranera
- Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica (LAGENBIO), Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - P Zaragoza
- Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica (LAGENBIO), Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - V Falceto
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Y Bolea
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - E Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Centre of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R Bolea
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón - IA2 - (Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - A Bossers
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - M Chirino-Trejo
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
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Salazar CL, Reyes C, Atehortua S, Sierra P, Correa MM, Paredes-Sabja D, Best E, Fawley WN, Wilcox M, González Á. Molecular, microbiological and clinical characterization of Clostridium difficile isolates from tertiary care hospitals in Colombia. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184689. [PMID: 28902923 PMCID: PMC5597206 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In Colombia, the epidemiology and circulating genotypes of Clostridium difficile have not yet been described. Therefore, we molecularly characterized clinical isolates of C.difficile from patients with suspicion of C.difficile infection (CDI) in three tertiary care hospitals. C.difficile was isolated from stool samples by culture, the presence of A/B toxins were detected by enzyme immunoassay, cytotoxicity was tested by cell culture and the antimicrobial susceptibility determined. After DNA extraction, tcdA, tcdB and binary toxin (CDTa/CDTb) genes were detected by PCR, and PCR-ribotyping performed. From a total of 913 stool samples collected during 2013-2014, 775 were included in the study. The frequency of A/B toxins-positive samples was 9.7% (75/775). A total of 143 isolates of C.difficile were recovered from culture, 110 (76.9%) produced cytotoxic effect in cell culture, 100 (69.9%) were tcdA+/tcdB+, 11 (7.7%) tcdA-/tcdB+, 32 (22.4%) tcdA-/tcdB- and 25 (17.5%) CDTa+/CDTb+. From 37 ribotypes identified, ribotypes 591 (20%), 106 (9%) and 002 (7.9%) were the most prevalent; only one isolate corresponded to ribotype 027, four to ribotype 078 and four were new ribotypes (794,795, 804,805). All isolates were susceptible to vancomycin and metronidazole, while 85% and 7.7% were resistant to clindamycin and moxifloxacin, respectively. By multivariate analysis, significant risk factors associated to CDI were, staying in orthopedic service, exposure to third-generation cephalosporins and staying in an ICU before CDI symptoms; moreover, steroids showed to be a protector factor. These results revealed new C. difficile ribotypes and a high diversity profile circulating in Colombia different from those reported in America and European countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Lina Salazar
- Research Group in Anaerobic Bacteria (GIBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Catalina Reyes
- Basic and Applied Microbiology Research Group (MICROBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | | | - Patricia Sierra
- Clínica León XIII, IPS Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Margarita María Correa
- Molecular Microbiology Group, School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Daniel Paredes-Sabja
- Microbiota-Host Interactions and Clostridia Research Group, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, at Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Emma Best
- Departament of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Warren N. Fawley
- Departament of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Wilcox
- Departament of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Ángel González
- Basic and Applied Microbiology Research Group (MICROBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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An outbreak of Clostridium difficile infections due to new PCR ribotype 826: epidemiologic and microbiologic analyses. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 24:309.e1-309.e4. [PMID: 28830806 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate an unusual outbreak of five patients with a total of eight episodes of a Clostridium difficile infection on a gastrointestinal surgical ward of a Dutch tertiary-care, university-affiliated hospital. METHODS Clinical case investigations and laboratory analyses were performed. Laboratory analyses included PCR ribotyping, multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis typing, toxin typing, antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole genome sequencing. RESULTS The outbreak was associated with recurrent and severe disease in two of five patients. All episodes were due to a unique ribotype that was not recognized in the collection of an international network of reference laboratories and was assigned PCR ribotype 826. PCR ribotype 826 is a toxin A-, toxin B- and binary toxin-positive ribotype which according to molecular typing belongs to clade 5 and resembles the so-called hypervirulent ribotype 078. The presence of a clonal outbreak was confirmed by whole genome sequencing, yet the source of this newly identified ribotype remained unclear. CONCLUSIONS This newly identified C. difficile PCR ribotype 826 is part of clade 5 and might also have increased virulence. The recognition of this outbreak highlights the need for ongoing C. difficile infection surveillance to monitor new circulating ribotypes with assumed increased virulence.
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135
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Prevalence and risk factors for colonization of Clostridium difficile among adults living near livestock farms in the Netherlands. Epidemiol Infect 2017; 145:2745-2749. [PMID: 28805171 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268817001753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was performed among 2494 adults not living or working on a farm to assess prevalence of Clostridium difficile (CD) colonization and risk factors in a livestock dense area. CD prevalence was 1·2%. Twenty-one persons were colonized with a toxigenic strain and nine with a non-toxigenic strain. CD-positive persons did not live closer to livestock farms than individuals negative for CD. Antibiotic exposure in the preceding 3 months was a risk factor for CD colonization (odds ratio 3·70; 95% confidence interval 1·25-10·95).
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136
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Orden C, Neila C, Blanco JL, Álvarez-Pérez S, Harmanus C, Kuijper EJ, García ME. Recreational sandboxes for children and dogs can be a source of epidemic ribotypes of Clostridium difficile. Zoonoses Public Health 2017; 65:88-95. [PMID: 28686001 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Different studies have suggested that the sand of public playgrounds could have a role in the transmission of infections, particularly in children. Furthermore, free access of pets and other animals to the playgrounds might increase such a risk. We studied the presence of Clostridium difficile in 20 pairs of sandboxes for children and dogs located in different playgrounds within the Madrid region (Spain). Clostridium difficile isolation was performed by enrichment and selective culture procedures. The genetic (ribotype and amplified fragment length polymorphism [AFLP]) diversity and antibiotic susceptibility of isolates was also studied. Overall, 52.5% (21/40) of samples were positive for the presence of C. difficile. Eight of the 20 available isolates belonged to the toxigenic ribotypes 014 (n = 5) and 106 (n = 2), both regarded as epidemic, and CD047 (n = 1). The other 12 isolates were non-toxigenic, and belonged to ribotypes 009 (n = 5), 039 (n = 4), and 067, 151 and CD048 (one isolate each). Nevertheless, all isolates (even those of a same ribotype) were classified into different AFLP genotypes indicating non-relatedness. In conclusion, our results revealed the presence of epidemic ribotypes of C. difficile in children's and dog's sandboxes located nearby, which constitutes a major health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Orden
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Neila
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L Blanco
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergio Álvarez-Pérez
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Celine Harmanus
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ed J Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Marta E García
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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137
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Increasing incidence of Clostridium difficile ribotype 001 associated with severe course of the infection and previous fluoroquinolone use in the Czech Republic, 2015. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2017; 36:2251-2258. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-017-3055-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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138
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Prevalence and characteristics of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium difficile in dogs and cats attended in diverse veterinary clinics from the Madrid region. Anaerobe 2017; 48:47-55. [PMID: 28687280 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite extensive research on the epidemiology of pathogenic clostridia in dogs and cats, most published studies focus on a selected animal population and/or a single veterinary medical centre. We assessed the burden of Clostridium perfringens and C. difficile shedding by small animals in 17 veterinary clinics located within the Madrid region (Spain) and differing in size, number and features of animals attended and other relevant characteristics. In addition, we studied the genetic diversity and antibiotic susceptibility of recovered isolates. Selective culture of all fecal specimens collected during a single week from dogs (n = 105) and cats (n = 37) attended in participating clinics yielded C. perfringens/C. difficile from 31%, 4.8% of the dogs, and 20%, 0% of the cats analyzed, respectively, and three dogs yielded both species. Furthermore, 17 animals (15 dogs and two cats) that yielded a positive culture for either species were recruited for a follow-up survey and C. perfringens was again obtained from nine dogs. Considerable differences in prevalence were observed among participating clinics for both clostridial species. C. perfringens isolates (n = 109) belonged to toxinotypes A (97.2%) and E (three isolates from one dog), whereas C. difficile isolates (n = 18) belonged to the toxigenic ribotypes 106 (33.3%) and 154 (16.7%), a 009-like ribotype (33.3%) and an unknown non-toxigenic ribotype (16.7%). Amplified fragment length polymorphism-based fingerprinting classified C. perfringens and C. difficile isolates into 105 and 15 genotypes, respectively, and tested isolates displayed in vitro resistance to benzylpenicillin (2.8%, 88.8%), clindamycin (0%, 16.7%), erythromycin (0.9%, 16.7%), imipenem (1.8%, 100%), levofloxacin (0.9%, 100%), linezolid (5.5%, 0%), metronidazole (4.6%, 0%) and/or tetracycline (7.3%, 0%). All animals from which multiple isolates were retrieved yielded ≥2 different genotypes and/or antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. Future studies should focus on the seasonal and geographical variations of prevalence and diversity patterns of clostridial species in small animals.
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139
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Nyc O, Tejkalova R, Kriz Z, Ruzicka F, Kubicek L, Matejkova J, Kuijper E, Krutova M. Two Clusters of Fluoroquinolone and Clindamycin-ResistantClostridium difficilePCR Ribotype 001 Strain Recognized by Capillary Electrophoresis Ribotyping and Multilocus Variable Tandem Repeat Analysis. Microb Drug Resist 2017; 23:609-615. [DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2016.0159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Otakar Nyc
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Renata Tejkalova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St. Anne's University Hospital, and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenek Kriz
- 2nd Department of Surgery, St. Anne's University Hospital, and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Ruzicka
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St. Anne's University Hospital, and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lubos Kubicek
- 2nd Department of Surgery, St. Anne's University Hospital, and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Matejkova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Ed Kuijper
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Praha, Czech Republic
- DNA Laboratory, Department of Pediatric Neurology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Praha, Czech Republic
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Krutova M, Nyc O, Matejkova J, Kuijper EJ, Jalava J, Mentula S. The recognition and characterisation of Finnish Clostridium difficile isolates resembling PCR-ribotype 027. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2017; 51:344-351. [PMID: 28583353 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterise and compare twenty-eight Finnish Clostridium difficile RT027-like isolates, selected based on the presence of 18 bp deletion in the tcdC gene and toxin gene profile (A, B, binary), with eleven RT027 isolates from different Finnish geographical areas and time periods. METHODS Twenty-eight C. difficile RT027-like isolates and 11 RT027 comparative strains were characterised by capillary-electrophoresis (CE) ribotyping, multi-locus variable tandem-repeats analysis (MLVA), multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), and sequencing of tcdC and gyrA gene fragments. Susceptibility to moxifloxacin was determined by E-test. RESULTS Of 28 RT027-like isolates, seven RTs (016, 034, 075, 080, 153, 176 and 328), three WEBRIBO types (411, 475, AI-78) and three new profiles (F1-F3) were identified. MLVA revealed six clonal complexes (RTs 016, 027, 176 and F3). MLST showed eleven sequence types (1, 41, 47, 67, 95, 191,192, 223, 229, 264 and new ST). Twenty-two isolates (RTs 016, 080, 176, 328, F1, F2, F3 and WRTAI-78) carried Δ117 in the tcdC gene. Isolates of RTs 016, 027 and 176 were moxifloxacin resistant and harboured Thr82Ile in the GyrA. CONCLUSION Our results show a high diversity within 28 Finnish RT027-like C. difficile isolates, with twelve CE-ribotyping profiles and eleven STs. MLVA revealed the regional spread of RTs 016, 027, 176 and F3. The presence of Δ117 in the tcdC gene in eight non-027 RTs highlights the importance of careful interpretation of the results from molecular systems targeting this site in the genome of C. difficile and the need of strain typing for epidemiological purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic; DNA Laboratory, Department of Paediatric Neurology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic.
| | - Otakar Nyc
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Matejkova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic
| | - Ed J Kuijper
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jari Jalava
- Bacterial Infections Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Silja Mentula
- Bacterial Infections Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
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141
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Szemiako K, Śledzińska A, Krawczyk B. A new assay based on terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism of homocitrate synthase gene fragments for Candida species identification. J Appl Genet 2017; 58:409-414. [PMID: 28349380 PMCID: PMC5509809 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-017-0394-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Candida sp. have been responsible for an increasing number of infections, especially in patients with immunodeficiency. Species-specific differentiation of Candida sp. is difficult in routine diagnosis. This identification can have a highly significant association in therapy and prophylaxis. This work has shown a new application of the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (t-RFLP) method in the molecular identification of six species of Candida, which are the most common causes of fungal infections. Specific for fungi homocitrate synthase gene was chosen as a molecular target for amplification. The use of three restriction enzymes, DraI, RsaI, and BglII, for amplicon digestion can generate species-specific fluorescence labeled DNA fragment profiles, which can be used to determine the diagnostic algorithm. The designed method can be a cost-efficient high-throughput molecular technique for the identification of six clinically important Candida species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasjan Szemiako
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Anna Śledzińska
- Department of Therapy Monitoring and Pharmacogenetics, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Beata Krawczyk
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland.
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142
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Molecular typing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing to six antimicrobials of Clostridium difficile isolates from three Czech hospitals in Eastern Bohemia in 2011–2012. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2017; 62:445-451. [DOI: 10.1007/s12223-017-0515-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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143
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Kola A, Wiuff C, Akerlund T, van Benthem BH, Coignard B, Lyytikäinen O, Weitzel-Kage D, Suetens C, Wilcox MH, Kuijper EJ, Gastmeier P. Survey of Clostridium difficile infection surveillance systems in Europe, 2011. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 21:30291. [PMID: 27469420 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2016.21.29.30291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
To develop a European surveillance protocol for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), existing national CDI surveillance systems were assessed in 2011. A web-based electronic form was provided for all national coordinators of the European CDI Surveillance Network (ECDIS-Net). Of 35 national coordinators approached, 33 from 31 European countries replied. Surveillance of CDI was in place in 14 of the 31 countries, comprising 18 different nationwide systems. Three of 14 countries with CDI surveillance used public health notification of cases as the route of reporting, and in another three, reporting was limited to public health notification of cases of severe CDI. The CDI definitions published by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) were widely used, but there were differing definitions to distinguish between community- and healthcare-associated cases. All CDI surveillance systems except one reported annual national CDI rates (calculated as number of cases per patient-days). Only four surveillance systems regularly integrated microbiological data (typing and susceptibility testing results). Surveillance methods varied considerably between countries, which emphasises the need for a harmonised European protocol to allow consistent monitoring of the CDI epidemiology at European level. The results of this survey were used to develop a harmonised EU-wide hospital-based CDI surveillance protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Kola
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
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144
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Wilcox MH, Gerding DN, Poxton IR, Kelly C, Nathan R, Birch T, Cornely OA, Rahav G, Bouza E, Lee C, Jenkin G, Jensen W, Kim YS, Yoshida J, Gabryelski L, Pedley A, Eves K, Tipping R, Guris D, Kartsonis N, Dorr MB. Bezlotoxumab for Prevention of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:305-317. [PMID: 28121498 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1602615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 565] [Impact Index Per Article: 80.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium difficile is the most common cause of infectious diarrhea in hospitalized patients. Recurrences are common after antibiotic therapy. Actoxumab and bezlotoxumab are human monoclonal antibodies against C. difficile toxins A and B, respectively. METHODS We conducted two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trials, MODIFY I and MODIFY II, involving 2655 adults receiving oral standard-of-care antibiotics for primary or recurrent C. difficile infection. Participants received an infusion of bezlotoxumab (10 mg per kilogram of body weight), actoxumab plus bezlotoxumab (10 mg per kilogram each), or placebo; actoxumab alone (10 mg per kilogram) was given in MODIFY I but discontinued after a planned interim analysis. The primary end point was recurrent infection (new episode after initial clinical cure) within 12 weeks after infusion in the modified intention-to-treat population. RESULTS In both trials, the rate of recurrent C. difficile infection was significantly lower with bezlotoxumab alone than with placebo (MODIFY I: 17% [67 of 386] vs. 28% [109 of 395]; adjusted difference, -10.1 percentage points; 95% confidence interval [CI], -15.9 to -4.3; P<0.001; MODIFY II: 16% [62 of 395] vs. 26% [97 of 378]; adjusted difference, -9.9 percentage points; 95% CI, -15.5 to -4.3; P<0.001) and was significantly lower with actoxumab plus bezlotoxumab than with placebo (MODIFY I: 16% [61 of 383] vs. 28% [109 of 395]; adjusted difference, -11.6 percentage points; 95% CI, -17.4 to -5.9; P<0.001; MODIFY II: 15% [58 of 390] vs. 26% [97 of 378]; adjusted difference, -10.7 percentage points; 95% CI, -16.4 to -5.1; P<0.001). In prespecified subgroup analyses (combined data set), rates of recurrent infection were lower in both groups that received bezlotoxumab than in the placebo group in subpopulations at high risk for recurrent infection or for an adverse outcome. The rates of initial clinical cure were 80% with bezlotoxumab alone, 73% with actoxumab plus bezlotoxumab, and 80% with placebo; the rates of sustained cure (initial clinical cure without recurrent infection in 12 weeks) were 64%, 58%, and 54%, respectively. The rates of adverse events were similar among these groups; the most common events were diarrhea and nausea. CONCLUSIONS Among participants receiving antibiotic treatment for primary or recurrent C. difficile infection, bezlotoxumab was associated with a substantially lower rate of recurrent infection than placebo and had a safety profile similar to that of placebo. The addition of actoxumab did not improve efficacy. (Funded by Merck; MODIFY I and MODIFY II ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01241552 and NCT01513239 .).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Wilcox
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Dale N Gerding
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Ian R Poxton
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Ciaran Kelly
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Richard Nathan
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Thomas Birch
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Oliver A Cornely
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Galia Rahav
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Emilio Bouza
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Christine Lee
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Grant Jenkin
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Werner Jensen
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - You-Sun Kim
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Junichi Yoshida
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Lori Gabryelski
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Alison Pedley
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Karen Eves
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Robert Tipping
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Dalya Guris
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Nicholas Kartsonis
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
| | - Mary-Beth Dorr
- From Leeds Teaching Hospitals and University of Leeds, Leeds (M.H.W.), and the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh (I.R.P.) - both in the United Kingdom; Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, and Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital, Hines - both in Illinois (D.N.G.); Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston (C.K.); Idaho Falls Infectious Disease, Idaho Falls, Idaho (R.N.); Holy Name Medical Center, Teaneck (T.B.), and Merck, Kenilworth (L.G., A.P., K.E., R.T., D.G., N.K., M.-B.D.) - both in New Jersey; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Department I of Internal Medicine, Clinical Trials Center Cologne (ZKS Köln), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany (O.A.C.); Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel (G.R.); Hospital Gregorio Maranon, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES) (CB06/06/0058), Madrid (E.B.); St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada (C.L.); Monash Health, Clayton, VIC, Australia (G.J.); Gustavo Fricke Hospital, Viña del Mar, Chile (W.J.); Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, South Korea (Y.-S.K.); and Shimonoseki City Hospital, Shimonoseki, Japan (J.Y.)
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145
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Andrés-Lasheras S, Bolea R, Mainar-Jaime RC, Kuijper E, Sevilla E, Martín-Burriel I, Chirino-Trejo M. Presence of Clostridium difficile in pig faecal samples and wild animal species associated with pig farms. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 122:462-472. [PMID: 27990723 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To determine the presence of Clostridium difficile on fattening pig farms in north-eastern Spain. METHODS AND RESULTS Twenty-seven farms were sampled. Pools of pig faecal samples (n = 210), samples of intestinal content from common farm pest species (n = 95) and environment-related samples (n = 93) were collected. Isolates were tested for toxin genes of C. difficile, and typed by PCR-ribotyping and toxinotyping. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of six antimicrobial agents were determined using Etest. Thirty-four isolates were obtained from 12 farms, and 30 (88·2%) had toxin genes. Seven ribotypes were identified. Ribotype 078 and its variant 126 were predominant (52·9%). The same ribotypes were isolated from different animal species on the same farm. None of the isolates were resistant to metronidazole or vancomycin. CONCLUSIONS Clostridium difficile was common within the pig farm environment. Most of the positive samples came from pest species or were pest-related environmental samples. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Pest species were colonized with toxigenic and antimicrobial-resistant C. difficile strains of the same ribotypes that are found in humans and pigs. Rodents and pigeons may transmit toxigenic and antimicrobial-resistant C. difficile strains that are of the same ribotypes as those occuring in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Andrés-Lasheras
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - R Bolea
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - R C Mainar-Jaime
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - E Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Centre of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - E Sevilla
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - I Martín-Burriel
- Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica (LAGENBIO), Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain
| | - M Chirino-Trejo
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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146
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Álvarez-Pérez S, Blanco JL, Harmanus C, Kuijper E, García ME. Subtyping and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078/126 isolates of human and animal origin. Vet Microbiol 2016; 199:15-22. [PMID: 28110780 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype complex 078/126 (RT078/126) is often involved in human disease and is also frequently isolated from diverse animal species. The high genetic relatedness between human and animal RT078/126 isolates found in different regions has encouraged discussion about the zoonotic potential of this lineage. We compared for the first time the genetic diversity and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of human and animal C. difficile RT078/126 isolates from Spain. A collection of 96 isolates (50 of human and 46 of animal origin; 63 and 33 of ribotypes 078 and 126, respectively) was subtyped by an improved amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting method and tested for in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility. A total of 67 genotypes were distinguished, three of which grouped together isolates of human and animal origin. Furthermore, two main groups of isolates that mostly correlated with PCR ribotypes could be distinguished in the AFLP dendrogram. Human origin was significantly associated with resistance to ertapenem, erythromycin and moxifloxacin; resistance to clindamycin and erythromycin was associated with RT126 and AFLP group 1. Twenty-nine isolates (30.2% of total) displayed heteroresistance to metronidazole. Substantial differences were observed in the susceptibility profiles of isolates belonging to a same genotype. Altogether, these results provide a valuable baseline for future studies on the epidemiology of C. difficile RT078/126.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Álvarez-Pérez
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L Blanco
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Celine Harmanus
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ed Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Marta E García
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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147
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Detection of Clostridium difficile in Feces of Asymptomatic Patients Admitted to the Hospital. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 55:403-411. [PMID: 27852676 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01858-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence shows that patients asymptomatically colonized with Clostridium difficile may contribute to the transmission of C. difficile in health care facilities. Additionally, these patients may have a higher risk of developing C. difficile infection. The aim of this study was to compare a commercially available PCR directed to both toxin A and B (artus C. difficile QS-RGQ kit CE; Qiagen), an enzyme-linked fluorescent assay to glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH ELFA) (Vidas, bioMérieux), and an in-house-developed PCR to tcdB, with (toxigenic) culture of C. difficile as the gold standard to detect asymptomatic colonization. Test performances were evaluated in a collection of 765 stool samples obtained from asymptomatic patients at admission to the hospital. The C. difficile prevalence in this collection was 5.1%, and 3.1% contained toxigenic C. difficile Compared to C. difficile culture, the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of the C. difficile GDH ELFA were 87.2%, 91.2%, 34.7%, and 99.3%, respectively. Compared with results of toxigenic culture, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of the commercially available PCR and the in-house PCR were 95.8%, 93.4%, 31.9%, 99.9%, and 87.5%, 98.8%, 70%, and 99.6%, respectively. We conclude that in a low-prevalence setting of asymptomatically colonized patients, both GDH ELFA and a nucleic acid amplification test can be applied as a first screening test, as they both display a high NPV. However, the low PPV of the tests hinders the use of these assays as stand-alone tests.
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148
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Tóth J, Urbán E, Osztie H, Benczik M, Indra A, Nagy E, Allerberger F. Distribution of PCR ribotypes among recent Clostridium difficile isolates collected in two districts of Hungary using capillary gel electrophoresis and review of changes in the circulating ribotypes over time. J Med Microbiol 2016; 65:1158-1163. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Judith Tóth
- Synlab Budapest Diagnostic Center, Microbiology Laboratory, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Edith Urbán
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Hilda Osztie
- Synlab Budapest Diagnostic Center, Microbiology Laboratory, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Márta Benczik
- Synlab Budapest Diagnostic Center, GenoID Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Alexander Indra
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Nagy
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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149
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16S-23S Internal Transcribed Spacer Region PCR and Sequencer-Based Capillary Gel Electrophoresis has Potential as an Alternative to High Performance Liquid Chromatography for Identification of Slowly Growing Nontuberculous Mycobacteria. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164138. [PMID: 27749897 PMCID: PMC5066948 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate identification of slowly growing nontuberculous mycobacteria (SG-NTM) of clinical significance remains problematic. This study evaluated a novel method of SG-NTM identification by amplification of the mycobacterial 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region followed by resolution of amplified fragments by sequencer-based capillary gel electrophoresis (SCGE). Fourteen American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) strains and 103 clinical/environmental isolates (total n = 24 species) of SG-NTM were included. Identification was compared with that achieved by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), in-house PCR and 16S/ITS sequencing. Isolates of all species yielded a SCGE profile comprising a single fragment length (or peak) except for M. scrofulaceum (two peaks). SCGE peaks of ATCC strains were distinct except for peak overlap between Mycobacterium kansasii and M. marinum. Of clinical/environmental strains, unique peaks were seen for 7/17 (41%) species (M. haemophilum, M. kubicae, M. lentiflavum, M. terrae, M. kansasii, M. asiaticum and M. triplex); 3/17 (18%) species were identified by HPLC. There were five SCGE fragment length types (I–V) each of M. avium, M. intracellulare and M. gordonae. Overlap of fragment lengths was seen between M. marinum and M. ulcerans; for M. gordonae SCGE type III and M. paragordonae; M. avium SCGE types III and IV, and M. intracellulare SCGE type I; M. chimaera, M. parascrofulaceum and M. intracellulare SCGE types III and IV; M. branderi and M. avium type V; and M. vulneris and M. intracellulare type V. The ITS-SCGE method was able to provide the first line rapid and reproducible species identification/screening of SG-NTM and was more discriminatory than HPLC.
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150
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Cheng JW, Xiao M, Kudinha T, Kong F, Xu ZP, Sun LY, Zhang L, Fan X, Xie XL, Xu YC. Molecular Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Clostridium difficile Isolates from a University Teaching Hospital in China. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1621. [PMID: 27799923 PMCID: PMC5065952 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
While the developed world has seen a significant increase in the number of scientific articles on Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), the developing world still lags behind on this subject due to limited laboratory capacity, low awareness, and limited surveillance of this problem. As such, CDI is considered a neglected but potentially huge problem in developing countries. The major aim of this study was to systemically evaluate the utility of several molecular typing tools for CDI, including their relevance in epidemiological studies in developing countries such as China. A total of 116 non-repetitive toxigenic C. difficile isolates from Chinese patients, were studied. The isolates comprised 83 (71.6%) A+B+CDT- isolates, 27 (23.3%) A-B+CDT- isolates, and 6 (5.1%) A+B+CDT+ isolates. Typing methods evaluated included multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis, PCR ribotyping, multilocus sequence typing, and sequencing of slpA and tcdC genes, which identified 113, 30, 22, 18, and 8 genotypes each and exhibited discriminatory powers of 0.999, 0.916, 0.907, 0.883, and 0.765, respectively. Compared to A+B+ strains, A-B+ strains exhibited higher prevalence of drug resistance to clindamycin, erythromycin, levofloxacin, rifampicin, rifaximin, and tetracycline. Furthermore, drug resistance rates of strains with different PCR ribotypes differed, supporting the importance of molecular typing in management and control of CDI. Based on our earlier suggestion to improve the diagnostic laboratory capacity of CDI in developing countries, setting up efficient surveillance programs complemented by relevant molecular typing methods is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Wei Cheng
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijing, China; Graduate School, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Meng Xiao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Timothy Kudinha
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Charles Sturt UniversityOrange, NSW, Australia; Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory Services, Westmead HospitalSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Fanrong Kong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Charles Sturt University Orange, NSW, Australia
| | - Zhi-Peng Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Lin-Ying Sun
- Teaching and Research Section of Clinical Laboratory, School of Public Health, Taishan Medical School Taian, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Xin Fan
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijing, China; Graduate School, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Xiu-Li Xie
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Ying-Chun Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Beijing, China
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