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Gąska M, Kuśmider M, Solich J, Faron-Górecka A, Krawczyk MJ, Kułakowski K, Dziedzicka-Wasylewska M. Analysis of region-specific changes in gene expression upon treatment with citalopram and desipramine reveals temporal dynamics in response to antidepressant drugs at the transcriptome level. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 223:281-97. [PMID: 22547330 PMCID: PMC3438400 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2714-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The notion that the onset of action of antidepressant drugs (ADs) takes weeks is widely accepted; however, the sequence of events necessary for therapeutic effects still remains obscure. OBJECTIVE We aimed to evaluate a time-course of ADs-induced alterations in the expression of 95 selected genes in 4 regions of the rat brain: the prefrontal and cingulate cortices, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and the amygdala. METHODS We employed RT-PCR array to evaluate changes during a time-course (1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days) of treatments with desipramine (DMI) and citalopram (CIT). In addition to repeated treatment, we also conducted acute treatment (a single dose of drug followed by the same time intervals as the repeated doses). RESULTS Time-dependent and structure-specific changes in gene expression patterns allowed us to identify spatiotemporal differences in the molecular action of two ADs. Singular value decomposition analysis revealed differences in the global gene expression profiles between treatment types. The numbers of characteristic modes were generally smaller after CIT treatment than after DMI treatment. Analysis of the dynamics of gene expression revealed that the most significant changes concerned immediate early genes, whose expression was also visualized by in situ hybridization. Transcription factor binding site analysis revealed an over-representation of serum response factor binding sites in the promoters of genes that changed upon treatment with both ADs. CONCLUSIONS The observed gene expression patterns were highly dynamic, with oscillations and peaks at various time points of treatment. Our study also revealed novel potential targets of antidepressant action, i.e., Dbp and Id1 genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Gąska
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12 Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland.
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102
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Rozov A, Zivkovic AR, Schwarz MK. Homer1 gene products orchestrate Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptor distribution and LTP expression. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2012; 4:4. [PMID: 23133416 PMCID: PMC3489244 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2012.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the role of Homer1 gene products on the presence of synaptic Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and long-term potentiation (LTP) generation in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, using mice either lacking all Homer1 isoforms (Homer1 KO) or overexpressing the immediate early gene (IEG) product Homer1a (H1aTG). We found that Homer1 KO caused a significant redistribution of the AMPAR subunit GluA2 from the dendritic compartment to the soma. Furthermore, deletion of Homer1 enhanced the AMPAR-mediated component of glutamatergic currents at Schaffer collateral synapses as demonstrated by increased AMPA/NMDA current ratios. Meanwhile, LTP generation appeared to be unaffected. Conversely, sustained overexpression of Homer1a strongly reduced AMPA/NMDA current ratios and polyamine sensitivity of synaptic AMPAR, indicating that the proportion of synaptic GluA2-containing AMPAR increased relative to WT. LTP maintenance was abolished in H1aTG. Notably, overexpression of Homer1a in Homer1 KO or GluA2 KO mice did not affect LTP expression, suggesting activity-dependent interaction between Homer1a and long Homer1 isoforms with GluA2-containing AMPAR. Thus, Homer1a is essential for the activity-dependent regulation of excitatory synaptic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrei Rozov
- IZN and Department of Clinical Neurobiology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Germany ; Division of Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee University Dundee, UK
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103
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Neto FL, Borges G, Torres-Sanchez S, Mico JA, Berrocoso E. Neurotrophins role in depression neurobiology: a review of basic and clinical evidence. Curr Neuropharmacol 2012; 9:530-52. [PMID: 22654714 PMCID: PMC3263450 DOI: 10.2174/157015911798376262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2010] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting a huge percentage of the active population especially in developed countries. Research has devoted much of its attention to this problematic and many drugs have been developed and are currently prescribed to treat this pathology. Yet, many patients are refractory to the available therapeutic drugs, which mainly act by increasing the levels of the monoamines serotonin and noradrenaline in the synaptic cleft. Even in the cases antidepressants are effective, it is usually observed a delay of a few weeks between the onset of treatment and remission of the clinical symptoms. Additionally, many of these patients who show remission with antidepressant therapy present a relapse of depression upon treatment cessation. Thus research has focused on other possible molecular targets, besides monoamines, underlying depression. Both basic and clinical evidence indicates that depression is associated with
several structural and neurochemical changes where the levels of neurotrophins, particularly of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are altered. Antidepressants, as well as other therapeutic strategies, seem to restore these levels. Neuronal atrophy, mostly detected in limbic structures that regulate mood and cognition, like the hippocampus, is observed in depressed patients and in animal behavioural paradigms for depression. Moreover, chronic antidepressant treatment enhances adult hippocampal neurogenesis, supporting the notion that this event underlies antidepressants effects. Here we review some of the preclinical and clinical studies, aimed at disclosing the role of neurotrophins in the pathophysiological
mechanisms of depression and the mode of action of antidepressants, which favour the neurotrophic/neurogenic hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fani L Neto
- Instituto de Histologia e Embriologia, Faculdade de Medicina e IBMC, Universidade do Porto, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
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104
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Stelzhammer V, Rothermundt M, Guest PC, Michael N, Sondermann C, Kluge W, Martins-de-Souza D, Rahmoune H, Bahn S. Proteomic changes induced by anaesthesia and muscle relaxant treatment prior to electroconvulsive therapy. Proteomics Clin Appl 2012; 5:644-9. [PMID: 22006837 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201100040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients. Prior to treatment, patients are usually given short-acting anaesthetics and muscle relaxants to avoid harm, e.g. musculoskeletal injury, during the convulsions. However, most molecular studies investigating the mechanism of action of ECT have not explored the potential effects of the pre-treatment with anaesthetic and/ or muscle relaxant. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We have carried out a targeted proteome analysis using multiplex immunoassay platform of serum samples before and 10 min after initiating the administration of the anaesthetic methohexital(®) and the muscle relaxant succinylcholine(®) to eight major depressive disorder patients undergoing ECT. RESULTS Twenty-six out of 142 analysed molecules showed significant differences in abundance after the methohexital/succinylcholine treatment. Importantly, eight of these molecules (fatty acid-binding protein, insulin, interleukin (IL)1β, IL-10, IL-4, prolactin, S100 calcium-binding protein B and tumor necrosis factor α) have been associated previously with effects of ECT. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE These findings indicate that caution should be used when interpreting results in existing and future proteome-based biomarkers studies on the effects of ECT in neuropsychiatric disease or the use of anaesthetic/muscle relaxant in major surgical operations related to different therapeutic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Stelzhammer
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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105
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Strauss J, McGregor S, Freeman N, Tiwari A, George CJ, Kovacs M, Kennedy JL. Association study of early-immediate genes in childhood-onset mood disorders and suicide attempt. Psychiatry Res 2012; 197:49-54. [PMID: 22460132 PMCID: PMC3376203 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2011] [Revised: 11/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Childhood-onset mood disorders (COMD) are serious affective disorders with deleterious developmental sequelae including interpersonal dysfunction, psychotic symptoms and suicidal behavior. The current study examines 10 markers from two early-immediate genes for association with COMD and suicide attempt (SA) - HOMER1 and human neuronal pentraxin II (NPTX2). We examined individuals diagnosed with COMD versus matched controls, as well as individuals with COMD and a history of at least one lifetime SA versus COMD participants with no history of SA. No significant genotypic association was noted between any of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and COMD. Our sample yielded a nominally significant allelic association between the HOMER1 rs7713917 SNP and COMD. We report significant genotype associations between HOMER1 rs2290639 and SA , and between NPTX2 markers rs705315 and rs1681248 and SA, findings that remained statistically significant after multiple test correction. A three-way interaction was observed among HOMER1 rs4704560, rs2290639 and NPTX2 rs705318. The associations we describe for HOMER1 and NPTX2 with SA should be considered preliminary until replicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Strauss
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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106
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Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) therapy, a fast-acting and very effective antidepressant therapy, are poorly understood. Changes related to neuroplasticity, including enhanced adult hippocampal neurogenesis and neuronal arborization, are believed to play an important role in mediating the effects of ECS. Here we show a dynamic upregulation of the scaffold protein tamalin, selectively in the hippocampus of animals subjected to ECS. Interestingly, this gene upregulation is functionally significant because tamalin deletion in mice abrogated ECS-induced neurogenesis in the adult mouse hippocampus. Furthermore, loss of tamalin blunts mossy fiber sprouting and dendritic arborization caused by ECS. These data suggest an essential role for tamalin in ECS-induced adult neuroplasticity and provide new insight into the pathways that are involved in mediating ECS effects.
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107
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Balaratnasingam S, Janca A. Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor: A novel neurotrophin involved in psychiatric and neurological disorders. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 134:116-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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108
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Brain stimulation therapies for neuropsychiatric disease. NEUROBIOLOGY OF PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS 2012; 106:681-95. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52002-9.00041-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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109
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Hayashi Y, Okamoto KI, Bosch M, Futai K. Roles of neuronal activity-induced gene products in Hebbian and homeostatic synaptic plasticity, tagging, and capture. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 970:335-54. [PMID: 22351063 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0932-8_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of synaptic transmission undergoes plastic modification in response to changes in input activity. This phenomenon is most commonly referred to as synaptic plasticity and can involve different cellular mechanisms over time. In the short term, typically in the order of minutes to 1 h, synaptic plasticity is mediated by the actions of locally existing proteins. In the longer term, the synthesis of new proteins from existing or newly synthesized mRNAs is required to maintain the changes in synaptic transmission. Many studies have attempted to identify genes induced by neuronal activity and to elucidate the functions of the encoded proteins. In this chapter, we describe our current understanding of how activity can regulate the synthesis of new proteins, how the distribution of the newly synthesized protein is regulated in relation to the synapses undergoing plasticity and the function of these proteins in both Hebbian and homeostatic synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasunori Hayashi
- Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
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110
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Voleti B, Tanis KQ, Newton SS, Duman RS. Analysis of target genes regulated by chronic electroconvulsive therapy reveals role for Fzd6 in depression. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 71:51-8. [PMID: 21937024 PMCID: PMC3230749 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 07/15/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic electroconvulsive seizure (chr-ECS), one of the most efficacious treatments for depressed patients, increases the levels of transcription factor cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein (CREB) in rodent models and mediates the effects of chronic antidepressant treatment. The objective of this study was to determine the changes in CREB occupancy at gene promoters and subsequent gene expression changes induced by chr-ECS. METHODS We use chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by microarray analysis to identify CREB binding promoters that are influenced by chr-ECS (n = 6/group). Selected genes are confirmed by secondary validation techniques, and the functional significance of one target was tested in behavioral models (n = 8/group) by viral mediated inhibition of gene expression. RESULTS The results demonstrate that chr-ECS enhances CREB binding and activity at a select population of genes in the hippocampus, effects that could contribute to the efficacy of chr-ECS. Viral vector-mediated inhibition of one of the CREB-target genes regulated by chr-ECS, Fzd6, produced anxiety and depressive-like effects in behavioral models of depression. CONCLUSIONS The results identify multiple gene targets differentially regulated by CREB binding in the hippocampus after chr-ECS and demonstrate the role of Fzd6, a Wnt receptor in behavioral models of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavya Voleti
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, Yale University School of Medicine, 34 Park Street, New Haven, CT 06508, USA
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111
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Time course and duration of changes in Kv7.2 and Kv11.1 mRNA expression in the hippocampus and piriform cortex following electroconvulsive stimulations. Brain Stimul 2012; 5:55-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Revised: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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112
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Favalli G, Li J, Belmonte-de-Abreu P, Wong AHC, Daskalakis ZJ. The role of BDNF in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2012; 46:1-11. [PMID: 22030467 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SCZ). However, it remains unclear whether alterations in BDNF observed in patients with SCZ are a core part of disease neurobiology or a consequence of treatment. In this manuscript we review existing knowledge relating the function of BDNF to synaptic transmission and neural plasticity and the relationship between BDNF and both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for SCZ. With regards to synaptic transmission, exposure to BDNF or lack of this neurotrophin results in alteration to both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Many authors have also evaluated the effects of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for SCZ in BDNF and despite some controversial results, it seems that medicated and non-medicated patients present with lower levels of BDNF when compared to controls. Further data suggests that typical antipsychotics may decrease BDNF expression whereas mixed results have been obtained with atypical antipsychotics. The authors found few studies reporting changes in BDNF after non-pharmacological treatments for SCZ, so the existing evidence in this area is limited. Although the study of BDNF provides some new insights into understanding of the pathophysiology and treatment of SCZ, additional work in this area is needed.
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113
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Elfving B, Wegener G. Electroconvulsive seizures stimulate the vegf pathway via mTORC1. Synapse 2011; 66:340-5. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.21518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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114
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Segi-Nishida E. Exploration of new molecular mechanisms for antidepressant actions of electroconvulsive seizure. Biol Pharm Bull 2011; 34:939-44. [PMID: 21719995 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.34.939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Electroconvulsive seizure (ECS) therapy is a clinically proven treatment for depression and is often effective even in patients resistant to chemical antidepressants. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the therapeutic efficacy of ECS are not fully understood. Here, I review studies that show molecular, cellular, and behavioral changes by ECS treatment, and discuss the functions of ECS to underlie the action of antidepressant effects. In hippocampus, these changes cover gene induction, increased adult neurogenesis, and electrophysiological reactivity. Especially, the role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in neurogenesis is discussed. Among other gene expression changes in hippocampus, a role of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, an inducible type of the rate-limiting enzyme of prostanoid synthesis, is focused. ECS-induced changes in other brain regions such as prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus, and ECS-induced behavioral changes are also reviewed. Understanding the molecular, cellular, and behavioral changes by ECS will provide a new view to find potential targets for novel antidepressant design that are highlighted by these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Segi-Nishida
- Department of Systems Bioscience for Drug Discovery, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606–8501, Japan.
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115
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Sun P, Wang F, Wang L, Zhang Y, Yamamoto R, Sugai T, Zhang Q, Wang Z, Kato N. Increase in cortical pyramidal cell excitability accompanies depression-like behavior in mice: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. J Neurosci 2011; 31:16464-72. [PMID: 22072696 PMCID: PMC6633240 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1542-11.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2011] [Revised: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical evidence suggests that cortical excitability is increased in depressives. We investigated its cellular basis in a mouse model of depression. In a modified version of forced swimming (FS), mice were initially forced to swim for 5 consecutive days and then were treated daily with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) or sham treatment for the following 4 weeks without swimming. On day 2 through day 5, the mice manifested depression-like behaviors. The next and last FS was performed 4 weeks later, which revealed a 4 week maintenance of depression-like behavior in the sham mice. In slices from the sham controls, excitability in cingulate cortex pyramidal cells was elevated in terms of membrane potential and frequencies of spikes evoked by current injection. Depolarized resting potential was shown to depend on suppression of large conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels. This BK channel suppression was confirmed by measuring spike width, which depends on BK channels. Chronic rTMS treatment during the 4 week period significantly reduced the depression-like behavior. In slices obtained from the rTMS mice, normal excitability and BK channel activity were recovered. Expression of a scaffold protein Homer1a was reduced by the FS and reversed by rTMS in the cingulate cortex. Similar recovery in the same behavioral, electrophysiological, and biochemical features was observed after chronic imipramine treatment. The present study demonstrated that manifestation and disappearance of depression-like behavior are in parallel with increase and decrease in cortical neuronal excitability in mice and suggested that regulation of BK channels by Homer1a is involved in this parallelism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Sun
- Department of Physiology and
- Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
- Union Hospital and
| | - Furong Wang
- Department of Physiology and
- Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
- Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Physiology and
- China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China, and
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Physiology and
- Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
- Medical College of Qinghai University, Xining 810001, China
| | | | | | - Qing Zhang
- Department of Physiology and
- Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
- Union Hospital and
| | | | - Nobuo Kato
- Department of Physiology and
- Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
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116
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Schmidt HD, Shelton RC, Duman RS. Functional biomarkers of depression: diagnosis, treatment, and pathophysiology. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:2375-94. [PMID: 21814182 PMCID: PMC3194084 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous illness for which there are currently no effective methods to objectively assess severity, endophenotypes, or response to treatment. Increasing evidence suggests that circulating levels of peripheral/serum growth factors and cytokines are altered in patients with MDD, and that antidepressant treatments reverse or normalize these effects. Furthermore, there is a large body of literature demonstrating that MDD is associated with changes in endocrine and metabolic factors. Here we provide a brief overview of the evidence that peripheral growth factors, pro-inflammatory cytokines, endocrine factors, and metabolic markers contribute to the pathophysiology of MDD and antidepressant response. Recent preclinical studies demonstrating that peripheral growth factors and cytokines influence brain function and behavior are also discussed along with their implications for diagnosing and treating patients with MDD. Together, these studies highlight the need to develop a biomarker panel for depression that aims to profile diverse peripheral factors that together provide a biological signature of MDD subtypes as well as treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heath D Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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117
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Job MO, McNamara IM, Kuhar MJ. CART Peptides Regulate Psychostimulants and May be Endogenous Antidepressants. Curr Neuropharmacol 2011; 9:12-6. [PMID: 21886553 PMCID: PMC3137165 DOI: 10.2174/157015911795017074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 04/17/2010] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
CART peptides are endogenous neurotransmitters that are involved in a variety of physiologic functions. Injection of CART 55-102 into the nucleus accumbens produces no effect, but when co-administered with cocaine, it reduces the locomotor and rewarding properties of cocaine. In a human study, subjects carrying a missense mutation of the CART gene exhibited increased anxiety and depression. Also, several animal studies support the idea that CART is involved in anxiety and depression, and they also suggest several possible mechanisms by which this may occur. Thus, there is interesting evidence that CART peptides play a role in anxiety and depression, and that CART peptides may be endogenous antidepressants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M O Job
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center of Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta GA 30329, USA
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118
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Anastasía A, Wojnacki J, de Erausquin GA, Mascó DH. Glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor is essential for electroconvulsive shock-induced neuroprotection in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2011; 195:100-11. [PMID: 21871541 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Sustained motor improvement in human patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease has been described following electroconvulsive shock (ECS) treatment. In rats, ECS stimulates the expression of various trophic factors (TFs), some of which have been proposed to exert neuroprotective actions. We previously reported that ECS protects the integrity of the rat nigrostriatal dopaminergic system against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity; in order to shed light into its neuroprotective mechanism, we studied glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) levels (the most efficient TF for dopaminergic neurons) in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum of 6-OHDA-injected animals with or without ECS treatment. 6-OHDA injection decreased GDNF levels in the SN control animals, but not in those receiving chronic ECS, suggesting that changes in GDNF expression may participate in the ECS neuroprotective mechanism. To evaluate this possibility, we inhibit GDNF by infusion of GDNF function blocking antibodies in the SN of 6-OHDA-injected animals treated with ECS (or sham ECS). Animals were sacrificed 7 days after 6-OHDA infusion, and the integrity of the nigrostriatal system was studied by tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry and Cresyl Violet staining. Neuroprotection observed in ECS-treated animals was inhibited by GDNF antibodies in the SN. These results robustly demonstrate that GDNF is essential for the ECS neuroprotective effect observed in 6-OHDA-injected animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Anastasía
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Centro de Biología Celular y Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 1611, ZC: X5016GCA, Córdoba, Argentina
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119
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Ibrahim L, Duncan W, Luckenbaugh DA, Yuan P, Machado-Vieira R, Zarate CA. Rapid antidepressant changes with sleep deprivation in major depressive disorder are associated with changes in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): a pilot study. Brain Res Bull 2011; 86:129-33. [PMID: 21704134 PMCID: PMC3156364 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Revised: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
While conventional antidepressants benefit many patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), as much as eight to 12 weeks can elapse before significant improvements in depressive symptoms are seen. Treatments that act more rapidly in MDD are urgently needed. Sleep deprivation (SD) has been shown to produce a rapid antidepressant response within one day in 50-60% of patients with MDD; thus, identifying its antidepressant mechanism may contribute to the development of antidepressants that act more rapidly. The present study evaluated the effects of 39 h of SD on mood, as well as on plasma levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in patients with MDD. After a drug-free period of at least two weeks, 11 patients (6 males, 5 females; ages 25-62) who met DSM-IV criteria for MDD underwent total SD. Plasma samples for BDNF and VEGF assays were collected on Days 1 (baseline) and 2. The six-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAMD-6) was the primary outcome measure. HAMD-6 scores decreased significantly after SD (Day 2). SD was negatively correlated with change in HAMD-6 score and change in VEGF levels, indicating that as depression scores decreased following SD, VEGF plasma levels increased. In contrast, SD did not alter plasma BDNF concentrations, nor was an association found between BDNF levels and clinical improvement on the HAMD-6. These results suggest that SD is associated with mood-related changes in plasma VEGF levels, but not plasma BDNF levels. Further studies using larger sample sizes are needed to confirm these preliminary findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lobna Ibrahim
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Wallace Duncan
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - David A. Luckenbaugh
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Peixiong Yuan
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, LIM-27, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, and Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
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120
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Minelli A, Zanardini R, Abate M, Bortolomasi M, Gennarelli M, Bocchio-Chiavetto L. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) serum concentration during electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in treatment resistant depressed patients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:1322-5. [PMID: 21570438 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an angiogenic cytokine, which induces vasopermeability and facilitates neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in the adult brain. Expression studies in animal models have reported that brain VEGF is regulated by electroconvulsive seizures (ECS), which are used in an experimental paradigm similar to clinical electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) a treatment for drug resistant depressed (TRD) patients. The aim of this study was to investigate putative modulations of ECT on VEGF serum levels in TRD patients. Nineteen patients were enrolled in the study; illness severity and VEGF serum contents were assessed before the treatment (T0), the day after the end of ECT (T1) and one month later the end of ECT (T2). ECT treatment improved depression symptomatology as measured by MADRS scores (p<0.0001). No changes occurred in serum VEGF between T0 and T1, whereas a significant increase was observed between T0 and T2 (p=0.042). Moreover a significant correlation was observed between the VEGF increase at T2 and the reduction in MADRS scores (p=0.049). This study is the first to evaluate putative modulations of serum VEGF induced by ECT in TRD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Minelli
- Genetic Unit, I.R.C.C.S. "San Giovanni di Dio", Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
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121
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El-Sayed M, Hofman-Bang J, Mikkelsen JD. Effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein gene expression in primary frontal cortical neurons. Comparison with NMDA and AMPA. Eur J Pharmacol 2011; 660:351-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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122
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VGF: an inducible gene product, precursor of a diverse array of neuro-endocrine peptides and tissue-specific disease biomarkers. J Chem Neuroanat 2011; 42:249-61. [PMID: 21621608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2011.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The vgf gene (non-acronymic) is induced in vivo by neurotrophins including Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), Brain Derived Growth Factor (BDNF) and Glial Derived Growth Factor (GDNF), by synaptic activity and by homeostatic and other stimuli. Post-translational processing of a single VGF precursor gives raise to a varied multiplicity of neuro-endocrine peptides, some of which are secreted upon stimulation both in vitro and in vivo. Several VGF peptides, accounting for ∼20% of the VGF precursor sequence, have shown biological roles including regulation of food intake, energy balance, reproductive and homeostatic mechanisms, synaptic strengthening, long-term potentiation (LTP) and anti-depressant activity. From a further ∼50% of VGF derive multiple "fragments", largely identified in the human cerebro-spinal fluid by proteomic studies searching for disease biomarkers. These represent an important starting point for discovery of further VGF products relevant to neuronal brain functions, as well as to neurodegenerative and psychiatric disease conditions. A distinct feature of VGF peptides is their cell type specific diversity in all neuroendocrine organs studied so far. Selective differential profiles are found across the cell populations of pituitary, adrenal medulla and pancreatic islets, and in gastric neuroendocrine as well as some further mucosal cells, and are yet to be investigated in neuronal systems. At the same time, specific VGF peptide/s undergo selective modulation in response to organ or cell population relevant stimuli. Such pattern argues for a multiplicity of roles for VGF peptides, including endocrine functions, local intercellular communication, as well as the possible mediation of intracellular mechanisms.
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123
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Kamagata C, Tsuboko Y, Okabe T, Sato C, Sakamoto A. Proteomic analysis of rat brains in a model of neuropathic pain following exposure to electroconvulsive stimulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 32:91-102. [PMID: 21551944 DOI: 10.2220/biomedres.32.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Some reports have shown that electroconvulsive shock therapy is effective for treating refractory neuropathic pain. However, its mechanism of action remains unknown. This study analyzes changes in protein expression in the brainstems of neuropathic pain model rats with or without electroconvulsive stimulation (ECS). A neuropathic pain model rat is produced by chronic constrictive injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. An ECS was administered to rodents once daily for 6 days after the CCI operation. After ECS, the latency to withdrawal from thermal stimulation was significantly increased. The expression of several proteins was changed after CCI. Ten proteins that increased after CCI then had decreased expression levels (close to control) after ECS, and 8 proteins that decreased after CCI then had increased expression levels (close to control) after ECS. In conclusion, ECS improved thermal hypersensitivity in a rat CCI model. Proteomic analysis showed that altered expression levels of proteins in the brainstem of CCI model rats returned to close to control levels after ECS, including many proteins associated with pain. This trend suggests an association of ECS with improved hypersensitivity, and these results may help elucidate the mechanism of this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Kamagata
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nippon Medical School, Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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124
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Characterization of electroconvulsive seizure-induced TIMP-1 and MMP-9 in hippocampal vasculature. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2011; 14:535-44. [PMID: 20678305 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145710000891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Degradation of the vascular basement membrane stimulates angiogenesis and is tightly controlled by balancing the actions of metalloproteases and their inhibitors. Previous work demonstrated that electroconvulsive seizure (ECS) elevates angiogenic factors and endothelial proliferation in the hippocampus. The robust induction of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloprotease 1 (TIMP-1) in the stratum lacunosum moleculare (SLM) corresponds to sites of increased vascular density. This led us to examine the spatial and cellular expression of TIMP-1 and its substrate, matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP-9). Chronic ECS increased TIMP-1 by 12-fold and MMP-9 by 3-fold in discrete SLM cells. We then characterized the expression of TIMP-1 mRNA in relation to vasculature in the SLM and glial-limiting membrane (GLM). Employing laser microdissection we identified the cell types associated with SLM vasculature and also phenotyped the cells expressing TIMP-1 and MMP-9. We concluded that TIMP-1 is produced by perivascular cells positive for alpha smooth actin and that MMP-9 is expressed by GFAP-positive astrocytes. These studies suggest that ECS-induced remodelling occurs at the vascular basement membrane and facilitates neovascularization.
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125
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Chrzaszcz M, Venkatesan C, Dragisic T, Watterson DM, Wainwright MS. Minozac treatment prevents increased seizure susceptibility in a mouse "two-hit" model of closed skull traumatic brain injury and electroconvulsive shock-induced seizures. J Neurotrauma 2011; 27:1283-95. [PMID: 20486807 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.1227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms linking traumatic brain injury (TBI) to post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) are not known and no therapy for prevention of PTE is available. We used a mouse closed-skull midline impact model to test the hypotheses that TBI increases susceptibility to seizures in a "two-hit" injury model, and that suppression of cytokine upregulation after the first hit will attenuate the increased susceptibility to the second neurological insult. Adult male CD-1 mice underwent midline closed skull pneumatic impact. At 3 and 6 h after impact or sham procedure, the mice were injected IP with either Minozac (Mzc), a suppressor of proinflammatory cytokine upregulation, or vehicle (saline). On day 7 after sham operation or TBI, seizures were induced using electroconvulsive shock (ECS), and susceptibility to seizures was measured by the current required for seizure induction. Activation of glia, neuronal injury, and metallothionein-immunoreactive cells were quantified in the hippocampus by immunohistochemical methods. Neurobehavioral function over 14-day recovery was quantified using the Barnes maze. Following TBI there was a significant increase in susceptibility to seizures induced by ECS, and this susceptibility was prevented by suppression of cytokine upregulation with Mzc. Astrocyte activation, metallothionein expression, and neurobehavioral impairment were also increased in the two-hit group subjected to combined TBI and ECS. These enhanced responses in the two-hit group were also prevented by suppression of proinflammatory cytokine upregulation with Mzc. These data implicate glial activation in the mechanisms of epileptogenesis after TBI, and identify a potential therapeutic approach to attenuate the delayed neurological sequelae of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- MaryAnn Chrzaszcz
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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126
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Ohtomo T, Kanamatsu T, Fujita M, Takagi M, Yamada J. Sustained downregulation of YY1-associated protein-related protein gene expression in rat hippocampus induced by repeated electroconvulsive shock. Biol Pharm Bull 2011; 34:249-52. [PMID: 21415536 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.34.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
YY1AP-related protein (YARP) is a structural homolog of YY1-associated protein (YY1AP), which has a YY1-binding domain. During perinatal development, YARP mRNA expression is increased at a late stage of embryonic neurogenesis. It is not known whether YARP expression is regulated during adult neurogenesis. Electroconvulsive shock (ECS), a model for a highly effective depression treatment, is known to induce hippocampal neurogenesis after repeated treatment, so we employed ECS to measure the expression of YARP mRNA. Northern blots revealed significantly decreased expression of the YARP gene after repeated ECS but not single ECS. In situ hybridization clearly demonstrated a reduction of YARP mRNA expression in the CA (CA1, CA2, and CA3) subfields. Although clonic-tonic seizure was induced not only by ECS but also by injection of kainic acid to the striatum, the regulation of YARP mRNA expression was different between ECS and kainic acid. YARP mRNA was decreased only by the ECS method, suggesting that YARP expression is different at embryonic and adult neurogenic stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Ohtomo
- Department of Pharmacotherapeutics, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432–1 Horinouchi, Hachioji,Tokyo 192–0392, Japan.
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127
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Okabe T, Sato C, Sakamoto A. Changes in neuropeptide Y gene expression in the spinal cord of chronic constrictive injury model rats after electroconvulsive stimulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 31:287-92. [PMID: 21079358 DOI: 10.2220/biomedres.31.287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Some reports have shown that electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) is effective for treating refractory neuropathic pain. However, its mechanism of action remains unknown. We have previously shown that electroconvulsive shock (ECS) improved thermal hypersensitivity in chronic constrictive injury (CCI) model rats and simultaneously elevated the neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression in the brain of these rats. In this study, we examined changes in the expression of NPY in the spinal cord of a CCI model. The rat model of CCI was established by ligating the left sciatic nerve. ECS was administered to the rats once daily for six days on days 7-12 after the operation using an electrical stimulator. RT-PCR was used to measure NPY mRNA expression in both the right and left L5 dorsal spinal cords on the 14th day after the operation. NPY gene expression was decreased in the dorsal spinal cords after ECS; however, no differences in NPY expression were observed between the right and left side of dorsal spinal cords, suggesting that the effect of changes in NPY expression after ECS on the improvement of neuropathic pain is not directly related to the spinal cord, but mainly to the upper central nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Okabe
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.
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128
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Ito M, Seki T, Liu J, Nakamura K, Namba T, Matsubara Y, Suzuki T, Arai H. Effects of repeated electroconvulsive seizure on cell proliferation in the rat hippocampus. Synapse 2011; 64:814-21. [PMID: 20340175 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is known as a successful treatment for severe depression. Despite great efforts, the biological mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of ECT remain largely unclear. In this study, animals received a single, 10, or 20 applications of electroconvulsive seizure (ECS), and then cell proliferation and apoptosis were investigated in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus. We analyzed whether a series of ECSs could induce changes in the dentate gyrus in a dose-response fashion. A single-ECS seizure significantly increased cell proliferation in the SGZ by ∼2.3-fold compared to sham treatment. After 10 ECSs, a significant increase in cell proliferation was observed in the SGZ by ∼2.4-fold compared to sham treatment. Moreover, 10 ECSs induced a significant increase in cell proliferation by 1.3-fold compared to a single-ECS group. However, cell proliferation did not differ between the group with 20 ECSs and sham group. In addition, a significant increase in the number of apoptotic cells was found in the group with 10 ECSs, whereas no significant change in it was found in either a single ECS or 20 ECSs group compared to sham treatment. These findings indicate that the optimal number of treatments and duration of stimulation requires investigation. Further studies are needed to elucidate the intracellular mechanisms underlying both effective and excessive ECT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanobu Ito
- Department of Psychiatry, Juntendo University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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129
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Bolwig TG. How does electroconvulsive therapy work? Theories on its mechanism. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2011; 56:13-8. [PMID: 21324238 DOI: 10.1177/070674371105600104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews 3 current theories of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). One theory points to generalized seizures as essential for the therapeutic efficacy of ECT. Another theory highlights the normalization of neuroendocrine dysfunction in melancholic depression as a result of ECT. A third theory is based on recent findings of increased hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptogenesis in experimental animals given electroconvulsive seizures. Presently, the endocrine theory has the strongest foundation to explain the working mechanism of ECT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom G Bolwig
- Department of Psychiatry, Copenhagen University Hospital, 9 Blegdamsvej, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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130
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Lee BH, Kim YK. The roles of BDNF in the pathophysiology of major depression and in antidepressant treatment. Psychiatry Investig 2010; 7:231-5. [PMID: 21253405 PMCID: PMC3022308 DOI: 10.4306/pi.2010.7.4.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophic factors are critical regulators of the formation and plasticity of neuronal networks. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is abundant in the brain and periphery, and is found in both human serum and plasma. Animal studies have demonstrated that stress reduces BDNF expression or activity in the hippocampus and that this reduction can be prevented by treatment with antidepressant drugs. A similar change in BDNF activity occurs in the brain of patients with major depression disorder (MDD). Recently, clinical studies have indicated that serum or plasma BDNF levels are decreased in untreated MDD patients. Antidepressant treatment for at least four weeks can restore the decreased BDNF function up to the normal value. Therefore, MDD is associated with impaired neuronal plasticity. Suicidal behavior can be a consequence of severe impaired neuronal plasticity in the brain. Antidepressant treatment promotes increased BDNF activity as well as several forms of neuronal plasticity, including neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and neuronal maturation. BDNF could also play an important role in the modulation of neuronal networks. Such a neuronal plastic change can positively influence mood or recover depressed mood. These alterations of BDNF levels or neuronal plasticity in MDD patients before and after antidepressant treatment can be measured through the examination of serum or plasma BDNF concentrations. BDNF levels can therefore be useful markers for clinical response or improvement of depressive symptoms, but they are not diagnostic markers of major depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bun-Hee Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yong-Ku Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
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131
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Valor LM, Barco A. Hippocampal gene profiling: toward a systems biology of the hippocampus. Hippocampus 2010; 22:929-41. [PMID: 21080408 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Transcriptomics and proteomics approaches give a unique perspective for understanding brain and hippocampal functions but also pose unique challenges because of the singular complexity of the nervous system. The proliferation of genome-wide expression studies during the last decade has provided important insight into the molecular underpinnings of brain anatomy, neural plasticity, and neurological diseases. Microarray technology has dominated transcriptomics research, but this situation is rapidly changing with the recent technological advances in high-throughput sequencing. The full potential of transcriptomics in the neurosciences will be achieved as a result of its integration with other "-omics" disciplines as well as the development of novel analytical bioinformatics and systems biology tools for meta-analysis. Here, we review some of the most relevant advances in the gene profiling of the hippocampus, its relationship with proteomics approaches, and the promising perspectives for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Valor
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Sant Joan, Apt. 18, Sant Joan d'Alacant, 03550, Alicante, Spain
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132
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Christiansen SH, Woldbye DPD. Regulation of the galanin system by repeated electroconvulsive seizures in mice. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:3635-43. [PMID: 20936701 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 07/30/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Even though induction of seizures by electroconvulsive stimulation (ECS) is a treatment widely used for major depression in humans, the working mechanism of ECS remains uncertain. The antiepileptic effect of ECS has been suggested to be involved in mediating the therapeutic effect of ECS. The neuropeptide galanin exerts antiepileptic and antidepressant-like effects and has also been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. To explore a potential role of galanin in working mechanisms of ECS, the present study examined effects of repeated ECS on the galanin system using QRT-PCR, in situ hybridization, and [(125) I]galanin receptor binding. ECS was administered to adult mice daily for 14 days, and this paradigm was confirmed to exert antidepressant-like effect in the tail suspension test. Prominent increases in galanin gene expression were found in several brain regions involved in regulation of epileptic activity and depression, including the piriform cortex, hippocampal dentate gyrus, and amygdala. Likewise, GalR2 gene expression was up-regulated in both the central and the medial amygdala, whereas GalR1 gene expression showed a modest down-regulation in the medial amygdala. [(125) I]galanin receptor binding in the piriform cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala was found to be significantly down-regulated. These data show that the galanin system is regulated by repeated ECS in a number of brain regions implicated in seizure regulation and depression. These changes may play a role in the therapeutic effect of ECS.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Christiansen
- Laboratory of Neuropsychiatry, Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen, and Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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133
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Fujiki M, Abe E, Nagai Y, Shiqi K, Kubo T, Ishii K, Abe T, Kobayashi H. Electroconvulsive seizure-induced VEGF is correlated with neuroprotective effects against cerebral infarction: Involvement of the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt pathway. Exp Neurol 2010; 225:377-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 07/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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134
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The neuropeptide VGF is reduced in human bipolar postmortem brain and contributes to some of the behavioral and molecular effects of lithium. J Neurosci 2010; 30:9368-80. [PMID: 20631166 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5987-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies demonstrate that the neuropeptide VGF (nonacronymic) is regulated in the hippocampus by antidepressant therapies and animal models of depression and that acute VGF treatment has antidepressant-like activity in animal paradigms. However, the role of VGF in human psychiatric disorders is unknown. We now demonstrate using in situ hybridization that VGF is downregulated in bipolar disorder in the CA region of the hippocampus and Brodmann's area 9 of the prefrontal cortex. The mechanism of VGF in relation to LiCl was explored. Both LiCl intraperitoneally and VGF intracerebroventricularly reduced latency to drink in novelty-induced hypophagia, and LiCl was not effective in VGF(+/-) mice, suggesting that VGF may contribute to the effects of LiCl in this behavioral procedure that responds to chronic antidepressant treatment. VGF by intrahippocampal injection also had novel activity in an amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion assay, thus mimicking the actions of LiCl injected intraperitoneally in a system that phenocopies manic-like behavior. Moreover, VGF(+/-) mice exhibited increased locomotion after amphetamine treatment and did not respond to LiCl, suggesting that VGF is required for the effects of LiCl in curbing the response to amphetamine. Finally, VGF delivered intracerebroventricularly in vivo activated the same signaling pathways as LiCl and is necessary for the induction of mitogen-activated protein kinase and Akt by LiCl, thus lending insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of VGF. The dysregulation of VGF in bipolar disorder as well as the behavioral effects of the neuropeptide similar to LiCl suggests that VGF may underlie the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder.
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135
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Viikki M, Anttila S, Kampman O, Illi A, Huuhka M, Setälä-Soikkeli E, Mononen N, Lehtimäki T, Leinonen E. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) polymorphism is associated with treatment resistant depression. Neurosci Lett 2010; 477:105-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/18/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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136
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Cattaneo A, Sesta A, Calabrese F, Nielsen G, Riva MA, Gennarelli M. The expression of VGF is reduced in leukocytes of depressed patients and it is restored by effective antidepressant treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:1423-8. [PMID: 20164831 PMCID: PMC3055467 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Major depression is a disease characterized by an inability of neuronal systems to show appropriate adaptive plasticity especially under challenging conditions, such as stress. Conversely, pharmacological intervention may normalize such defects through the modulation of factors that might act in concert for the functional recovery of depressed patients, like the neuropeptide VGF, which has previously shown to possess antidepressant like activity. We analyzed VGF mRNA levels in the brain of rodents exposed to stress or treated with antidepressant drugs. In addition, we assessed VGF expression in leukocytes obtained from 25 drug-free depressed patients before and during antidepressant treatment. We found a persistent reduction of VGF expression after exposure to prenatal stress and an upregulation of its levels following chronic treatment with different antidepressant drugs. Moreover, VGF mRNA levels were significantly reduced in drug-free depressed patients, as compared with controls, and were modulated in response to effective antidepressant treatment. Our data provide further support to the role of VGF in mood disorders and suggest that VGF could be a more specific biomarker for treatment responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Cattaneo
- Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy,Genetics Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Antonella Sesta
- Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy,Genetics Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesca Calabrese
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Center of Neuropharmacology, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriela Nielsen
- Psychiatric Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marco Andrea Riva
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Center of Neuropharmacology, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy,Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Gennarelli
- Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy,Genetics Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy,Division of Biology and Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnologies, University of Brescia, Genetics Unit, IRCCS San Giovanni di Dio, Fatebenefratelli, Viale Europa 11, Brescia 25123, Italy, Tel: +39 030 3501453, Fax: +39 030 3501592, E-mail:
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137
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Abstract
Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus encompasses neurological syndromes of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous system and a variety of psychiatric syndromes. Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus presenting as catatonia is uncommon, and treatment of this condition is not well defined. Here we describe a case of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus with catatonia and our treatment approach focusing on electroconvulsive therapy in conjunction with cyclophosphamide. We also discuss the pathophysiological underpinnings of the condition and the basis for treatment.
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138
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Effects of electroconvulsive therapy and propofol on spatial memory and glutamatergic system in hippocampus of depressed rats. J ECT 2010; 26:126-30. [PMID: 20514696 DOI: 10.1097/yct.0b013e3181a9947a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This animal study tested the spatial learning memory of "depressed" rats undergoing electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or ECT combined with propofol and aimed to reveal the glutamatergic mechanisms in the hippocampus. METHODS Sixty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 5 groups (n = 12 rats per group): control group, depression group, propofol group, ECT group, and propofol + ECT group. Rats were stressed repeatedly for 21 days to establish depression model. After the model was set up, rats of the propofol group were administrated with propofol (100 mg/kg). Rats of ECT group were administered ECT once on alternate days for 2 weeks. ECT + propofol group rats were given ECT after anesthesia with propofol (100 mg/kg). Spatial memory was assessed by Morris water maze. Glutamate content in hippocampus was measured by chromatometry. N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA)-NR2B expression was detected by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS After treatment, the behavior level of rats in ECT group and ECT + propofol group was higher than that in depression group, and there was no significance between ECT group and ECT + propofol group. The evasive latency of rats detected by Morris water maze got shorter and shorter from the first day to fourth day. The evasive latency in ECT group was longer than that in ECT + propofol group and depression group, and the evasive latency in ECT + propofol group was shorter than that in depression group. Glutamate contents in hippocampus of rats in depression group and propofol group were higher than those in other groups, and glutamate content in ECT group was lower than that in other groups. The content in ECT + propofol group was lower than that in depression group, but higher than that in ECT group. N-methyl d-aspartate-NR2B expression in hippocampus of rats in depression group was lower than that in control group, but the expressions in ECT group and ECT + propofol group were higher than that in control group, and the expression in ECT + propofol group was lower than that in ECT group. CONCLUSIONS The glutamate content in hippocampus of depressed rats heightens, and the NMDA-NR2B expression down-regulated, which may cause "depression" symptoms and learning memory impairment. After ECT, the glutamate contents decreased, and NMDA-NR2B expression up-regulated, the depression symptoms improved, and the spatial memory worsened simultaneously. However, propofol inhibited the excessive decrease of glutamate and excessive up-regulation of NMDA-NR2B caused by ECT, and both the depression symptoms and the spatial memory of depressed rats improved.
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139
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Mariotti V, Melissari E, Amar S, Conte A, Belmaker RH, Agam G, Pellegrini S. Effect of prolonged phenytoin administration on rat brain gene expression assessed by DNA microarrays. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2010; 235:300-10. [PMID: 20404047 DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2009.009225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Preliminary clinical trials have recently shown that phenytoin, an antiepileptic drug, may also be beneficial for treatment of bipolar disorder. To examine molecular mechanisms of action of phenytoin as a potential mood stabilizer, DNA microarrays were used to study the effect of phenytoin on gene expression in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of Sprague-Dawley rats. While our particular interest is in bipolar disorder, this is the first DNA microarray study on the effect of phenytoin in brain tissue, in general. As compared with control rats, treated rats had 508 differentially expressed genes in the hippocampus and 62 in the frontal cortex. Phenytoin modulated the expression of genes which may affect neurotransmission, e.g. glutamate decarboxylase 1 (Gad1) and gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor, alpha 5 (Gabra5). Phenytoin also exerted an effect on neuroprotection-related genes, namely the survival-promoting and antioxidant genes v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (Akt1), FK506 binding protein 12-rapamycin associated protein 1 (Frap1), glutathione reductase (Gsr) and glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (Gclc). The expression of genes potentially associated with mechanisms of mood regulation such as adenylate cyclase-associated protein 1 (Cap1), Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (Gfap) and prodynorphin (Pdyn) was also altered. Some of the above genes are regarded as targets of classical mood stabilizers and their modulation supports the clinical observation that phenytoin may have mood-stabilizing effects. The results may provide new insights regarding the mechanism of action of phenytoin and genes found differentially expressed following phenytoin administration may play a role in the pathophysiology of either bipolar disorder or epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Mariotti
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Medical Biotechnology, Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology, University of Pisa, Italy
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140
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Bockaert J, Perroy J, Bécamel C, Marin P, Fagni L. GPCR interacting proteins (GIPs) in the nervous system: Roles in physiology and pathologies. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2010; 50:89-109. [PMID: 20055699 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.010909.105705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key transmembrane recognition molecules for regulatory signals such as light, odors, taste hormones, and neurotransmitters. In addition to activating guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins), GPCRs associate with a variety of GPCR-interacting proteins (GIPs). GIPs contain structural interacting domains that allow the formation of large functional complexes involved in G protein-dependent and -independent signaling. At the cellular level, other functions of GIPs include targeting of GPCRs to subcellular compartments and their trafficking to and from the plasma membrane. Recently, roles of GPCR-GIP interactions in central nervous system physiology and pathologies have been revealed. Here, we highlight the role of GIPs in some important neurological and psychiatric disorders, as well as their potential for the future development of therapeutic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joël Bockaert
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Montpellier, France.
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141
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Calabrese F, Molteni R, Cattaneo A, Macchi F, Racagni G, Gennarelli M, Ellenbroek BA, Riva MA. Long-Term Duloxetine Treatment Normalizes Altered Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Expression in Serotonin Transporter Knockout Rats through the Modulation of Specific Neurotrophin Isoforms. Mol Pharmacol 2010; 77:846-53. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.109.063081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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142
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Christensen KV, Leffers H, Watson WP, Sánchez C, Kallunki P, Egebjerg J. Levetiracetam attenuates hippocampal expression of synaptic plasticity-related immediate early and late response genes in amygdala-kindled rats. BMC Neurosci 2010; 11:9. [PMID: 20105316 PMCID: PMC2848232 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-11-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The amygdala-kindled rat is a model for human temporal lobe epilepsy and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Hippocampal RNA isolated from amygdala-kindled rats at different kindling stages was analyzed to identify kindling-induced genes. Furthermore, effects of the anti-epileptic drug levetiracetam on kindling-induced gene expression were examined. RESULTS Cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2), Protocadherin-8 (Pcdh8) and TGF-beta-inducible early response gene-1 (TIEG1) were identified and verified as differentially expressed transcripts in the hippocampus of kindled rats by in situ hybridization and quantitative RT-PCR. In addition, we identified a panel of 16 additional transcripts which included Arc, Egr3/Pilot, Homer1a, Ania-3, MMP9, Narp, c-fos, NGF, BDNF, NT-3, Synaptopodin, Pim1 kinase, TNF-alpha, RGS2, Egr2/krox-20 and beta-A activin that were differentially expressed in the hippocampus of amygdala-kindled rats. The list consists of many synaptic plasticity-related immediate early genes (IEGs) as well as some late response genes encoding transcription factors, neurotrophic factors and proteins that are known to regulate synaptic remodelling. In the hippocampus, induction of IEG expression was dependent on the afterdischarge (AD) duration. Levetiracetam, 40 mg/kg, suppressed the development of kindling measured as severity of seizures and AD duration. In addition, single animal profiling also showed that levetiracetam attenuated the observed kindling-induced IEG expression; an effect that paralleled the anti-epileptic effect of the drug on AD duration. CONCLUSIONS The present study provides mRNA expression data that suggest that levetiracetam attenuates expression of genes known to regulate synaptic remodelling. In the kindled rat, levetiracetam does so by shortening the AD duration thereby reducing the seizure-induced changes in mRNA expression in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth V Christensen
- Dept. of Molecular Biology, Discovery Biology Research, H, Lundbeck A/S, DK-2500 Valby, Denmark.
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143
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Pegoraro S, Broccard FD, Ruaro ME, Bianchini D, Avossa D, Pastore G, Bisson G, Altafini C, Torre V. Sequential steps underlying neuronal plasticity induced by a transient exposure to gabazine. J Cell Physiol 2010; 222:713-28. [PMID: 20027606 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Periods of intense electrical activity can initiate neuronal plasticity leading to long lasting changes of network properties. By combining multielectrode extracellular recordings with DNA microarrays, we have investigated in rat hippocampal cultures the temporal sequence of events of neuronal plasticity triggered by a transient exposure to the GABA(A) receptor antagonist gabazine (GabT). GabT induced a synchronous bursting pattern of activity. The analysis of electrical activity identified three main phases during neuronal plasticity induced by GabT: (i) immediately after termination of GabT, an early synchronization (E-Sync) of the spontaneous electrical activity appears that progressively decay after 3-6 h. E-Sync is abolished by inhibitors of the ERK1/2 pathway but not by inhibitors of gene transcription; (ii) the evoked response (induced by a single pulse of extracellular electrical stimulation) was maximally potentiated 3-10 h after GabT (M-LTP); and (iii) at 24 h the spontaneous electrical activity became more synchronous (L-Sync). The genome-wide analysis identified three clusters of genes: (i) an early rise of transcription factors (Cluster 1), primarily composed by members of the EGR and Nr4a families, maximally up-regulated 1.5 h after GabT; (ii) a successive up-regulation of some hundred genes, many of which known to be involved in LTP (Cluster 2), 3 h after GabT likely underlying M-LTP. Moreover, in Cluster 2 several genes coding for K(+) channels are down-regulated at 24 h. (iii) Genes in Cluster 3 are up-regulated at 24 h and are involved in cellular homeostasis. This approach allows relating different steps of neuronal plasticity to specific transcriptional profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Pegoraro
- International School for Advanced Studies, Area Science Park, Trieste, Italy
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144
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Gersner R, Toth E, Isserles M, Zangen A. Site-specific antidepressant effects of repeated subconvulsive electrical stimulation: potential role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67:125-32. [PMID: 19880094 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2009] [Revised: 09/13/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a very effective treatment for major depression. This method involves robust nonfocal stimulation of the brain and can normalize both neurochemical alterations and depressive behavior in animal models. We hypothesized that short stimulation sessions of specific reward-related brain sites might induce similar effects. METHODS In the present study we compared behavioral and neurochemical effects produced by ECT and by repeated stimulation of reward-related brain sites, in a widely used rat model for depressive behavior induced by chronic mild stress (CMS). Different groups of rats received 10 sessions of either electroconvulsive shocks or subconvulsive electrical stimulation (SCES) of specific brain sites with an implanted electrode. The SCES temporal parameters were similar to those used in transcranial magnetic stimulation studies in humans. A battery of behavioral tests and measurements of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were used to assess the effectiveness of these treatments relative to sham treatments. RESULTS Repeated SCES of either the nucleus accumbens (NAC) or the ventral but not the dorsal prelimbic cortex (PLC) reversed the main behavioral deficit and the reduction of BDNF levels in the hippocampus that were induced by CMS. The ECT was more effective because it also normalized a behavioral deficit associated with anxiety but produced a learning and memory impairment. CONCLUSIONS This study implicates the ventral PLC and the NAC in the pathophysiology of depressive behavior and suggests that local intermittent SCES can induce an antidepressant effect similar to that of ECT, without the cognitive impairment caused by the convulsive treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Gersner
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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145
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Taliaz D, Stall N, Dar DE, Zangen A. Knockdown of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in specific brain sites precipitates behaviors associated with depression and reduces neurogenesis. Mol Psychiatry 2010; 15:80-92. [PMID: 19621014 PMCID: PMC2834321 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2009.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2008] [Revised: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 06/15/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Depression has been associated with reduced expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. In addition, animal studies suggest an association between reduced hippocampal neurogenesis and depressive-like behavior. These associations were predominantly established based on responses to antidepressant drugs and alterations in BDNF levels and neurogenesis in depressive patients or animal models for depressive behavior. Nevertheless, there is no direct evidence that the actual reduction of the BDNF protein in specific brain sites can induce depressive-like behaviors or affect neurogenesis in vivo. Using BDNF knockdown by RNA interference and lentiviral vectors injected into specific subregions of the hippocampus we show that a reduction in BDNF expression in the dentate gyrus, but not the CA3, reduces neurogenesis and affects behaviors associated with depression. Moreover, we show that BDNF has a critical function in neuronal differentiation, but not proliferation in vivo. Finally, we found that a specific BDNF knockdown in the ventral subiculum induces anhedonic-like behavior. These findings provide substantial support for the neurotrophic hypothesis of depression and specify anatomical and neurochemical targets for potential antidepressant interventions. Moreover, the specific effect of BDNF reduction on neuronal differentiation has broader implications for the study of neurodevelopment and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Taliaz
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel
| | - N Stall
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel
| | - D E Dar
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel
| | - A Zangen
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel
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146
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Effect of mood stabilizers on gene expression in lymphoblastoid cells. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2009; 117:155-64. [PMID: 19949822 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-009-0340-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Lithium and valproate are widely used as effective mood stabilizers for the treatment of bipolar disorder. To elucidate the common molecular effect of these drugs on non-neuronal cells, we studied the gene expression changes induced by these drugs. Lymphoblastoid cell cultures derived from lymphocytes harvested from three healthy subjects were incubated in medium containing therapeutic concentrations of lithium (0.75 mM) or valproate (100 microg ml(-1)) for 7 days. Gene expression profiling was performed using an Affymetrix HGU95Av2 array containing approximately 12,000 probe sets. We identified 44 and 416 genes that were regulated by lithium and valproate, respectively. Most of the genes were not commonly affected by the two drugs. Among the 18 genes commonly altered by both drugs, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), which is one of the VEGF gene isoforms, showed the largest downregulation. Our findings indicate that these two structurally dissimilar mood stabilizers, lithium, and valproate, alter VEGFA expression. VEGFA might be a useful biomarker of their effects on peripheral tissue.
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147
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Loebrich S, Nedivi E. The function of activity-regulated genes in the nervous system. Physiol Rev 2009; 89:1079-103. [PMID: 19789377 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00013.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian brain is plastic in the sense that it shows a remarkable capacity for change throughout life. The contribution of neuronal activity to brain plasticity was first recognized in relation to critical periods of development, when manipulating the sensory environment was found to profoundly affect neuronal morphology and receptive field properties. Since then, a growing body of evidence has established that brain plasticity extends beyond development and is an inherent feature of adult brain function, spanning multiple domains, from learning and memory to adaptability of primary sensory maps. Here we discuss evolution of the current view that plasticity of the adult brain derives from dynamic tuning of transcriptional control mechanisms at the neuronal level, in response to external and internal stimuli. We then review the identification of "plasticity genes" regulated by changes in the levels of electrical activity, and how elucidating their cellular functions has revealed the intimate role transcriptional regulation plays in fundamental aspects of synaptic transmission and circuit plasticity that occur in the brain on an every day basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Loebrich
- The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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148
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Okabe T, Sato C, Matsumoto K, Ozawa H, Sakamoto A. Electroconvulsive Stimulation (ECS) Increases the Expression of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in Rat Brains in a Model of Neuropathic Pain: A Quantitative Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) Study. PAIN MEDICINE 2009; 10:1460-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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149
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Abstract
Depression and suicidal behavior have recently been shown to be associated with disturbances in structural and synaptic plasticity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), one of the major neurotrophic factors, plays an important role in the maintenance and survival of neurons and in synaptic plasticity. Several lines of evidence suggest that BDNF is involved in depression, such that the expression of BDNF is decreased in depressed patients. In addition, antidepressants up-regulate the expression of BDNF. This has led to the proposal of the "neurotrophin hypothesis of depression". Increasing evidence demonstrates that suicidal behavior is also associated with lower expression of BDNF, which may be independent from depression. Recent genetic studies also support a link of BDNF to depression/suicidal behavior. Not only BDNF, but abnormalities in its cognate receptor tropomycin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and its splice variant (TrkB.T1) have also been reported in depressed/suicidal patients. It has been suggested that epigenetic modulation of the Bdnf and Trkb genes may contribute to their altered expression and functioning. More recently, impairment in the functioning of pan75 neurotrophin receptor has been reported in suicide brain specimens. pan75 neurotrophin receptor is a low-affinity neurotrophin receptor that, when expressed in conjunction with low availability of neurotropins/Trks, induces apoptosis. Overall, these studies suggest the possibility that BDNF and its mediated signaling may participate in the pathophysiology of depression and suicidal behavior. This review focuses on the critical evidence demonstrating the involvement of BDNF in depression and suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh Dwivedi
- Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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150
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Girgenti MJ, Hunsberger J, Duman CH, Sathyanesan M, Terwilliger R, Newton SS. Erythropoietin induction by electroconvulsive seizure, gene regulation, and antidepressant-like behavioral effects. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 66:267-74. [PMID: 19185286 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The neuroprotective and trophic actions of erythropoietin (EPO) have been tested in several animal models of insult, injury, and neurodegeneration. Recent studies in human volunteers demonstrated that EPO improves cognition and also elicits antidepressant effects. It is believed that the behavioral effects are mediated by EPO's trophic effect on neuronal systems. We therefore tested whether EPO is able to alter behavior and brain gene expression in rats. METHODS The expression of EPO and EPO receptor (EPOR) in multiple brain regions was examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemistry. The regulation of EPO and the transcription factor hypoxia-induced factor-alpha (HIF1alpha) after electroconvulsive seizure (ECS) was investigated. Behavioral effects of EPO were tested in the rodent forced swimming and novelty-induced hypophagia (NIH) models. EPO gene profiles were obtained by microarray analysis of the hippocampus after intracerebroventricular infusion. RESULTS EPO and EPOR were widely expressed in the brain albeit at low levels. Highest level of EPO and EPOR were in the choroid plexus and striatum, respectively. Peripheral administration of EPO was sufficient to produce a robust antidepressant-like effect in the forced swim and NIH tests. Gene expression profiles revealed that EPO induces the expression of neurotrophic genes such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, VGF (nonacronymic), and neuritin. CONCLUSIONS EPO is induced by ECS and independently exhibits antidepressant-like efficacy in the forced swim and NIH tests. EPO regulates the expression of genes implicated in antidepressant action and appears to be a candidate molecule for further testing in neuropsychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Girgenti
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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