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Spolski R, Wang L, Wan CK, Bonville CA, Domachowske JB, Kim HP, Yu Z, Leonard WJ. IL-21 promotes the pathologic immune response to pneumovirus infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 188:1924-32. [PMID: 22238461 PMCID: PMC3277853 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
IL-21 is a cytokine with pleiotropic actions, promoting terminal differentiation of B cells, increased Ig production, and the development of Th17 and T follicular helper cells. IL-21 is also implicated in the development of autoimmune disease and has antitumor activity. In this study, we investigated the role of IL-21 in host defense to pneumonia virus of mice (PVM), which initiates an infection in mice resembling that of respiratory syncytial virus disease in humans. We found that PVM-infected mice expressed IL-21 in lung CD4(+) T cells. Following infection, Il21r(-/-) mice exhibited less lung infiltration by neutrophils than did wild-type (WT) mice and correspondingly had lower levels of the chemokine CXCL1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung parenchyma. CD8(+), CD4(+), and γδ T cell numbers were also lower in the lungs of PVM-infected Il21r(-/-) mice than in infected WT mice, with normal Th17 cytokines but diminished IL-6 production in PVM-infected Il21r(-/-) mice. Strikingly, Il21r(-/-) mice had enhanced survival following PVM infection, and moreover, treatment of WT mice with soluble IL-21R-Fc fusion protein enhanced their survival. These data reveal that IL-21 promotes the pathogenic inflammatory effect of PVM and indicate that manipulating IL-21 signaling may represent an immunomodulatory strategy for controlling PVM and potentially other respiratory virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Spolski
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Lu Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Chi-Keung Wan
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Cynthia A. Bonville
- Department of Pediatrics State University of New York Upstate Medical University Syracuse, NY 13210
| | - Joseph B. Domachowske
- Department of Pediatrics State University of New York Upstate Medical University Syracuse, NY 13210
| | - Hyoung-Pyo Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
- Department of Environmental Medical Biology Institute of Tropical Medicine and Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Science Yonsei University College of Medicine Seoul, Korea
| | - Zuxi Yu
- Pathology Core Facility National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Warren J. Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD 20892
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Meguro A, Ozaki K, Hatanaka K, Oh I, Sudo K, Ohmori T, Matsu H, Tatara R, Sato K, Sakata Y, Nakae S, Leonard WJ, Ozawa K. Lack of IL-21 signal attenuates graft-versus-leukemia effect in the absence of CD8 T-cells. Bone Marrow Transplant 2011; 46:1557-65. [PMID: 21258423 PMCID: PMC3401481 DOI: 10.1038/bmt.2010.342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we have shown that IL-21R(-/-) splenocytes ameliorate GVHD as compared with wild-type splenocytes. Here, we investigated whether or not IL-21R(-/-) splenocytes diminish the graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect. Surprisingly, IL-21R(-/-) splenocytes efficiently eliminate leukemic cells as well as wild-type splenocytes, suggesting the retention of GVL effects in the absence of IL-21 signaling. To compare the GVL effect between IL-21R(-/-) and wild-type cells, we titrated the number of splenocytes required for the elimination of leukemic cells and found that the threshold of GVL effect was obtained between 5 × 10(5) and 5 × 10(6) with both types of splenocytes. Cotransplantation with CD8-depleted splenocytes but not with purified CD8 T-cells resulted in a significant reduction in anti-leukemic effect of IL-21R(-/-) cells compared with wild-type cells, suggesting that the lack of IL-21 signaling primarily impairs CD4 T-cell rather than CD8 T-cell function and the comparable GVL effect with IL-21R(-/-) bulk splenocytes results from cooperative compensation by CD8 T-cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Meguro
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - K Ozaki
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - K Hatanaka
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - I Oh
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - K Sudo
- Animal Research Center, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - T Ohmori
- Research Division of Cell and Molecular Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - H Matsu
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - R Tatara
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - K Sato
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - Y Sakata
- Research Division of Cell and Molecular Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
| | - S Nakae
- Frontier Research Initiative, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - WJ Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Keiya Ozawa
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi 329-0498, Japan
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Joseph J, Bittner S, Kaiser FMP, Wiendl H, Kissler S. IL-17 Silencing Does Not Protect Nonobese Diabetic Mice from Autoimmune Diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 188:216-21. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1101215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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105
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Liu SM, Lee DH, Sullivan JM, Chung D, Jäger A, Shum BOV, Sarvetnick NE, Anderson AC, Kuchroo VK. Differential IL-21 signaling in APCs leads to disparate Th17 differentiation in diabetes-susceptible NOD and diabetes-resistant NOD.Idd3 mice. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:4303-10. [PMID: 22019586 DOI: 10.1172/jci46187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that shows familial aggregation in humans and likely has genetic determinants. Disease linkage studies have revealed many susceptibility loci for T1D in mice and humans. The mouse T1D susceptibility locus insulin-dependent diabetes susceptibility 3 (Idd3), which has a homologous genetic interval in humans, encodes cytokine genes Il2 and Il21 and regulates diabetes and other autoimmune diseases; however, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of this regulation are still being elucidated. Here we show that T cells from NOD mice produce more Il21 and less Il2 and exhibit enhanced Th17 cell generation compared with T cells from NOD.Idd3 congenic mice, which carry the protective Idd3 allele from a diabetes-resistant mouse strain. Further, APCs from NOD and NOD.Idd3 mice played a central role in this differential Th17 cell development, and IL-21 signaling in APCs was pivotal to this process. Specifically, NOD-derived APCs showed increased production of pro-Th17 mediators and dysregulation of the retinoic acid (RA) signaling pathway compared with APCs from NOD.Idd3 and NOD.Il21r-deficient mice. These data suggest that the protective effect of the Idd3 locus is due, in part, to differential RA signaling in APCs and that IL-21 likely plays a role in this process. Thus, we believe APCs provide a new candidate for therapeutic intervention in autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue M Liu
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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106
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Singh B, Nikoopour E, Huszarik K, Elliott JF, Jevnikar AM. Immunomodulation and regeneration of islet Beta cells by cytokines in autoimmune type 1 diabetes. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2011; 31:711-9. [PMID: 21851268 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2011.0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Juvenile or type 1 diabetes (T1D) involves autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Lack of insulin prevents the absorption and metabolism of glucose throughout the body by interfering with cell signaling. Cytokines have been shown to play a key role in β cell destruction and regulation of autoimmunity in T1D. The multiple roles of cytokines in T1D pathogenesis, regulation, and regeneration of β cells presents both promise and challenge for their use in immunotherapy. We found that mycobacterial adjuvants induce various regulatory T cells in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of T1D. Cytokines produced by these cells not only regulate innate and adaptive immunity but also prevent the development of diabetes and partially restored normoglycemia in diabetic NOD mice. We discovered that adjuvant immunotherapy upregulated Regenerating (Reg) genes in the islets and induced interleukin 22 (IL-22)-producing Th17 cells. IL-22 is known to upregulate Reg gene expression in islets and could potentially induce regeneration of β cells and prevent their apoptosis. Therefore, cytokines both induce and regulate T1D and have the potential to regenerate and preserve insulin-producing β cells in the islets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhagirath Singh
- Centre for Human Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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107
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Chaparro RJ, Dilorenzo TP. An update on the use of NOD mice to study autoimmune (Type 1) diabetes. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2011; 6:939-55. [PMID: 20979558 DOI: 10.1586/eci.10.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The widely used nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of autoimmune (Type 1) diabetes mellitus shares multiple characteristics with the human disease, and studies employing this model continue to yield clinically relevant and important information. Here, we review some of the recent key findings obtained from NOD mouse investigations that have both advanced our understanding of disease pathogenesis and suggested new therapeutic targets and approaches. Areas discussed include antigen discovery, identification of genes and pathways contributing to disease susceptibility, development of strategies to image islet inflammation and the testing of therapeutics. We also review recent technical advances that, combined with an improved understanding of the NOD mouse model's limitations, should work to ensure its popularity, utility and relevance in the years ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo José Chaparro
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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108
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Abstract
IL-21 is a pleiotropic type 1 cytokine that shares the common cytokine receptor γ-chain, γ(c), with IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15. IL-21 is most homologous to IL-2. These cytokines are encoded by adjacent genes, but they are functionally distinct. Whereas IL-2 promotes development of regulatory T cells and confers protection from autoimmune disease, IL-21 promotes differentiation of Th17 cells and is implicated in several autoimmune diseases, including type 1 diabetes and systemic lupus erythematosus. However, the roles of IL-21 and IL-2 in CNS autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and uveitis have been controversial. Here, we generated Il21-mCherry/Il2-emGFP dual-reporter transgenic mice and showed that development of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) correlated with the presence of T cells coexpressing IL-21 and IL-2 into the retina. Furthermore, Il21r(-/-) mice were more resistant to EAU development than wild-type mice, and adoptive transfer of Il21r(-/-) T cells induced much less severe EAU, underscoring the need for IL-21 in the development of this disease and suggesting that blocking IL-21/γ(c)-signaling pathways may provide a means for controlling CNS auto-inflammatory diseases.
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109
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IFN regulatory factors 4 and 8 expression in the NOD mouse. Clin Dev Immunol 2011; 2011:374859. [PMID: 21647406 PMCID: PMC3102445 DOI: 10.1155/2011/374859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) contribute to islet inflammation and its progression to diabetes in NOD mouse model and human. DCs play a crucial role in the presentation of autoantigen and activation of diabetogenic T cells, and IRF4 and IRF8 are crucial genes involved in the development of DCs. We have therefore investigated the expression of these genes in splenic DCs during diabetes progression in NOD mice. We found that IRF4 expression was upregulated in splenocytes and in splenic CD11c+ DCs of NOD mice as compared to BALB/c mice. In contrast, IRF8 gene expression was higher in splenocytes of NOD mice whereas its expression was similar in splenic CD11c+ DCs of NOD and BALB/c mice. Importantly, levels of IRF4 and IRF8 expression were lower in tolerogenic bone marrow derived DCs (BMDCs) generated with GM-CSF as compared to immunogenic BMDCs generated with GM-CSF and IL-4. Analysis of splenic DCs subsets indicated that high expression of IRF4 was associated with increased levels of CD4+CD8α−IRF4+CD11c+ DCs but not CD4−CD8α+IRF8+CD11c+ DCs in NOD mice. Our results showed that IRF4 expression was up-regulated in NOD mice and correlated with the increased levels of CD4+CD8α− DCs, suggesting that IRF4 may be involved in abnormal DC functions in type 1 diabetes in NOD mice.
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Goudy KS, Johnson MC, Garland A, Li C, Samulski RJ, Wang B, Tisch R. Reduced IL-2 expression in NOD mice leads to a temporal increase in CD62Llo FoxP3+ CD4+ T cells with limited suppressor activity. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:1480-1490. [PMID: 21469091 PMCID: PMC3805504 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201040890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 02/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 plays a critical role in the induction and maintenance of FoxP3-expressing regulatory T cells (FoxP3(+) Tregs). Reduced expression of IL-2 is linked to T-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes (T1D), in which an imbalance between FoxP3(+) Tregs and pathogenic T effectors exists. We investigated the contribution of IL-2 to dysregulation of FoxP3(+) Tregs by comparing wildtype NOD mice with animals congenic for a C57BL/6-derived disease-resistant Il2 allele and in which T-cell secretion of IL-2 is increased (NOD.B6Idd3). Although NOD mice exhibited a progressive decline in the frequency of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs due to an increase in CD62L(lo) FoxP3(+) Tregs, CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs were maintained in the pancreatic lymph nodes and islets of NOD.B6Idd3 mice. Notably, the frequency of proliferating CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs was elevated in the islets of NOD.B6Idd3 versus NOD mice. Increasing levels of IL-2 in vivo also resulted in larger numbers of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs in NOD mice. These results demonstrate that IL-2 influences the suppressor activity of the FoxP3(+) Tregs pool by regulating the balance between CD62L(lo) and CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs. In NOD mice, reduced IL-2 expression leads to an increase in nonsuppressive CD62L(lo) FoxP3(+) Tregs, which in turn correlates with a pool of CD62L(hi) FoxP3(+) Tregs with limited proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S Goudy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mark C Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alaina Garland
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chengwen Li
- Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Richard J Samulski
- Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Roland Tisch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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111
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Ramanathan S, Dubois S, Chen XL, Leblanc C, Ohashi PS, Ilangumaran S. Exposure to IL-15 and IL-21 enables autoreactive CD8 T cells to respond to weak antigens and cause disease in a mouse model of autoimmune diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:5131-41. [PMID: 21430227 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Autoreactive CD8(+) T lymphocytes play a key role in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases. It is not yet well understood how autoreactive CD8(+) T cells, which express TCRs with low reactivity toward self-Ags, gain the ability to respond to autoantigens to cause disease. Previously, we have shown that prior stimulation of CD8(+) T cells with synergistic combinations of cytokines produced by the innate immune response, such as IL-21 and IL-15, induces Ag-independent proliferation. Such "cytokine-primed" CD8 T cells displayed increased responsiveness to limiting quantities of the cognate Ag. In this paper, we report that prior stimulation with IL-15 and IL-21 also enables CD8(+) T cells to respond to weakly agonistic TCR ligands, resulting in proliferation, cytokine secretion, and cytolytic activity. Using a transgenic mouse model of autoimmune diabetes, we show that cytokine-primed autoreactive CD8(+) T cells induce disease following stimulation by weak TCR ligands, but their diabetogenic potential is dependent on continuous availability of IL-15 in vivo. These findings suggest that inflammatory cytokines could facilitate the triggering of autoreactive CD8(+) T cells by weak autoantigens, and this mechanism may have important implications for autoimmune diseases associated with microbial infections and chronic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheela Ramanathan
- Immunology Division, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada.
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112
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McGuire HM, Walters S, Vogelzang A, Lee CM, Webster KE, Sprent J, Christ D, Grey S, King C. Interleukin-21 is critically required in autoimmune and allogeneic responses to islet tissue in murine models. Diabetes 2011; 60:867-75. [PMID: 21357471 PMCID: PMC3046847 DOI: 10.2337/db10-1157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Type 1 diabetes is an incurable chronic autoimmune disease. Although transplantation of pancreatic islets may serve as a surrogate source of insulin, recipients are subjected to a life of immunosuppression. Interleukin (IL)-21 is necessary for type 1 diabetes in NOD mice. We examined the efficacy of an IL-21-targeted therapy on prevention of diabetes in NOD mice, in combination with syngeneic islet transplantation. In addition, we assessed the role of IL-21 responsiveness in islet allograft rejection in mouse animal models. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS NOD mice were treated with IL-21R/Fc, an IL-21-neutralizing chimeric protein. This procedure was combined with syngeneic islet transplantation to treat diabetic NOD mice. Survival of allogeneic islet grafts in IL-21R-deficient mice was also assessed. RESULTS Evidence is provided that IL-21 is continually required by the autoimmune infiltrate, such that insulitis was reduced and reversed and diabetes inhibited by neutralization of IL-21 at a late preclinical stage. Recovery from autoimmune diabetes was achieved by combining neutralization of IL-21 with islet transplantation. Furthermore, IL-21-responsiveness by CD8+ T-cells was sufficient to mediate islet allograft rejection. CONCLUSIONS Neutralization of IL-21 in NOD mice can inhibit diabetes, and when paired with islet transplantation, this therapeutic approach restored normoglycemia. The influence of IL-21 on a graft-mounted immune response was robust, since the absence of IL-21 signaling prevented islet allograft rejection. These findings suggest that therapeutic manipulation of IL-21 may serve as a suitable treatment for patients with type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen M. McGuire
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Biotechnology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stacey Walters
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alexis Vogelzang
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Carol M.Y. Lee
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kylie E. Webster
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jonathan Sprent
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Daniel Christ
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Shane Grey
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Cecile King
- Department of Immunology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Corresponding author: Cecile King,
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113
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Groth Grunnet
- Core Unit for Medical Research Methodology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Mandrup-Poulsen
- Core Unit for Medical Research Methodology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Hagedorn Research Institute, Gentofte, Denmark
- Department of Surgery and Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Corresponding author: Thomas Mandrup-Poulsen,
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114
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Li J, Zhu X, Liu F, Cai P, Sanders C, Lee WM, Uetrecht J. Cytokine and autoantibody patterns in acute liver failure. J Immunotoxicol 2011; 7:157-64. [PMID: 20039781 DOI: 10.3109/15476910903501748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (IDILI) are still a matter of dispute. Some of the characteristics of reactions that have been classed as metabolic idiosyncrasy could also be those of an immune-mediated reaction with an autoimmune component. Many auto-immune reactions appear to be mediated by T(H)17 cells, which are in part characterized by the production of interleukin (IL)-17. To test the involvement of T(H)17 cells in IDILI, we quantified a number of cytokines, chemokines, and autoantibodies in the serum of 39 patients with acute liver failure (ALF) due to IDILI and compared the values with those from 21 patients with acetaminophen-induced ALF and 10 patients with viral hepatitis-induced ALF. The IL-17 levels were elevated in 60% of patients with IDILI, but also in a similar number of patients with acetaminophen-induced ALF and occasionally in patients with viral hepatitis. Levels of other cytokines, such as IL-21, that are also produced by T(H)17 cells were higher in patients with IDILI, but again, there was overlap with acetaminophen DILI. Autoantibodies were more frequent in patients in the IDILI group but were absent in most patients. These data provide a picture of the cytokine/chemokine profile in patients with various types of ALF. The pattern varies from patient to patient and not specifically by etiology. This suggests that different underlying disease mechanisms may be at play in different individuals, even among those demonstrating injury from the same drug. Since cytokines may originate from more than one type of cell, interpretation of results of cytokine assays remains difficult in complex disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinze Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada
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115
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Van Belle TL, Coppieters KT, Von Herrath MG. Type 1 Diabetes: Etiology, Immunology, and Therapeutic Strategies. Physiol Rev 2011; 91:79-118. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00003.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 673] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease in which destruction or damaging of the beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans results in insulin deficiency and hyperglycemia. We only know for sure that autoimmunity is the predominant effector mechanism of T1D, but may not be its primary cause. T1D precipitates in genetically susceptible individuals, very likely as a result of an environmental trigger. Current genetic data point towards the following genes as susceptibility genes: HLA, insulin, PTPN22, IL2Ra, and CTLA4. Epidemiological and other studies suggest a triggering role for enteroviruses, while other microorganisms might provide protection. Efficacious prevention of T1D will require detection of the earliest events in the process. So far, autoantibodies are most widely used as serum biomarker, but T-cell readouts and metabolome studies might strengthen and bring forward diagnosis. Current preventive clinical trials mostly focus on environmental triggers. Therapeutic trials test the efficacy of antigen-specific and antigen-nonspecific immune interventions, but also include restoration of the affected beta-cell mass by islet transplantation, neogenesis and regeneration, and combinations thereof. In this comprehensive review, we explain the genetic, environmental, and immunological data underlying the prevention and intervention strategies to constrain T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom L. Van Belle
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| | - Ken T. Coppieters
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| | - Matthias G. Von Herrath
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
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116
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Biswas PS, Gupta S, Chang E, Bhagat G, Pernis AB. Aberrant ROCK activation promotes the development of type I diabetes in NOD mice. Cell Immunol 2010; 266:111-5. [PMID: 21111405 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2010] [Accepted: 10/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant production of IL-21 by T cells is critical for the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D) in NOD mice. The pathogenic effects of IL-21 are partly due to its ability to promote the generation of T(H)-17 cells. Interferon Regulatory Factor (IRF4) is a crucial regulator of IL-17 and IL-21 production. We recently found that the serine-threonine kinase ROCK2 phosphorylates IRF4 and regulates its ability to control IL-17 and IL-21 production. Here we show that NOD T cells aberrantly activate ROCK2. We furthermore demonstrate that ROCK inhibition corrects the abnormal IRF4 function in NOD T cells and diminishes their production of IL-17 and IL-21. Importantly, administration of a ROCK inhibitor to NOD mice protects against diabetes development. These studies thus support the idea that ROCK2 is inappropriately activated in NOD T cells and that ROCK kinases could represent important therapeutic targets for the treatment of T1D.
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117
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Martinic MM, Huber C, Coppieters K, Oldham JE, Gavin AL, von Herrath MG. Expression level of a pancreatic neo-antigen in beta cells determines degree of diabetes pathogenesis. J Autoimmun 2010; 35:404-13. [PMID: 20932718 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 08/22/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
It is not fully understood how the expression level of autoantigens in beta cells impacts autoimmune diabetes (T1D) development. Earlier studies using ovalbumin and also insulin had shown that secreted antigens could enhance diabetes development through facilitated presentation by antigen presenting cells. Here we sought to determine how the expression level of a membrane bound, non-secreted or cross-presented neo-antigen, the glycoprotein (GP) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), would influence T1D. We found that an RIP-LCMV transgenic mouse line exhibiting higher levels of beta cell GP expression developed more severe diabetes after LCMV infection or transfer of high numbers of activated autoreactive T cells. Importantly, all beta cells were lost and a significant increase in morbidity and mortality from T1D was noted. Insulitis and accumulation of autoaggressive CD8 cells was more profound in the RIP-LCMV-GP high-expressor line. Interestingly, the additional introduction of neo-antigen-specific CD4(+) helper or regulatory T cells was able to influence diabetogenesis positively or negatively. We conclude that a higher degree of autoantigen expression results in increased diabetes susceptibility. Therefore, autoantigens such as insulin that are expressed at higher levels in beta cells might have a more profound impact on diabetes pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne M Martinic
- Type 1 Diabetes Center at the La Jolla Institute for Allergy & Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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118
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Decoy receptor 3 protects non-obese diabetic mice from autoimmune diabetes by regulating dendritic cell maturation and function. Mol Immunol 2010; 47:2552-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Revised: 07/04/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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119
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Biswas PS, Gupta S, Chang E, Song L, Stirzaker RA, Liao JK, Bhagat G, Pernis AB. Phosphorylation of IRF4 by ROCK2 regulates IL-17 and IL-21 production and the development of autoimmunity in mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:3280-95. [PMID: 20697158 PMCID: PMC2929726 DOI: 10.1172/jci42856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Deregulated production of IL-17 and IL-21 plays a key pathogenic role in many autoimmune disorders. A delineation of the mechanisms that underlie the inappropriate synthesis of IL-17 and IL-21 in autoimmune diseases can thus provide important insights into potential therapies for these disorders. Here we have shown that the serine-threonine kinase Rho-associated, coiled-coil-containing protein kinase 2 (ROCK2) becomes activated in mouse T cells under Th17 skewing conditions and phosphorylates interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), a transcription factor that is absolutely required for the production of IL-17 and IL-21. We furthermore demonstrated that ROCK2-mediated phosphorylation of IRF4 regulated the synthesis of IL-17 and IL-21 and the differentiation of Th17 cells. Whereas CD4+ T cells from WT mice activated ROCK2 physiologically under Th17 conditions, CD4+ T cells from 2 different mouse models of spontaneous autoimmunity aberrantly activated ROCK2 under neutral conditions. Moreover, administration of ROCK inhibitors ameliorated the deregulated production of IL-17 and IL-21 and the inflammatory and autoantibody responses observed in these autoimmune mice. Our findings thus uncover a crucial link among ROCK2, IRF4, and the production of IL-17 and IL-21 and support the idea that selective inhibition of ROCK2 could represent an important therapeutic regimen for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Partha S Biswas
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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120
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Basic techniques for pancreatic research. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010. [PMID: 20700840 DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9060-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
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121
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Kashiwakuma D, Suto A, Hiramatsu Y, Ikeda K, Takatori H, Suzuki K, Kagami SI, Hirose K, Watanabe N, Iwamoto I, Nakajima H. B and T lymphocyte attenuator suppresses IL-21 production from follicular Th cells and subsequent humoral immune responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:2730-6. [PMID: 20660710 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We recently showed that mice lacking B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), a third inhibitory coreceptor expressed on B cells and T cells, exhibit an increased Ag-specific IgG response and gradually develop hyper-gamma-globulinemia and autoantibody production. Recent studies revealed that follicular Th (Tfh) cells, which are non-Th1, non-Th2 effector T cells that express CXCR5 and provide help for B cells to produce Ig, also express BTLA. However, the role of BTLA in Tfh cell function remains unknown. In this study, we examined the regulatory role of BTLA in the development and function of Tfh cells. We found that CXCR5(+) Tfh cells expressed higher levels of BTLA than did CXCR5(-) conventional CD4(+) T cells. We also found that adoptive transfer of BTLA(-/-) CD4(+) T cells, stimulated under Tfh cell-inducing conditions (Tfh-like cells), to wild-type (WT) mice induced more Ag-specific IgG2a and IgG2b production compared with that of WT Tfh-like cells. By contrast, another adoptive-transfer experiment using BTLA(-/-) mice as recipients showed that the expression of BTLA on B cells was not involved in the regulation of Tfh-like cell-mediated Ag-specific IgG responses. Moreover, the development of IL-21-producing CXCR5(+) Tfh-like cells was significantly increased in BTLA(-/-) CD4(+) T cells compared with WT CD4(+) T cells. Furthermore, Tfh-like cell-mediated IgG responses were abolished when IL-21R(-/-) mice were used as recipients. These results suggest that BTLA signaling suppresses IL-21 production from Tfh cells and subsequent Tfh cell-mediated IgG responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Kashiwakuma
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Japan
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122
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Oh I, Ozaki K, Meguro A, Hatanaka K, Kadowaki M, Matsu H, Tatara R, Sato K, Iwakura Y, Nakae S, Sudo K, Teshima T, Leonard WJ, Ozawa K. Altered effector CD4+ T cell function in IL-21R-/- CD4+ T cell-mediated graft-versus-host disease. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:1920-6. [PMID: 20574002 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that transplantation with IL-21R gene-deficient splenocytes resulted in less severe graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) than was observed with wild type splenocytes. In this study, we sought to find mechanism(s) explaining this observation. Recipients of donor CD4(+) T cells lacking IL-21R exhibited diminished GVHD symptoms, with reduced inflammatory cell infiltration into the liver and intestine, leading to prolonged survival. After transplantation, CD4(+) T cell numbers in the spleen were reduced, and MLR and cytokine production by CD4(+) T cells were impaired. These results suggest that IL-21 might promote GVHD through enhanced production of effector CD4(+) T cells. Moreover, we found that CD25 depletion altered neither the impaired MLR in vitro nor the ameliorated GVHD symptoms in vivo. Thus, the attenuated GVHD might be caused by an impairment of effector T cell differentiation itself, rather than by an increase in regulatory T cells and suppression of effector T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iekuni Oh
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
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123
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Ramanathan S, Dubois S, Gagnon J, Leblanc C, Mariathasan S, Ferbeyre G, Rottapel R, Ohashi PS, Ilangumaran S. Regulation of cytokine-driven functional differentiation of CD8 T cells by suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 controls autoimmunity and preserves their proliferative capacity toward foreign antigens. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:357-66. [PMID: 20519645 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that naive CD8 T cells exposed to IL-7 or IL-15 in the presence of IL-21 undergo Ag-independent proliferation with concomitant increase in TCR sensitivity. In this study, we examined whether CD8 T cells that accumulate in suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1)-deficient mice because of increased IL-15 signaling in vivo would respond to an autoantigen expressed at a very low level using a mouse model of autoimmune diabetes. In this model, P14 TCR transgenic CD8 T cells (P14 cells) adoptively transferred to rat insulin promoter-glycoprotein (RIP-GP) mice, which express the cognate Ag in the islets, do not induce diabetes unless the donor cells are stimulated by exogenous Ag. Surprisingly, SOCS1-deficient P14 cells, which expanded robustly following IL-15 stimulation, proliferated poorly in response to Ag and failed to cause diabetes in RIP-GP mice. SOCS1-deficient CD8 T cells expressing a polyclonal TCR repertoire also showed defective expansion following in vivo Ag stimulation. Notwithstanding the Ag-specific proliferation defect, SOCS1-null P14 cells produced IFN-gamma and displayed potent cytolytic activity upon Ag stimulation, suggesting that SOCS1-null CD8 T cells underwent cytokine-driven functional differentiation that selectively compromised their proliferative response to Ag but not to cytokines. Cytokine-driven homeostatic expansion in lymphopenic RIP-GP mice allowed SOCS1-null, but not wild-type, P14 cells to exert their pathogenic potential even without Ag stimulation. These findings suggest that by attenuating cytokine-driven proliferation and functional differentiation, SOCS1 not only controls the pathogenicity of autoreactive cells but also preserves the ability of CD8 T cells to proliferate in response to Ags.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheela Ramanathan
- Immunology Division, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Canada.
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124
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Todd JA. Etiology of type 1 diabetes. Immunity 2010; 32:457-67. [PMID: 20412756 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 366] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Revised: 03/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent genetic mapping and gene-phenotype studies have revealed the genetic architecture of type 1 diabetes. At least ten genes so far can be singled out as strong causal candidates. The known functions of these genes indicate the primary etiological pathways of this disease, including HLA class II and I molecules binding to preproinsulin peptides and T cell receptors, T and B cell activation, innate pathogen-viral responses, chemokine and cytokine signaling, and T regulatory and antigen-presenting cell functions. This review considers research in the field of type 1 diabetes toward identifying disease mechanisms using genetic approaches. The expression and functions of these pathways, and, therefore, disease susceptibility, will be influenced by epigenetic and environmental factors. Certain inherited immune phenotypes will be early precursors of type 1 diabetes and could be useful in future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Todd
- Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation/Wellcome Trust Diabetes and Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK.
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125
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Santamaria P. The long and winding road to understanding and conquering type 1 diabetes. Immunity 2010; 32:437-45. [PMID: 20412754 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 03/29/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases with high population prevalence such as type 1 diabetes (T1D) develop as a result of ill-defined interactions between putative environmental triggers and a constellation of genetic elements scattered throughout the genome. In T1D, these interactions somehow trigger a loss of tolerance to pancreatic beta cells, manifested in the form of a chronic autoimmune response that mobilizes virtually every cell type of the immune system and progressively erodes the host's beta cell mass. The five accompanying review articles focus on key areas of T1D research, ranging from genetics and pathogenesis to prediction and therapy. Here, I attempt to integrate and bring into focus the most salient points of these reviews in the context of other findings, with an emphasis on identifying knowledge gaps and research opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pere Santamaria
- Julia McFarlane Diabetes Research Centre, Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases and Institute of Inflammation, Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada.
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126
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Driver JP, Serreze DV, Chen YG. Mouse models for the study of autoimmune type 1 diabetes: a NOD to similarities and differences to human disease. Semin Immunopathol 2010; 33:67-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s00281-010-0204-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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127
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Meguro A, Ozaki K, Oh I, Hatanaka K, Matsu H, Tatara R, Sato K, Leonard WJ, Ozawa K. IL-21 is critical for GVHD in a mouse model. Bone Marrow Transplant 2010; 45:723-9. [PMID: 19718060 PMCID: PMC3403836 DOI: 10.1038/bmt.2009.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Revised: 07/06/2009] [Accepted: 07/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Immunological effects of IL-21 on T, B and natural killer (NK) cells have been reported, but the role of IL-21 in GVHD remains obscure. Here, we demonstrate that morbidity and mortality of GVHD was significantly reduced after BMT with splenocytes from IL-21R(-/-) mice compared with those from wild type mice. To further confirm our observation, we generated a decoy receptor for IL-21. GVHD was again less severe in mice receiving BM cells transduced with the IL-21 decoy receptor than control mice These results suggest that IL-21 critically regulates GVHD, and that blockade of the IL-21 signal may represent a novel strategy for the prophylaxis for GVHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Meguro
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University Tochigi, Tochigi, Japan
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128
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Increased antigen responsiveness of naive CD8 T cells exposed to IL‐7 and IL‐21 is associated with decreased CD5 expression. Immunol Cell Biol 2010; 88:451-60. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2009.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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129
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Abstract
Upon encounter with antigen, CD4(+) T cells differentiate into effector T(h) subsets with distinctive functions that are related to their unique cytokine profiles and anatomical locations. One of the most important T(h) functions is to provide signals to developing B cells that induce specific and appropriate antibody responses. The major CD4(+) T cell subset that helps B cells is the T follicular helper (T(FH)) cell, whose expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR5 [chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 5] serves to localize this cell to developing germinal centers (GCs) where it provides instructive signals leading to Ig class switching and somatic mutation. T(FH) cells produce high levels of IL-21, a cytokine that is critical for GC formation and also for the generation of T(FH) cells. Although T(FH) cells have been found to produce cytokines characteristic of other T(h) subsets, they represent a distinct lineage whose development is driven by the transcription factor B-cell CLL lymphoma-6 (BCL6). Consistent with their critical role in the generation of antibody responses, dysregulated T(FH) function has been associated with the development of systemic autoimmunity. Here, we review the role of IL-21 in the regulation of normal T(FH) development and function as well as in progression of autoimmune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Spolski
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892-1674, USA
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130
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Abstract
IL-2 and IL-21 are two cytokines with great potential to affect autoimmune infiltration of nonlymphoid tissue, and are contained within the strongest non-MHC-linked locus for type 1 diabetes (T1D) susceptibility on the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse (Idd3). IL-21 is necessary for the development of diabetes in the NOD mouse, but a number of important studies argue that decreased expression of IL-2 explains Idd3. In this study, we demonstrate that the amount of IL-21, but not IL-2, correlated with T1D incidence. During our analyses of the IL-2/IL-21 interval, we found that mice segregate into one of two distinct expression profiles. In the first group, which includes the C57BL/6 strain, both Il2 and Il21 were expressed at low levels. In the other group, which includes the NOD strain, Il2 and Il21 were both highly expressed. However, because NOD IL-2 mRNA was relatively unstable, IL-2 production was remarkably similar between strains. The increased production of IL-21 in NOD mice was found to result from two single nucleotide polymorphisms within the distal promoter region that conferred increased binding affinity for the transcription factor Sp1. Our findings indicate that a loss of locus parity after decreased IL-2 mRNA stability ensures that the high-expressing IL-21 allele persists in nature and provides a basis for autoimmunity.
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131
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Abstract
Cytokines are secreted signalling molecules with decisive effects on haematopoiesis, innate and adaptive immunity, and immunopathology. Interleukin (IL)-21 is a novel cytokine produced by activated CD4(+) T cells and natural killer T (NKT) cells. IL-21 is part of a family of cytokines which include IL-2, -4, -7, -9 and -15 that all share the common IL-2 receptor gamma chain (gamma(c)) in their individual receptor complexes. IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) is widely expressed on both myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages and IL-21 actions include co-stimulation of B cell differentiation and immunoglobulin (Ig) production, co-mitogen of T cells, and stimulation of NK and CD8(+) T cell cytotoxic function. Initially, IL-21 was recognized for its anti-tumour effects in several preclinical tumour models, warranting its currently ongoing clinical development as a cancer immunotherapeutic. More recently, IL-21 has been associated with the development of a panel of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, where neutralization of IL-21 has been suggested as a potential new therapy. In this review, we will cover the latest discoveries of IL-21 as a cancer therapy and its implications in immunopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Søndergaard
- Department of Immunopharmacology, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark.
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132
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Current literature in diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2009; 25:i-x. [PMID: 19790194 DOI: 10.1002/dmrr.1037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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133
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Lymphocyte proliferation in immune-mediated diseases. Trends Immunol 2009; 30:430-8. [PMID: 19699149 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2009] [Revised: 06/21/2009] [Accepted: 06/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Defects in T cell homeostatic mechanisms can result in T cell lymphopenia, defined as decreased numbers of lymphocytes. Lymphopenia results in homeostatic proliferation in order to maintain T cell homeostasis. It has been proposed that homeostatic proliferation can expand the pool of autoreactive T cells that promote autoimmunity, and indeed recent studies have further substantiated this observation in both animal models and humans. Conversely, homeostatic proliferation can promote tumor immunity by allowing tumor-specific T cells to accumulate. In this review, we discuss how the outcome of homeostatic proliferation can function both in a deleterious manner in autoimmunity and a beneficial way in tumor immunity. We also discuss the roles of various cytokines and T regulatory cells that control homeostatic proliferation.
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134
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Monteleone G, Pallone F, Macdonald TT. Interleukin-21 as a new therapeutic target for immune-mediated diseases. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2009; 30:441-7. [PMID: 19616319 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2009.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines have a decisive role in initiating and shaping pathologic responses in patients with various immune-inflammatory diseases. Recent studies indicate that interleukin (IL)-21, a cytokine produced mostly by activated CD4+ T cells, participates in the tissue damage in various tissues, owing to its ability to regulate the function of immune and non-immune cells. For instance, IL-21 controls the differentiation and functional activity of T cells, B cells and NK cells, limits the differentiation of inducible regulatory T cells (Tregs), and makes T cells resistant to the Treg-mediated immunesuppression. It also stimulates epithelial cells and fibroblasts to produce inflammatory mediators. Here, we focus on data supporting the pathogenic role of IL-21 in human inflammatory diseases and discuss pre-clinical studies that suggest that neutralization of IL-21 in vivo could be a new biological therapy to combat immune-mediated pathologies, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Monteleone
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome 00133, Italy.
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