Physical, Chemical, and Biological Structures based on ROS-Sensitive Moieties that are Able to Respond to Oxidative Microenvironments

Ultrahigh-yield synthesis of N-doped carbon nanodots that down-regulate ROS in zebrafish

Oxidative damage induced by accumulation of excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) could result in increased chronic inflammation and thus ageing and age-related diseases. Carbonaceous nanodrugs hold great promise for ameliorating age-related diseases, and it is necessary to develop ultrahigh-yield synthesis of such nanodrugs. To improve the synthetic yield (less than 50%) of carbon nanodots (CNDs), the general choice is to screen precursors. However, no reliable concept for improving the yield has been explored over the past few decades. We are the first to propose the concept of using carbon-carbon double bonds to boost the synthetic yield and demonstrate record breaking ultrahigh-yield (85.9%) synthesis of N-doped CNDs. When the C[double bond, length as m-dash]C content increased from 14 to 56 mmol, the synthetic yield exhibited a 3.3-fold increase. Nitrogen elements are doped as pyridinic-like N and NH₂, where conjugated π-systems as electron donors and pyridinic-like structures would benefit the potential down-regulated effect for ROS. N-doped CNDs exhibit an outstanding protective effect against oxidative stress via inhibiting exogenous and endogenous ROS generation, where the ROS in zebrafish are significantly reduced by 68%. Hence the concept of carbon-carbon double bond-boosted ultrahigh-yield synthesis of N-doped CNDs provides a promising strategy to be employed for carbonaceous nanodrugs aiming at preventing and curing ageing and age-related diseases.

Poly(Vinylpyrollidone)- and Selenocysteine-Modified Bi2 Se3 Nanoparticles Enhance Radiotherapy Efficacy in Tumors and Promote Radioprotection in Normal Tissues

The development of a new generation of nanoscaled radiosensitizers that can not only enhance radiosensitization of tumor tissues, but also increase radioresistance of healthy tissue is highly desirable, but remains a great challenge. Here, this paper reports a new versatile theranostics based on poly(vinylpyrollidone)- and selenocysteine-modified Bi₂ Se₃ nanoparicles (PVP-Bi₂ Se₃ @Sec NPs) for simultaneously enhancing radiotherapeutic effects and reducing the side-effects of radiation. The as-prepared nanoparticles exhibit significantly enhanced free-radical generation upon X-ray radiation, and remarkable photothermal effects under 808 nm NIR laser irradiation because of their strong X-ray attenuation ability and high NIR absorption capability. Moreover, these PVP-Bi₂ Se₃ @Sec NPs are biodegradable. In vivo, part of selenium can be released from NPs and enter the blood circulation system, which can enhance the immune function and reduce the side-effects of radiation in the whole body. As a consequence, improved superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities, promoted secretion of cytokines, increased number of white blood cell, and reduced marrow DNA suppression are found after radiation treatment in vivo. Moreover, there is no significant in vitro and in vivo toxicity of PVP-Bi₂ Se₃ @Sec NPs during the treatment, which demonstrates that PVP-Bi₂ Se₃ @Sec NPs have good biocompatibility.

Tumor-selective catalytic nanomedicine by nanocatalyst delivery

Tumor cells metabolize in distinct pathways compared with most normal tissue cells. The resulting tumor microenvironment would provide characteristic physiochemical conditions for selective tumor modalities. Here we introduce a concept of sequential catalytic nanomedicine for efficient tumor therapy by designing and delivering biocompatible nanocatalysts into tumor sites. Natural glucose oxidase (GOD, enzyme catalyst) and ultrasmall Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (inorganic nanozyme, Fenton reaction catalyst) have been integrated into the large pore-sized and biodegradable dendritic silica nanoparticles to fabricate the sequential nanocatalyst. GOD in sequential nanocatalyst could effectively deplete glucose in tumor cells, and meanwhile produce a considerable amount of H₂O₂ for subsequent Fenton-like reaction catalyzed by Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles in response to mild acidic tumor microenvironment. Highly toxic hydroxyl radicals are generated through these sequential catalytic reactions to trigger the apoptosis and death of tumor cells. The current work manifests a proof of concept of catalytic nanomedicine by approaching selectivity and efficiency concurrently for tumor therapeutics.The specific metabolism of cancer cells may allow for selective tumor therapeutics. Here, the authors show that a suitable combination of an enzyme and iron nanoparticles loaded on dendritic silica induces apoptosis of cancer cells in response to the glucose-reliant and mild acidic microenvironment.

Reactive oxygen species-responsive polymeric nanoparticles for alleviating sepsis-induced acute liver injury in mice

Sepsis-associated acute liver injury contributes to the pathogenesis of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and is associated with increased mortality. Currently, no specific therapeutics for sepsis-associated liver injury are available. With excess levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) being implicated as key players in sepsis-induced liver injury, we hypothesize that ROS-responsive nanoparticles (NPs) formed via the self-assembly of diblock copolymers of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) may function as an effective drug delivery system for alleviating sepsis-induced liver injury by preferentially releasing drug molecules at the disease site. However, there are no reports available on the biocompatibility and effect of PEG-b-PPS-NPs in vivo. Herein, this platform was tested for delivering the promising antioxidant therapeutic molecule melatonin (Mel), which currently has limited therapeutic efficacy because of its poor pharmacokinetic properties. The mPEG-b-PPS-NPs efficiently encapsulated Mel using the oil-in-water emulsion technique and provided sustained, on-demand release that was modulated in vitro by the hydrogen peroxide concentration. Animal studies using a mouse model of sepsis-induced acute liver injury revealed that Mel-loaded mPEG-b-PPS-NPs are biocompatible and much more efficacious than an equivalent amount of free drug in attenuating oxidative stress, the inflammatory response, and subsequent liver injury. Accordingly, this work indicates that mPEG-b-PPS-NPs show potential as an ROS-mediated on-demand drug delivery system for improving Mel bioavailability and treating oxidative stress-associated diseases such as sepsis-induced acute liver injury.

Supersensitive Oxidation-Responsive Biodegradable PEG Hydrogels for Glucose-Triggered Insulin Delivery

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive polymers and hydrogels represent an emerging family of intelligent materials owing to the key functions of ROS in physiological processes or pathological diseases. Nonetheless, the weaknesses such as low sensitivity, slow response, instability, and low mechanical strength are associated with the limited ROS-responsive polymeric or supramolecular hydrogels. In this study, a novel type of oxidation-responsive degradable hydrogels was fabricated by the redox-initiated radical polymerization of a 4-arm-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) acrylic macromonomer that possesses a H₂O₂-cleavable phenylboronic acid linker in each of the arms. The macroscopic hydrogels have the features of good cytocompatibility, moderate mechanical strength, and fast response toward H₂O₂ of low concentration, owing to the covalently cross-linked hydrophilic PEG network and high sensitivity of the linker. They could encapsulate biomacromolecules, such as insulin and glucose oxidase (GOx), with high efficacy, affording a new glucose-responsive insulin-delivery platform on the basis of enzymatic transformation of a biochemical signal (glucose) into an oxidative stimulus (H₂O₂). Interestingly, in vitro results demonstrate that the same GOx-loaded hydrogel exhibited disparate degradation modes under different triggering molecules, that is, bulk degradation by H₂O₂ and surface erosion by glucose. Moreover, compared to the macroscopic hydrogel, the nanogel with a diameter of ∼160 nm prepared by inverse emulsion polymerization showed a much higher degradation rate even under triggering of 20 μM H₂O₂, a pathologically available concentration in vivo.

Cancer Cell Membrane Camouflaged Cascade Bioreactor for Cancer Targeted Starvation and Photodynamic Therapy

Selectively cuting off the nutrient supply and the metabolism pathways of cancer cells would be a promising approach to improve the efficiency of cancer treatment. Here, a cancer targeted cascade bioreactor (designated as mCGP) was constructed for synergistic starvation and photodynamic therapy (PDT) by embedding glucose oxidase (GOx) and catalase in the cancer cell membrane-camouflaged porphyrin metal-organic framework (MOF) of PCN-224 (PCN stands for porous coordination network). Due to biomimetic surface functionalization, the immune escape and homotypic targeting behaviors of mCGP would dramatically enhance its cancer targeting and retention abilities. Once internalized by cancer cells, mCGP was found to promote microenvironmental oxygenation by catalyzing the endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to produce oxygen (O₂), which would subsequently accelerate the decomposition of intracellular glucose and enhance the production of cytotoxic singlet oxygen (¹O₂) under light irradiation. Consequently, mCGP displayed amplified synergistic therapeutic effects of long-term cancer starvation therapy and robust PDT, which would efficiently inhibit the cancer growth after a single administration. This cascade bioreactor would further facilitate the development of complementary modes for spatiotemporally controlled cancer treatment.

Functionalised collagen spheres reduce H2O2 mediated apoptosis by scavenging overexpressed ROS

Excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been implicated in numerous diseases including cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Overexpression of ROS can lead to oxidative stress and subsequently to H₂O₂-mediated cell apoptosis. In this study, it was demonstrated that biodegradable PLGA microspheres coated with collagen type I and decorated with MnO₂ nanoparticles acted as ROS scavengers controlling the H₂O₂-mediated apoptosis of cells undergoing oxidative stress. The results showed that the functionalized collagen spheres can protect cells even under very harsh conditions of oxidative stress.

Mitochondria-targeting Au nanoclusters enhance radiosensitivity of cancer cells

Radiotherapy is an important technology for the clinical treatment of cancer, but the patients suffer from the severe side effects after exposure to radiation. There is an urgent need to develop theranostic agents with excellent imaging capability and effective radiosensitization in order to minimize X-ray irradiation. Herein, we report an approach to synthesize peptide-templated Au nanoclusters (AuNCs) for theranostic radiosensitization. A new peptide (CCYKFR) is designed for the preparation of AuNCs with uniform size distribution and fluorescence (656 nm) of high photostability. CCYKFR-AuNCs feature highly efficient targeting/accumulation on mitochondria after endocytosis. With a series of experiments, we demonstrate that CCYKFR-AuNCs irradiated by 4 Gy X-rays can introduce a burst of mitoROS and severe DNA damage leading to cancer cell death. This study presents an important strategy to design theranostic nanomaterials with improved radiosensitization for the development of new anti-cancer therapies.

Facile Synthesis of H2O2-Cleavable Poly(ester-amide)s by Passerini Multicomponent Polymerization

We report the straightforward synthesis of two types of H₂O₂-cleavable poly(ester-amide)s (P1 and P2) via the Passerini multicomponent polymerization (P-MCP) of 4-formylbenzeneboronic acid pinacol ester with 1,6-diisocyanohexane and 1,6-hexanedioic acid or a polyethylene glycol (PEG) dicarboxylic acid. The H₂O₂-cleavable phenylboronic acid ester was integrated into the polymer backbone by the in situ formed benzyl ester bond. GPC and ¹H NMR confirmed the complete H₂O₂-triggered degradation of these polymers in aqueous medium by a mechanism of sequential oxidation of phenylboronic acid ester and self-immolative elimination. Compared with the hydrophobic polymer P1, the PEG-based water-soluble polymer P2 degraded much faster even at a lower H₂O₂ concentration. Cytocompatible nanoparticles of polymer P1 loaded with fluorescent Nile red were fabricated, and controlled release of Nile red in response to H₂O₂ was achieved, thus, demonstrating the utility of these polymers as potential H₂O₂-responsive delivery vehicles.

The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in the Biological Activities of Metallic Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them appropriate for various applications. The structural alteration of metallic NPs leads to different biological functions, specifically resulting in different potentials for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The amount of ROS produced by metallic NPs correlates with particle size, shape, surface area, and chemistry. ROS possess multiple functions in cellular biology, with ROS generation a key factor in metallic NP-induced toxicity, as well as modulation of cellular signaling involved in cell death, proliferation, and differentiation. In this review, we briefly explained NP classes and their biomedical applications and describe the sources and roles of ROS in NP-related biological functions in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we also described the roles of metal NP-induced ROS generation in stem cell biology. Although the roles of ROS in metallic NP-related biological functions requires further investigation, modulation and characterization of metallic NP-induced ROS production are promising in the application of metallic NPs in the areas of regenerative medicine and medical devices.

Synthesis of a phenylboronic ester-linked PEG-lipid conjugate for ROS-responsive drug delivery

A kind of phenylboronic ester-linked PEG-lipid conjugate was designed and synthesized for ROS-responsive drug delivery.

H2O2-Responsive mesoporous silica nanoparticles integrated with microneedle patches for the glucose-monitored transdermal delivery of insulin

We successfully developed a microneedle patch system integrated with H₂O₂-responsive mesoporous silica nanoparticles for the glucose-monitored transdermal delivery of insulin.

Serum-resistant, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-potentiated gene delivery in cancer cells mediated by fluorinated, diselenide-crosslinked polyplexes

Fluorinated, diselenide-crosslinked polyplexes were developed to enable ROS-responsive and serum-resistant gene delivery in cancer cells.

Reactive oxygen species generating systems meeting challenges of photodynamic cancer therapy

The reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated mechanism is the major cause underlying the efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT). The PDT procedure is based on the cascade of synergistic effects between light, a photosensitizer (PS) and oxygen, which greatly favors the spatiotemporal control of the treatment. This procedure has also evoked several unresolved challenges at different levels including (i) the limited penetration depth of light, which restricts traditional PDT to superficial tumours; (ii) oxygen reliance does not allow PDT treatment of hypoxic tumours; (iii) light can complicate the phototherapeutic outcomes because of the concurrent heat generation; (iv) specific delivery of PSs to sub-cellular organelles for exerting effective toxicity remains an issue; and (v) side effects from undesirable white-light activation and self-catalysation of traditional PSs. Recent advances in nanotechnology and nanomedicine have provided new opportunities to develop ROS-generating systems through photodynamic or non-photodynamic procedures while tackling the challenges of the current PDT approaches. In this review, we summarize the current status and discuss the possible opportunities for ROS generation for cancer therapy. We hope this review will spur pre-clinical research and clinical practice for ROS-mediated tumour treatments.