151
|
Lin TH, Hegen M, Quadros E, Nickerson-Nutter CL, Appell KC, Cole AG, Shao Y, Tam S, Ohlmeyer M, Wang B, Goodwin DG, Kimble EF, Quintero J, Gao M, Symanowicz P, Wrocklage C, Lussier J, Schelling SH, Hewet AG, Xuan D, Krykbaev R, Togias J, Xu X, Harrison R, Mansour T, Collins M, Clark JD, Webb ML, Seidl KJ. Selective functional inhibition of JAK-3 is sufficient for efficacy in collagen-induced arthritis in mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 62:2283-93. [PMID: 20506481 DOI: 10.1002/art.27536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE All gamma-chain cytokines signal through JAK-3 and JAK-1 acting in tandem. We undertook this study to determine whether the JAK-3 selective inhibitor WYE-151650 would be sufficient to disrupt cytokine signaling and to ameliorate autoimmune disease pathology without inhibiting other pathways mediated by JAK-1, JAK-2, and Tyk-2. METHODS JAK-3 kinase selective compounds were characterized by kinase assay and JAK-3-dependent (interleukin-2 [IL-2]) and -independent (IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF]) cell-based assays measuring proliferation or STAT phosphorylation. In vivo, off-target signaling was measured by IL-22- and erythropoietin (EPO)-mediated models, while on-target signaling was measured by IL-2-mediated signaling. Efficacy of JAK-3 inhibitors was determined using delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) models in mice. RESULTS In vitro, WYE-151650 potently suppressed IL-2-induced STAT-5 phosphorylation and cell proliferation, while exhibiting 10-29-fold less activity against JAK-3-independent IL-6- or GM-CSF-induced STAT phosphorylation. Ex vivo, WYE-151650 suppressed IL-2-induced STAT phosphorylation, but not IL-6-induced STAT phosphorylation, as measured in whole blood. In vivo, WYE-151650 inhibited JAK-3-mediated IL-2-induced interferon-gamma production and decreased the natural killer cell population in mice, while not affecting IL-22-induced serum amyloid A production or EPO-induced reticulocytosis. WYE-151650 was efficacious in mouse DTH and CIA models. CONCLUSION In vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo assays demonstrate that WYE-151650 is efficacious in mouse CIA despite JAK-3 selectivity. These data question the need to broadly inhibit JAK-1-, JAK-2-, or Tyk-2-dependent cytokine pathways for efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tsung H Lin
- Ligand Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
152
|
Rasmussen TK, Andersen T, Hvid M, Hetland ML, Hørslev-Petersen K, Stengaard-Pedersen K, Holm CK, Deleuran B. Increased interleukin 21 (IL-21) and IL-23 are associated with increased disease activity and with radiographic status in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2010; 37:2014-20. [PMID: 20682664 DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.100259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the levels of the T helper (Th)17-related cytokines interleukin 17A (IL-17A), IL-21, and IL-23 and their association with disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS In a longitudinal sample set from patients with early RA (< 6 months; n = 40), we measured the plasma cytokine levels of IL-17A, IL-21, and IL-23 and analyzed for correlation with disease activity in 28 joints (Disease Activity Score 28-joint count; DAS28), C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and total Sharp score (TSS). In a transverse sample set of patients with chronic RA (> 8 years), using paired peripheral blood mononuclear cells and synovial fluid mononuclear cells, we investigated the cellular expression of IL-17A, IL-21, and IL-23R. RESULTS Patients with early-stage RA had significantly increased plasma levels of IL-21 and IL-23, but not IL-17A, compared to patients with chronic RA and healthy volunteer controls. Plasma levels of IL-21 and IL-23 after 12 months of treatment correlated with DAS28 and ESR, but not to TSS. Changes in IL-23 plasma levels from time of diagnosis to 12 months correlated with change in DAS28 and with TSS scores at 2 years. The numbers of CD4+ T cells producing IL-21 were significantly increased in the synovial fluid of patients with chronic RA, with only marginal coexpression of IL-21 and IL-17A. CONCLUSION Our results show a significant association between plasma levels of IL-21 and IL-23 and disease activity in RA, supporting the hypothesis that IL-21 and IL-23 are important pathogenic factors of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tue Kruse Rasmussen
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Universityof Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
153
|
Chiang PC, South SA, Foster KA, Daniels JS, Wene SP, Albin LA, Thompson DC. Utilizing a novel tandem oral dosing strategy to enhance exposure of low-solubility drug candidates in a preclinical setting. J Pharm Sci 2010; 99:3132-40. [PMID: 20229600 DOI: 10.1002/jps.22092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Time and resource constraints necessitate increasingly early decision making to accelerate or stop preclinical drug discovery programs. Early discovery drug candidates may be potent inhibitors of new targets, but all too often exhibit poor pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic properties that limit the in vivo exposure. Low solubility of a drug candidate often leads to poor oral bioavailability and poor dose linearity that creates an issue for efficacy and target safety studies, where high drug exposures are desired. When solubility issues are encountered, enabling formulations are often used to improve the exposure. However, this approach often requires a substantial and lengthy investment to develop the formulation. In our study, two drug candidates with poor aqueous solubility were dosed in rats as simple suspension formulations using a novel tandem dosing strategy, which employs dosing orally in 2.5 h increments up to three times to simulate an oral infusion by avoiding saturation of absorption associated with bolus dosing. These compounds were also dosed using the same suspension formulations and a standard dosing strategy. The resulting in vivo exposures were compared. It was found that this novel tandem dosing strategy significantly improved the in vivo exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Chang Chiang
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, St. Louis Laboratories, 700 Chesterfield Parkway West, Chesterfield, Missouri 63017, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
154
|
Chen G, Hardy K, Bunting K, Daley S, Ma L, Shannon MF. Regulation of the IL-21 gene by the NF-κB transcription factor c-Rel. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:2350-9. [PMID: 20639489 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-21 is a member of the common gamma-chain-dependent cytokine family and is a key modulator of lymphocyte development, proliferation, and differentiation. IL-21 is highly expressed in activated CD4(+) T cells and plays a critical role in the expansion and differentiation of the Th cell subsets, Th17 and follicular helper T (T(FH)) cells. Because of its potent activity in both myeloid and lymphoid cell immune responses, it has been implicated in a number of autoimmune diseases and has also been used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of some cancers. In this study, we demonstrate that c-Rel, a member of the NF-kappaB family of transcription factors, is required for IL-21 gene expression in T lymphocytes. IL-21 mRNA and protein levels are reduced in the CD4(+) cells of rel(-/-) mice when compared with rel(+/+) mice in both in vitro and in vivo models. A c-Rel binding site identified in the proximal promoter of il21 is confirmed to bind c-Rel in vitro and in vivo and to regulate expression from the il21 promoter in T cells. Downstream of IL-21 expression, Th17, T(FH), and germinal center B cell development are also impaired in rel(-/-) mice. The administration of IL-21 protein rescued the development of T(FH) cells but not germinal center B cells. Taken together, c-Rel plays an important role in the expression of IL-21 in T cells and subsequently in IL-21-dependent T(FH) cell development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guobing Chen
- Gene Expression and Epigenomics Group, Department of Genome Biology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
155
|
Hollis-Moffatt JE, Chen-Xu M, Topless R, Dalbeth N, Gow PJ, Harrison AA, Highton J, Jones PBB, Nissen M, Smith MD, van Rij A, Jones GT, Stamp LK, Merriman TR. Only one independent genetic association with rheumatoid arthritis within the KIAA1109-TENR-IL2-IL21 locus in Caucasian sample sets: confirmation of association of rs6822844 with rheumatoid arthritis at a genome-wide level of significance. Arthritis Res Ther 2010; 12:R116. [PMID: 20553587 PMCID: PMC2911910 DOI: 10.1186/ar3053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs6822844 within the KIAA1109-TENR-IL2-IL21 gene cluster has been associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Other variants within this cluster, including rs17388568 that is not in linkage disequilibrium (LD) with rs6822844, and rs907715 that is in moderate LD with rs6822844 and rs17388568, have been associated with a number of autoimmune phenotypes, including type 1 diabetes (T1D). Here we aimed to: one, confirm at a genome-wide level of significance association of rs6822844 with RA and, two, evaluate whether or not there were effects independent of rs6822844 on RA at the KIAA1109-TENR-IL2-IL21 locus. METHODS A total of 842 Australasian RA patients and 1,115 controls of European Caucasian ancestry were genotyped for rs6822844, rs17388568 and rs907715. Meta-analysis of these data with published and publicly-available data was conducted using STATA. RESULTS No statistically significant evidence for association was observed in the Australasian sample set for rs6822844 (odds ratio (OR)=0.95 (0.80 to 1.12), P=0.54), or rs17388568 (OR=1.03 (0.90 to 1.19), P=0.65) or rs907715 (OR=0.98 (0.86 to 1.12), P=0.69). When combined in a meta-analysis using data from a total of 9,772 cases and 10,909 controls there was a genome-wide level of significance supporting association of rs6822844 with RA (OR=0.86 (0.82 to 0.91), P=8.8x10(-8), P=2.1x10(-8) including North American Rheumatoid Arthritis Consortium data). Meta-analysis of rs17388568, using a total of 6,585 cases and 7,528 controls, revealed no significant association with RA (OR=1.03, (0.98 to 1.09); P=0.22) and meta-analysis of rs907715 using a total of 2,689 cases and 4,045 controls revealed a trend towards association (OR=0.93 (0.87 to 1.00), P=0.07). However, this trend was not independent of the association at rs6822844. CONCLUSIONS The KIAA1109-TENR-IL2-IL21 gene cluster, that encodes an interleukin (IL-21) that plays an important role in Th17 cell biology, is the 20th locus for which there is a genome-wide (P
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jade E Hollis-Moffatt
- Department of Biochemistry, 710 Cumberland Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Michael Chen-Xu
- Department of Biochemistry, 710 Cumberland Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ruth Topless
- Department of Biochemistry, 710 Cumberland Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Nicola Dalbeth
- Department of Medicine, 85 Park Road, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Peter J Gow
- Department of Rheumatology, Middlemore Hospital, Hospital Road, Auckland 1640, New Zealand
| | - Andrew A Harrison
- Department of Medicine, 23A Mein Street, University of Otago, Wellington 6242, New Zealand
| | - John Highton
- Department of Medicine, Great King Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Peter BB Jones
- Department of Medicine, 85 Park Road, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Michael Nissen
- Department of Medicine, Daws Road, Flinders Medical Centre and Repatriation General Hospital, Adelaide 5041, Australia
| | - Malcolm D Smith
- Department of Medicine, Daws Road, Flinders Medical Centre and Repatriation General Hospital, Adelaide 5041, Australia
| | - Andre van Rij
- Department of Surgery, Great King Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Gregory T Jones
- Department of Surgery, Great King Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Lisa K Stamp
- Department of Medicine, Riccarton Avenue, University of Otago, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Tony R Merriman
- Department of Biochemistry, 710 Cumberland Street, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
156
|
Guo Y, Hill AA, Ramsey RC, Immermann FW, Corcoran C, Young D, Lavallie ER, Ryan M, Bechard T, Pfeifer R, Warner G, Bologna M, Bloom L, O'Toole M. Assessing agonistic potential of a candidate therapeutic anti-IL21R antibody. J Transl Med 2010; 8:50. [PMID: 20504348 PMCID: PMC2896924 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-8-50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Selective neutralization of the IL21/IL21R signaling pathway is a promising approach for the treatment of a variety of autoimmune diseases. Ab-01 is a human neutralizing anti-IL21R antibody. In order to ensure that the activities of Ab-01 are restricted to neutralization even under in vitro cross-linking and in vivo conditions, a comprehensive assessment of agonistic potential of Ab-01 was undertaken. Methods In vitro antibody cross-linking and cell culture protocols reported for studies with a human agonistic antibody, TGN1412, were followed for Ab-01. rhIL21, the agonist ligand of the targeted receptor, and cross-linked anti-CD28 were used as positive controls for signal transduction. In vivo agonistic potential of Ab-01 was assessed by measuring expression levels of cytokine storm-associated and IL21 pathway genes in blood of cynomolgus monkeys before and after IV administration of Ab-01. Results Using a comprehensive set of assays that detected multiple activation signals in the presence of the positive control agonists, in vitro Ab-01-dependent activation was not detected in either PBMCs or the rhIL21-responsive cell line Daudi. Furthermore, no difference in gene expression levels was detected in blood before and after in vivo Ab-01 dosing of cynomolgus monkeys. Conclusions Despite efforts to intentionally force an agonistic signal from Ab-01, none could be detected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yongjing Guo
- Pfizer, BioTherapeutics Clinical Translational Medicine, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
157
|
Vugmeyster Y, Guay H, Szklut P, Qian MD, Jin M, Widom A, Spaulding V, Bennett F, Lowe L, Andreyeva T, Lowe D, Lane S, Thom G, Valge-Archer V, Gill D, Young D, Bloom L. In vitro potency, pharmacokinetic profiles, and pharmacological activity of optimized anti-IL-21R antibodies in a mouse model of lupus. MAbs 2010; 2:335-46. [PMID: 20424514 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.2.3.11850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Using phage display, we generated a panel of optimized neutralizing antibodies against the human and mouse receptors for interleukin 21 (IL-21), a cytokine that is implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of autoimmune disease. Two antibodies, Ab-01 and Ab-02, which differed by only four amino acids in V(L) CDR3, showed potent inhibition of human and mouse IL-21R in cell-based assays and were evaluated for their pharmacological and pharmacodynamic properties. Ab-01, but not Ab-02, significantly reduced a biomarker of disease (anti-dsDNA antibodies) and IgG deposits in the kidney in the MRL-Fas(lpr) mouse model of lupus, suggesting that anti-IL-21R antibodies may prove useful in the treatment of lupus. Ab-01 also had a consistently higher exposure (AUC(0-infinity)) than Ab-02 following a single dose in rodents or cynomolgus monkeys (2-3-fold or 4-7-fold, respectively). Our data demonstrate that small differences in CDR3 sequences of optimized antibodies can lead to profound differences in in vitro and in vivo properties, including differences in pharmacological activity and pharmacokinetic profiles. The lack of persistent activity of Ab-02 in the MRL-Fas(lpr) mouse lupus model may have been a consequence of faster elimination, reduced potency in blocking the effects of mouse IL-21R, and more potent/earlier onset of the anti-product response relative to Ab-01.
Collapse
|
158
|
Kim H, Kang JS, Lee WJ. The Production IL-21 and VEGF in UVB-irradiated Human Keratinocyte Cell Line, HaCaT. Immune Netw 2010; 10:75-80. [PMID: 20532127 PMCID: PMC2881424 DOI: 10.4110/in.2010.10.2.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultraviolet B (UVB) induces multiple inflammatory and carcinogenic reactions. In skin, UVB induces to secrete several kinds of inflammatory cytokines from keratinocytes and also increases angiogenic process via the modulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production. Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is an inflammatory cytokine and produced by activated T cells. The biologic functions of IL-21 have not yet extensively studied. METHODS In the present study, we investigate the production of IL-21 from human keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT and its biological effect after exposure to UVB. RESULTS First, we confirmed the IL-21 production and its receptor expression in HaCaT. And then, the change of IL-21 and VEGF production in HaCaT by UVB irradiation was examined. Not only IL-21 but also VEGF production was enhanced by UVB irradiation. Next, to determine relationship of enhanced production of IL-21 and VEGF, we detected VEGF production after neutralization of IL-21. VEGF production was reduced by IL-21 neutralization, which indicates that the IL-21 is involved in the VEGF production. CONCLUSION Taken together, our results suggest that IL-21 and VEGF production is enhanced by UVB irradiation in HaCaT. In addition, it seems that IL-21 plays a role in the angiogenic process in skin via the modulation of VEGF production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyemin Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Tumor Immunity Medical Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
159
|
Vugmeyster Y, Allen S, Szklut P, Bree A, Ryan M, Ma M, Spaulding V, Young D, Guay H, Bloom L, Leach MW, O'Toole M, Adkins K. Correlation of pharmacodynamic activity, pharmacokinetics, and anti-product antibody responses to anti-IL-21R antibody therapeutics following IV administration to cynomolgus monkeys. J Transl Med 2010; 8:41. [PMID: 20420683 PMCID: PMC2880981 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-8-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anti-IL-21R antibodies are potential therapeutics for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. This study evaluated correlations between the pharmacodynamic (PD) activity, pharmacokinetics, and anti-product antibody responses of human anti-IL-21R antibodies Ab-01 and Ab-02 following IV administration to cynomolgus monkeys. METHODS The PD assay was based on the ability of recombinant human IL-21 (rhuIL-21) to induce expression of the IL-2RA gene in cynomolgus monkey whole blood samples ex vivo. Monkeys screened for responsiveness to rhuIL-21 stimulation using the PD assay, were given a single 10 mg/kg IV dosage of Ab-01, Ab-02, or a control antibody (3/group), and blood samples were evaluated for PD activity (inhibition of IL-2RA expression) for up to 148 days. Anti-IL-21R antibody concentrations and anti-product antibody responses were measured in serum using immunoassays and flow cytometry. RESULTS Following IV administration of Ab-01 and Ab-02 to cynomolgus monkeys, PD activity was observed as early as 5 minutes (first time point sampled). This PD activity had good correlation with the serum concentrations and anti-product antibody responses throughout the study. The mean terminal half-life (t1/2) was approximately 10.6 and 2.3 days for Ab-01 and Ab-02, respectively. PD activity was lost at approximately 5-13 weeks for Ab-01 and at approximately 2 weeks for Ab-02, when serum concentrations were relatively low. The estimated minimum concentrations needed to maintain PD activity were approximately 4-6 nM for Ab-01 and approximately 2.5 nM for Ab-02, and were consistent with the respective KD values for binding to human IL-21R. For Ab-01, there was noticeable inter-animal variability in t1/2 values (approximately 6-14 days) and the resulting PD profiles, which correlated with the onset of anti-product antibody formation. While all three Ab-01-dosed animals were positive for anti-Ab-01 antibodies, only one monkey (with the shortest t1/2 and the earliest loss of PD activity) had evidence of neutralizing anti-Ab-01 antibodies. All three Ab-02-dosed monkeys developed neutralizing anti-Ab-02 antibodies. CONCLUSIONS For anti-IL-21R antibodies Ab-01 and Ab-02, there was good correlation between PD activity and PK profiles following IV administration to cynomolgus monkeys. Compared with Ab-01, Ab-02 was eliminated markedly faster from the circulation, which correlated with a shorter duration of PD activity.
Collapse
|
160
|
Bevaart L, Vervoordeldonk MJ, Tak PP. Evaluation of therapeutic targets in animal models of arthritis: How does it relate to rheumatoid arthritis? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 62:2192-205. [DOI: 10.1002/art.27503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
161
|
Fridman JS, Scherle PA, Collins R, Burn TC, Li Y, Li J, Covington MB, Thomas B, Collier P, Favata MF, Wen X, Shi J, McGee R, Haley PJ, Shepard S, Rodgers JD, Yeleswaram S, Hollis G, Newton RC, Metcalf B, Friedman SM, Vaddi K. Selective inhibition of JAK1 and JAK2 is efficacious in rodent models of arthritis: preclinical characterization of INCB028050. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:5298-307. [PMID: 20363976 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Inhibiting signal transduction induced by inflammatory cytokines offers a new approach for the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Kinase inhibitors have shown promising oral disease-modifying antirheumatic drug potential with efficacy similar to anti-TNF biologics. Direct and indirect inhibition of the JAKs, with small molecule inhibitors like CP-690,550 and INCB018424 or neutralizing Abs, such as the anti-IL6 receptor Ab tocilizumab, have demonstrated rapid and sustained improvement in clinical measures of disease, consistent with their respective preclinical experiments. Therefore, it is of interest to identify optimized JAK inhibitors with unique profiles to maximize therapeutic opportunities. INCB028050 is a selective orally bioavailable JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor with nanomolar potency against JAK1 (5.9 nM) and JAK2 (5.7 nM). INCB028050 inhibits intracellular signaling of multiple proinflammatory cytokines including IL-6 and IL-23 at concentrations <50 nM. Significant efficacy, as assessed by improvements in clinical, histologic and radiographic signs of disease, was achieved in the rat adjuvant arthritis model with doses of INCB028050 providing partial and/or periodic inhibition of JAK1/JAK2 and no inhibition of JAK3. Diminution of inflammatory Th1 and Th17 associated cytokine mRNA levels was observed in the draining lymph nodes of treated rats. INCB028050 was also effective in multiple murine models of arthritis, with no evidence of suppression of humoral immunity or adverse hematologic effects. These data suggest that fractional inhibition of JAK1 and JAK2 is sufficient for significant activity in autoimmune disease models. Clinical evaluation of INCB028050 in RA is ongoing.
Collapse
|
162
|
Ma HL, Napierata L, Stedman N, Benoit S, Collins M, Nickerson-Nutter C, Young DA. Tumor necrosis factor alpha blockade exacerbates murine psoriasis-like disease by enhancing Th17 function and decreasing expansion of Treg cells. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2010; 62:430-40. [PMID: 20112373 DOI: 10.1002/art.27203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Patients with psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis respond well to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) blockers in general; however, there is now mounting evidence that a small cohort of patients with rheumatoid arthritis who receive TNFalpha blockers develop psoriasis. This study was undertaken to explore the mechanisms underlying TNFalpha blockade-induced exacerbation of skin inflammation in murine psoriasis-like skin disease. METHODS Skin inflammation was induced in BALB/c scid/scid mice after they received CD4+CD45RB(high)CD25- (naive CD4) T cells from donor mice. These mice were treated with either anti-interleukin-12 (anti-IL-12)/23p40 antibody or murine TNFRII-Fc fusion protein and were examined for signs of disease, including histologic features, various cytokine levels in the serum, and cytokine or FoxP3 transcripts in the affected skin and draining lymph node (LN) cells. In a separate study, naive CD4+ T cells were differentiated into Th1 or Th17 lineages with anti-CD3/28 magnetic beads and appropriate cytokines in the presence or absence of TNFalpha. Cytokine gene expression from these differentiated cells was also determined. RESULTS Neutralization of TNFalpha exacerbated skin inflammation and markedly enhanced the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-17, IL-21, and IL-22 but suppressed FoxP3 expression in the skin and reduced the number of FoxP3-positive Treg cells in the draining LNs. TNFalpha also demonstrated a divergent role during priming and reactivation of naive T cells. CONCLUSION These results reveal a novel immunoregulatory role of TNFalpha on Th17 and Treg cells in some individuals, which may account for the exacerbation of skin inflammation in some patients who receive anti-TNF treatments.
Collapse
|
163
|
D’Acquisto F, Maione F, Pederzoli-Ribeil M. From IL-15 to IL-33: the never-ending list of new players in inflammation. Is it time to forget the humble aspirin and move ahead? Biochem Pharmacol 2010; 79:525-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2009] [Revised: 09/09/2009] [Accepted: 09/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
164
|
Abstract
Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in mice is an animal model for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and can be induced in DBA/1 and C57BL/6 mice using different protocols. The CIA model can be used to unravel mechanisms involved in the development of arthritis and is frequently used to study the effect of new therapeutics. The development of a CIA model in C57BL/6 mice recently enabled researchers to use knockout mice on this background for arthritis research.In this chapter, the protocol for induction of arthritis in both mice strains is described, including the monitoring of clinical arthritis and paw swelling in the mice during the experiment. Furthermore, protocols for decalcification of paws and for the detection of collagen-specific antibodies in mice sera are described.
Collapse
|
165
|
Biswas PS, Bhagat G, Pernis AB. IRF4 and its regulators: evolving insights into the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis? Immunol Rev 2010; 233:79-96. [PMID: 20192994 PMCID: PMC2920730 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2009.00864.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence from murine and human studies supports a key role for interleukin-17 (IL-17) and IL-21 in the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis. The pathways and molecular mechanisms that underlie the production of IL-17 and IL-21 are being rapidly elucidated. This review focuses on interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), a member of the IRF family of transcription factors, which has emerged as a crucial controller of both IL-17 and IL-21 production. We first outline the complex role of IRF4 in the function of CD4(+) T cells and then discuss recent studies from our laboratory that have revealed a surprising role for components of Rho GTPase-mediated pathways in controlling the activity of IRF4. A better understanding of these novel pathways will hopefully provide new insights into mechanisms responsible for the development of inflammatory arthritis and potentially guide the design of novel therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Govind Bhagat
- Department of Pathology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
166
|
Elevated Interleukin-21 Correlated to Th17 and Th1 Cells in Patients with Immune Thrombocytopenia. J Clin Immunol 2009; 30:253-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10875-009-9353-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Accepted: 11/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
167
|
Søndergaard H, Coquet JM, Uldrich AP, McLaughlin N, Godfrey DI, Sivakumar PV, Skak K, Smyth MJ. Endogenous IL-21 restricts CD8+ T cell expansion and is not required for tumor immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:7326-36. [PMID: 19915059 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
IL-21 has antitumor activity through actions on NK cells and CD8(+) T cells, and is currently in clinical development for the treatment of cancer. However, no studies have addressed the role of endogenous IL-21 in tumor immunity. In this study, we have studied both primary and secondary immune responses in IL-21(-/-) and IL-21R(-/-) mice against several experimental tumors. We found intact immune surveillance toward methylcholanthrene-induced sarcomas in IL-21(-/-) and IL-21R(-/-) mice compared with wild-type mice and B16 melanomas showed equal growth kinetics and development of lung metastases. IL-21R(-/-) mice showed competent NK cell-mediated rejection of NKG2D ligand (Rae1beta) expressing H-2b(-) RMAS lymphomas and sustained transition to CD8(+) T cell-dependent memory against H-2b(+) RMA lymphomas. alpha-Galactosylceramide stimulation showed equal expansion and activation of NKT and NK cells and mounted a powerful antitumor response in the absence of IL-21 signaling, despite reduced expression of granzyme B in NKT, NK, and CD8(+) T cells. Surprisingly, host IL-21 significantly restricted the expansion of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells and inhibited primary CD8(+) T cell immunity against OVA-expressing EG7 lymphomas, as well as the secondary expansion of memory CD8(+) T cells. However, host IL-21 did not alter the growth of less immunogenic MC38 colon carcinomas with dim OVA expression. Overall, our results show that endogenous IL-21/IL-21R is not required for NK, NKT, and CD8(+) T cell-mediated tumor immunity, but restricts Ag-specific CD8(+) T cell expansion and rejection of immunogenic tumors, indicating novel immunosuppressive actions of this cytokine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Søndergaard
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
168
|
Koenders MI, van den Berg WB. Translational mini-review series on Th17 cells: are T helper 17 cells really pathogenic in autoimmunity? Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 159:131-6. [PMID: 19912250 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04039.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review the authors discuss the evidence for T helper type 17 (Th17) cells as pathogenic T cells in autoimmunity. Studies with cytokine-deficient mice or blocking of interleukin (IL)-17, IL-21 and IL-22 have resulted in a conflicting data set. Although in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model the role of Th17 cells remains a point of debate, this IL-17-producing T cell in experimental arthritis is clearly contributing to inflammation and destruction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M I Koenders
- Rheumatology Research and Advanced Therapeutics, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
169
|
Lineage specification and heterogeneity of T follicular helper cells. Curr Opin Immunol 2009; 21:619-25. [PMID: 19896816 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2009.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Revised: 09/08/2009] [Accepted: 09/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
T follicular helper (Tfh) cells were originally described as a non-polarized CD4(+) T cell subset with follicular homing capacity and a potent ability to induce antibody production from B cells. However, a number of studies published in the past year have revealed a degree of heterogeneity within the germinal center CD4(+) T cell population, which suggests additional complexity. The overzealous activities of Tfh cells, or inappropriate expression of certain cytokines, represent new pathways for the development of autoimmune diseases. This review focuses on current progress in unraveling the biology of Tfh cells in health and disease, and understanding the relationship of Tfh cells to other CD4(+) T cell lineages.
Collapse
|
170
|
King C. New insights into the differentiation and function of T follicular helper cells. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:757-66. [DOI: 10.1038/nri2644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
171
|
Abstract
Cytokines are secreted signalling molecules with decisive effects on haematopoiesis, innate and adaptive immunity, and immunopathology. Interleukin (IL)-21 is a novel cytokine produced by activated CD4(+) T cells and natural killer T (NKT) cells. IL-21 is part of a family of cytokines which include IL-2, -4, -7, -9 and -15 that all share the common IL-2 receptor gamma chain (gamma(c)) in their individual receptor complexes. IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) is widely expressed on both myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages and IL-21 actions include co-stimulation of B cell differentiation and immunoglobulin (Ig) production, co-mitogen of T cells, and stimulation of NK and CD8(+) T cell cytotoxic function. Initially, IL-21 was recognized for its anti-tumour effects in several preclinical tumour models, warranting its currently ongoing clinical development as a cancer immunotherapeutic. More recently, IL-21 has been associated with the development of a panel of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, where neutralization of IL-21 has been suggested as a potential new therapy. In this review, we will cover the latest discoveries of IL-21 as a cancer therapy and its implications in immunopathologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Søndergaard
- Department of Immunopharmacology, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark.
| | | |
Collapse
|
172
|
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Miossec
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Hôpital Edouard Herriot, University of Lyon, Lyon, France.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
173
|
Sarkar S, Cooney LA, Fox DA. The role of T helper type 17 cells in inflammatory arthritis. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 159:225-37. [PMID: 19758374 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04016.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
While T cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis for more than three decades, the focus on the T helper type 17 (Th17) subset of CD4 T cells and their secreted cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-17, is much more recent. Proinflammatory actions of IL-17 were first identified in the 1990s, but the delineation of a distinct Th17 subset in late 2005 has sparked great interest in the role of these cells in a broad range of immune-mediated diseases. This review summarizes current understanding of the role of Th17 cells and their products in both animal models of inflammatory arthritis and human immune-driven arthritides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Sarkar
- Department of Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, University of Arizona Tucson, AZ, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
174
|
Abstract
Type 17 T helper (TH17) cells are a population of CD4+ effector T cells that are distinct from TH1 and TH2 cells owing to their ability to produce interleukin (IL)-17. Although TH1 and TH2 cells are similar in mice and humans, TH17 cells differ in several ways. The differentiation of mouse TH17 cells requires transforming growth factor beta and IL-6, whereas human naive T cells can develop into TH17 cells in the presence of IL-1beta and IL-23 alone, transforming growth factor beta having an indirect role in their development via the selective inhibition of TH1 cell expansion. in both mice and humans, a late developmental plasticity of TH17 cells towards the TH1 lineage has been shown. Mainly based on mouse gene knockout studies, TH17 lymphocytes have been found to have a pathogenic role in several autoimmune disorders; however, whether human autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and psoriasis, are prevalently TH1-mediated or TH17-mediated, is still unclear. research suggests that both TH1 and TH17 cells are involved in RA pathogenesis, raising the possibility that interventions that target both the IL-23-IL-17 (TH17) and the IL-12-interferon gamma (TH1) axes might be successful future therapeutic approaches for RA.
Collapse
|
175
|
Liu Z, Yang L, Cui Y, Wang X, Guo C, Huang Z, Kan Q, Liu Z, Liu Y. Il-21 enhances NK cell activation and cytolytic activity and induces Th17 cell differentiation in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009; 15:1133-44. [PMID: 19322899 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.20923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is involved in T and NK cell activation and effector response and promotes Th17 cell differentiation. Here we investigated IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) expression in inflamed mucosa of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and evaluated its role in the induction of NK cell cytotoxicity and activation as well as Th17 differentiation. METHODS Expression of IL-21R was performed by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. NK cell cytotoxicity was detected by a standard (51)Cr-release assay. Cytokine levels were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS IL-21R-positive cells were significantly increased in inflamed mucosa of IBD compared with controls, and mainly expressed in freshly isolated peripheral blood (PB)- and lamina propria (LP)-CD4(+), CD8(+) T, B, and NK cells. PB-NK cells from IBD patients produced higher levels of interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) than controls when stimulated with immobilized human IgG and IL-21. IL-21-primed IBD NK cells showed a more potent antitumor cytotoxicity to NK-sensitive K562 cells than controls. Moreover, PB-T and LP-T cells from IBD patients produced large amounts of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF, IFN-gamma) than controls when stimulated with IL-21 and anti-CD3. Importantly, IL-21 facilitated IBD CD4(+) T cell to differentiate into Th17 cells, characterized by increased expression of IL-17A and ROR gamma t. CONCLUSIONS IL-21 enhances IBD NK cell cytotoxic response, triggers T cells to produce proinflammatory cytokines, and induces IBD CD4(+) T cells to differentiate into Th17 cells, suggesting that IL-21 is involved in the pathogenesis of IBD and that blocking IL-21R signaling may have a therapeutic potential in IBD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhanju Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
176
|
Coenen MJH, Trynka G, Heskamp S, Franke B, van Diemen CC, Smolonska J, van Leeuwen M, Brouwer E, Boezen MH, Postma DS, Platteel M, Zanen P, Lammers JWWJ, Groen HJM, Mali WPTM, Mulder CJ, Tack GJ, Verbeek WHM, Wolters VM, Houwen RHJ, Mearin ML, van Heel DA, Radstake TRDJ, van Riel PLCM, Wijmenga C, Barrera P, Zhernakova A. Common and different genetic background for rheumatoid arthritis and coeliac disease. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:4195-203. [PMID: 19648290 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed genetic risk factors in autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. Several of the associated genes and underlying pathways are shared by various autoimmune diseases. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and coeliac disease (CD) are two autoimmune disorders which have commonalities in their pathogenesis. We aimed to replicate known RA loci in a Dutch RA population, and to investigate whether the effect of known RA and CD risk factors generalize across the two diseases. We selected all loci associated to either RA or CD in a GWAS and confirmed in an independent cohort, with a combined P-value cut-off P < 5 x 10(-6). We genotyped 11 RA and 11 CD loci in 1368 RA patients, 795 CD patients and 1683 Dutch controls. We combined our results in a meta-analysis with UK GWAS on RA (1860 cases; 2938 controls) and CD (767 cases; 1422 controls). In the Dutch RA cohort, the PTPN22 and IL2/IL21 variants showed convincing association (P = 3.4 x 10(-12) and P = 2.8 x 10(-4), respectively). Association of RA with the known CD risk variant in the SH2B3 was also observed, predominantly in the subgroup of rheumatoid factor-positive RA patients (P = 0.0055). In a meta-analysis of Dutch and UK data sets, shared association with six loci (TNFAIP3, IL2/IL21, SH2B3, LPP, MMEL1/TNFRSF14 and PFKFB3/PRKCQ) was observed in both RA and CD cohorts. We confirmed two known loci and identified four novel ones for shared CD-RA genetic risk. Most of the shared loci further emphasize a role for adaptive and innate immunity in these diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marieke J H Coenen
- Department of Human Genetics, Institute for Genetic and Metabolic Diseases, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
177
|
Fotio AL, Dimo T, Nguelefack TB, Dzeufiet PDD, Ngo Lemba E, Temdie RJ, Ngueguim F, Olleros ML, Vesin D, Dongo E, Kamtchouing P, Garcia I. Acute and chronic anti-inflammatory properties of the stem bark aqueous and methanol extracts of Sclerocarya birrea (Anacardiaceae). Inflammopharmacology 2009; 17:229-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s10787-009-0011-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 07/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
178
|
Nurieva RI, Liu X, Dong C. Yin-Yang of costimulation: crucial controls of immune tolerance and function. Immunol Rev 2009; 229:88-100. [PMID: 19426216 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2009.00769.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY In addition to signals from the T-cell receptor complex, it has been recognized for many years that a 'second' signal, most notably from CD28, is also important in T-cell activation. In the recent years, many new members of CD28 family as well as the molecules that share structural homology to CD28 ligands CD80 and CD86 have been discovered. Interestingly, some of these proteins function to dampen T-cell activation and regulate the induction of T-cell tolerance. Therefore, positive and negative costimulation are the two sides of the coin to fine tune T-cell receptor signaling to determine the outcome of T-cell receptor engagement-tolerance versus function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roza I Nurieva
- Department of Immunology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
179
|
Monteleone G, Pallone F, Macdonald TT. Interleukin-21 as a new therapeutic target for immune-mediated diseases. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2009; 30:441-7. [PMID: 19616319 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2009.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines have a decisive role in initiating and shaping pathologic responses in patients with various immune-inflammatory diseases. Recent studies indicate that interleukin (IL)-21, a cytokine produced mostly by activated CD4+ T cells, participates in the tissue damage in various tissues, owing to its ability to regulate the function of immune and non-immune cells. For instance, IL-21 controls the differentiation and functional activity of T cells, B cells and NK cells, limits the differentiation of inducible regulatory T cells (Tregs), and makes T cells resistant to the Treg-mediated immunesuppression. It also stimulates epithelial cells and fibroblasts to produce inflammatory mediators. Here, we focus on data supporting the pathogenic role of IL-21 in human inflammatory diseases and discuss pre-clinical studies that suggest that neutralization of IL-21 in vivo could be a new biological therapy to combat immune-mediated pathologies, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Monteleone
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome 00133, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
180
|
Abstract
SUMMARY Our understanding of the role of T cells in human disease is undergoing revision as a result of the discovery of T-helper 17 (Th17) cells, a unique CD4(+) T-cell subset characterized by production of interleukin-17 (IL-17). IL-17 is a highly inflammatory cytokine with robust effects on stromal cells in many tissues. Recent data in humans and mice suggest that Th17 cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of a diverse group of immune-mediated diseases, including psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and asthma. Initial reports also propose a role for Th17 cells in tumorigenesis and transplant rejection. Important differences, as well as many similarities, are emerging when the biology of Th17 cells in the mouse is compared with corresponding phenomena in humans. As our understanding of human Th17 biology grows, the mechanisms underlying many diseases are becoming more apparent, resulting in a new appreciation for both previously known and more recently discovered cytokines, chemokines, and feedback mechanisms. Given the strong association between excessive Th17 activity and human disease, new therapeutic approaches targeting Th17 cells are highly promising, but the potential safety of such treatments may be limited by the role of these cells in normal host defenses against infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Tesmer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Rheumatic Disease Core Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5358, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
181
|
Abstract
SUMMARY Our understanding of the role of T cells in human disease is undergoing revision as a result of the discovery of T-helper 17 (Th17) cells, a unique CD4(+) T-cell subset characterized by production of interleukin-17 (IL-17). IL-17 is a highly inflammatory cytokine with robust effects on stromal cells in many tissues. Recent data in humans and mice suggest that Th17 cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of a diverse group of immune-mediated diseases, including psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and asthma. Initial reports also propose a role for Th17 cells in tumorigenesis and transplant rejection. Important differences, as well as many similarities, are emerging when the biology of Th17 cells in the mouse is compared with corresponding phenomena in humans. As our understanding of human Th17 biology grows, the mechanisms underlying many diseases are becoming more apparent, resulting in a new appreciation for both previously known and more recently discovered cytokines, chemokines, and feedback mechanisms. Given the strong association between excessive Th17 activity and human disease, new therapeutic approaches targeting Th17 cells are highly promising, but the potential safety of such treatments may be limited by the role of these cells in normal host defenses against infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Tesmer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Rheumatic Disease Core Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5358, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
182
|
Abstract
Recent work has implicated a novel Th effector cell subset, the Th17 cell subset, in the development of both rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) because of the ability of Th17 cells to produce cytokines like IL-17 and IL-21 that can drive both inflammatory and humoral responses. In this review, we will discuss recent studies that have begun elucidating the factors that regulate the development of Th17 cells and provide a brief overview of the role of Th17 cells in RA and SLE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A B Pernis
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
183
|
Jang E, Cho SH, Park H, Paik DJ, Kim JM, Youn J. A Positive Feedback Loop of IL-21 Signaling Provoked by Homeostatic CD4+CD25− T Cell Expansion Is Essential for the Development of Arthritis in Autoimmune K/BxN Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:4649-56. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0804350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
184
|
Abstract
CD4+ T cells, upon activation and expansion, develop into different T helper cell subsets with different cytokine profiles and distinct effector functions. Until recently, T cells were divided into Th1 or Th2 cells, depending on the cytokines they produce. A third subset of IL-17-producing effector T helper cells, called Th17 cells, has now been discovered and characterized. Here, we summarize the current information on the differentiation and effector functions of the Th17 lineage. Th17 cells produce IL-17, IL-17F, and IL-22, thereby inducing a massive tissue reaction owing to the broad distribution of the IL-17 and IL-22 receptors. Th17 cells also secrete IL-21 to communicate with the cells of the immune system. The differentiation factors (TGF-β plus IL-6 or IL-21), the growth and stabilization factor (IL-23), and the transcription factors (STAT3, RORγt, and RORα) involved in the development of Th17 cells have just been identified. The participation of TGF-β in the differentiation of Th17 cells places the Th17 lineage in close relationship with CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), as TGF-β also induces differentiation of naive T cells into Foxp3+ Tregs in the peripheral immune compartment. The investigation of the differentiation, effector function, and regulation of Th17 cells has opened up a new framework for understanding T cell differentiation. Furthermore, we now appreciate the importance of Th17 cells in clearing pathogens during host defense reactions and in inducing tissue inflammation in autoimmune disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Korn
- Technical University Munich, Department of Neurology, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Estelle Bettelli
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;,
| | - Mohamed Oukka
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Vijay K. Kuchroo
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115;,
| |
Collapse
|
185
|
Interleukin-21 (IL-21)-mediated pathways in T cell-mediated disease. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009; 20:185-91. [PMID: 19261537 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2009.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 (IL-21) is produced mostly by activated CD4+ T cells and controls the differentiation and functional activity of effector T helper cells, counteracts the suppressive effects of regulatory T cells, and stimulates non-immune cells to make inflammatory mediators. IL-21-driven tissue damage has been demonstrated in a number of organs, such as the gut, pancreas, and brain. Therefore new treatment modalities to neutralise IL-21 in vivo would be a valuable addition to the therapeutic armamentarium to combat immune-mediated inflammation. Here we describe the emerging role of IL-21 in the initiation and progress of the tissue-damaging inflammatory response in immune-mediated pathologies.
Collapse
|
186
|
Konforte D, Simard N, Paige CJ. IL-21: An Executor of B Cell Fate. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:1781-7. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0803009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
187
|
A critical role for IL-21 receptor signaling in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus in BXSB-Yaa mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:1518-23. [PMID: 19164519 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0807309106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin 21 (IL-21) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced by CD4 T cells that affects the differentiation and function of T, B, and NK cells by binding to a receptor consisting of the common cytokine receptor gamma chain and the IL-21 receptor (IL-21R). IL-21, a product associated with IL-17-producing CD4 T cells (T(H)17) and follicular CD4 T helper cells (T(FH)), has been implicated in autoimmune disorders including the severe systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-like disease characteristic of BXSB-Yaa mice. To determine whether IL-21 plays a significant role in this disease, we compared IL-21R-deficient and -competent BXSB-Yaa mice for multiple parameters of SLE. The deficient mice showed none of the abnormalities characteristic of SLE in IL-21R-competent Yaa mice, including hypergammaglobulinemia, autoantibody production, reduced frequencies of marginal zone B cells and monocytosis, renal disease, and premature morbidity. IL-21 production associated with this autoimmune disease was not a product of T(H)17 cells and was not limited to conventional CXCR5(+) T(FH) but instead was produced broadly by ICOS(+) CD4(+) splenic T cells. IL-21 arising from an abnormal population of CD4 T cells is thus central to the development of this lethal disease, and, more generally, could play an important role in human SLE and related autoimmune disorders.
Collapse
|
188
|
Brennan FM, McInnes IB. Evidence that cytokines play a role in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 2009; 118:3537-45. [PMID: 18982160 DOI: 10.1172/jci36389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 793] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A large number of cytokines are active in the joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is now clear that these cytokines play a fundamental role in the processes that cause inflammation, articular destruction, and the comorbidities associated with RA. Following the success of TNF-alpha blockade as a treatment for RA, other cytokines now offer alternative targets for therapeutic intervention or might be useful as predictive biomarkers of disease. In this Review, we discuss the biologic contribution and therapeutic potential of the major cytokine families to RA pathology, focusing on molecules contained within the TNF-alpha, IL-1, IL-6, IL-23, and IL-2 families.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fionula M Brennan
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
189
|
Xia XZ, Liu ZJ. IL-21 receptor is highly expressed and induces proinflammatory cytokine secretion in patients with ulcerative colitis. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2009; 17:102-105. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v17.i1.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To explore the role of IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMC) for patients with ulcerative colitis (UC).
METHODS: Peripheral blood samples and colonic biopsies were obtained from 28 patients with UC and 22 healthy controls. Expression of IL-21R in peripheral blood or lamina propria CD4+, CD8+ T cells, B cells and NK cells was analyzed using flow cytometry. Cytokine secretion by PBMC or LPMC under stimulation with IL-21 and anti-CD3 was detected using ELISA.
RESULTS: Expression of IL-21R was significantly higher in peripheral blood and lamina propria CD4+, CD8+ T cells, B cells and NK cells of UC patients than in healthy controls (PBMC: 8.42 ± 2.14 vs 3.46 ± 0.54, 10.35 ± 2.17 vs 5.28 ± 2.2, 7.27 ± 1.15 vs 2.35 ± 0.41, 12.55 ± 3.12 vs 5.45 ± 1.06; LPMC: 22.44 ± 3.46 vs 6.26 ± 1.15, 24.48 ± 4.57 i 6.87 ± 1.02, 16.24 ± 3.10 vs 5.56 ± 1.44, 23.54 ± 4.12 vs 8.45 ± 1.68, all P < 0.05). PBMC or LPMC from UC patients, when stimulated with IL-21 and anti-CD3, produced significantly higher levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-2 compared with healthy controls (346 ± 72 vs120 ± 27, 3048 ± 426 vs 1182 ± 242; 625 ± 113 vs 154 ± 35, 3827 ± 418 vs 1520 ± 304, all P < 0.05)
CONCLUSION: IL-21R is significantly increased in PBMC and LPMC from UC patients, and IL-21 induces proinflamatory cytokine secretion. It suggests that IL-21 is associated with intestinal mucosal injury and that target therapy directed against IL-21 may be used to treat UC patients.
Collapse
|
190
|
Chiang PC, South SA, Daniels J, Anderson DR, Wene SP, Albin LA, Mourey RJ, Selbo JG. Aqueous versus non-aqueous salt delivery strategies to enhance oral bioavailability of a mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase (MK-2) inhibitor in rats. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:248-56. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
191
|
Abstract
CD4+ T cells, upon activation and expansion, develop into different T helper cell subsets with different cytokine profiles and distinct effector functions. Until recently, T cells were divided into Th1 or Th2 cells, depending on the cytokines they produce. A third subset of IL-17-producing effector T helper cells, called Th17 cells, has now been discovered and characterized. Here, we summarize the current information on the differentiation and effector functions of the Th17 lineage. Th17 cells produce IL-17, IL-17F, and IL-22, thereby inducing a massive tissue reaction owing to the broad distribution of the IL-17 and IL-22 receptors. Th17 cells also secrete IL-21 to communicate with the cells of the immune system. The differentiation factors (TGF-beta plus IL-6 or IL-21), the growth and stabilization factor (IL-23), and the transcription factors (STAT3, RORgammat, and RORalpha) involved in the development of Th17 cells have just been identified. The participation of TGF-beta in the differentiation of Th17 cells places the Th17 lineage in close relationship with CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), as TGF-beta also induces differentiation of naive T cells into Foxp3+ Tregs in the peripheral immune compartment. The investigation of the differentiation, effector function, and regulation of Th17 cells has opened up a new framework for understanding T cell differentiation. Furthermore, we now appreciate the importance of Th17 cells in clearing pathogens during host defense reactions and in inducing tissue inflammation in autoimmune disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Korn
- Technical University Munich, Department of Neurology, 81675 Munich, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
192
|
Chen Q, Yang W, Gupta S, Biswas P, Smith P, Bhagat G, Pernis AB. IRF-4-binding protein inhibits interleukin-17 and interleukin-21 production by controlling the activity of IRF-4 transcription factor. Immunity 2008; 29:899-911. [PMID: 19062315 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2008] [Revised: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The T helper 17 (Th17) cell lineage is important in inflammatory and autoimmune responses, via its ability to produce interleukin-17 (IL-17) and IL-21. Given the potentially deleterious effects of Th17 cells, their generation needs to be strictly controlled. IRF-4 is a transcription factor that has recently emerged as a key regulator of Th17 cell differentiation. Here, we showed that mice deficient in a previously isolated protein, IBP (IRF-4-binding protein), rapidly developed rheumatoid arthritis-like joint disease and large-vessel vasculitis. The pathology was associated with an enhanced responsiveness of T cells to low levels of stimulation and with the inappropriate synthesis of IL-17 and IL-21. IBP sequestered IRF-4 and prevented it from targeting the transcriptional regulatory regions of the genes that encode IL-17 and IL-21. Thus, IBP appears to be important in preventing T cell-mediated autoimmunity by ensuring that the production of IL-17 and IL-21 does not occur in response to self-antigens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qinzhong Chen
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
193
|
Fouser LA, Wright JF, Dunussi-Joannopoulos K, Collins M. Th17 cytokines and their emerging roles in inflammation and autoimmunity. Immunol Rev 2008; 226:87-102. [PMID: 19161418 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00712.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
T-helper 17 (Th17) cells are a new lineage of CD4(+) T cells that are characterized by their production of interleukin-17A (IL-17A). Recent studies show that these cells can also express IL-17F, IL-22, and IL-21. IL-17A and IL-17F can form a heterodimeric cytokine, which mediates biological activities, at least in part, through shared receptors with IL-17A and IL-17F homodimers. The cytokines made by Th17 cells represent three distinct gene families, highlighting the unique biology of these cells. Accumulating data support a role for Th17 cells and these cytokines in inflammatory processes and in animal models of autoimmunity or inflammation. Emerging data in clinical trials support our understanding of the importance of Th17 cells in inflammatory disease. Future clinical studies will allow us to evaluate the role of each cytokine independently in contributing to human diseases with immune-mediated pathologies and to design optimal cytokine-targeted therapies for these diseases.
Collapse
|
194
|
Coenen MJH, Gregersen PK. Rheumatoid arthritis: a view of the current genetic landscape. Genes Immun 2008; 10:101-11. [PMID: 18987647 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2008.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The field of genetics and autoimmune diseases is undergoing a rapid and unprecedented expansion with new genetic findings being reported at an astounding pace. It is now clear that multiple genes contribute to each of the major autoimmune disorders, with significant genetic overlaps among them. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is no exception to this, and emerging data are beginning to reveal the outlines of new diagnostic subgroups, complex overlapping relationships with other autoimmune disorders and potential new targets for therapy. This review describes the evolving genetic landscape of RA, with the full knowledge that our current view is far from complete. However, with the first round of genome-wide association scans now completed, it is reasonable to begin to take stock of the direction in which the major common genetic risk factors are leading us.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J H Coenen
- Department of Human Genetics of the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
195
|
IL-21 signaling is critical for the development of type I diabetes in the NOD mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:14028-33. [PMID: 18779574 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0804358105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
IL-21 is a pleiotropic type I cytokine that shares the common cytokine receptor gamma chain and plays important roles for normal Ig production, terminal B cell differentiation to plasma cells, and Th17 differentiation. IL-21 is elevated in several autoimmune diseases, and blocking its action has attenuated disease in MRL/lpr mice and in collagen-induced arthritis. The diabetes-associated Idd3 locus is at the Il2/Il21 locus, and elevated IL-21 was observed in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse and suggested to contribute to diabetes by augmenting T cell homeostatic proliferation. To determine the role of IL-21 in diabetes, Il21r-knockout (KO) mice were backcrossed to NOD mice. These mice were devoid of lymphocytic infiltration into the pancreas, and only 1 of 20 animals had an elevated glucose compared with 60% of NOD mice on a wild-type (WT) background. Although TCR and Treg-related responses were normal, these mice had reduced Th17 cells and significantly higher levels of mRNAs encoding members of the Reg (regenerating) gene family whose transgenic expression protects against diabetes. Our studies establish a critical role for IL-21 in the development of type I diabetes in the NOD mouse, with obvious potential implications for type I diabetes in humans.
Collapse
|
196
|
Datta S, Sarvetnick NE. IL-21 limits peripheral lymphocyte numbers through T cell homeostatic mechanisms. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3118. [PMID: 18773086 PMCID: PMC2527999 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Accepted: 08/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background IL-21, a member of the common γ-chain utilizing family of cytokines, participates in immune and inflammatory processes. In addition, the cytokine has been linked to autoimmunity in humans and rodents. Methodology/Principal Findings To investigate the mechanism whereby IL-21 affects the immune system, we investigated its role in T cell homeostasis and autoimmunity in both non-autoimmune C57BL/6 and autoimmune NOD mice. Our data indicate that IL-21R knockout C57BL/6 and NOD mice show increased size of their lymphocyte population and decreased homeostatic proliferation. In addition, our experimental results demonstrate that IL-21 inhibits T cell survival. These data suggest that IL-21 acts to limit the size of the T cell pool. Furthermore, our data suggest IL-21 may contribute to the development of autoimmunity. Conclusions/Significance Taken together, our results suggest that IL-21 plays a global role in regulating T cell homeostasis, promoting the continuous adaptation of the T cell lymphoid space.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shrimati Datta
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Nora E. Sarvetnick
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
197
|
Abstract
Previous data have indicated that IL-21 and/or IL-21R are crucial for the differentiation of naïve T cells into Th17 cells and also play a key role in the development of autoimmune disease. Given this, IL-21 and/or IL-21R are potential targets for therapy of such diseases; however, a study in this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, provides a new twist in the story as it is now shown that IL-21 and/or IL-21R play no role in Th17 development or autoimmune inflammatory disease. The reasons for these contradictory data are discussed in this Commentary.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rikard Holmdahl
- Medical Inflammation Research, BMC I11, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
198
|
Huber R, Hummert C, Gausmann U, Pohlers D, Koczan D, Guthke R, Kinne RW. Identification of intra-group, inter-individual, and gene-specific variances in mRNA expression profiles in the rheumatoid arthritis synovial membrane. Arthritis Res Ther 2008; 10:R98. [PMID: 18721452 PMCID: PMC2575612 DOI: 10.1186/ar2485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2007] [Revised: 07/16/2008] [Accepted: 08/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory and destructive joint disease characterized by overexpression of pro-inflammatory/pro-destructive genes and other activating genes (for example, proto-oncogenes) in the synovial membrane (SM). The gene expression in disease is often characterized by significant inter-individual variances via specific synchronization/desynchronization of gene expression. To elucidate the contribution of the variance to the pathogenesis of disease, expression variances were tested in SM samples of RA patients, osteoarthritis (OA) patients, and normal controls (NCs). Method Analysis of gene expression in RA, OA, and NC samples was carried out using Affymetrix U133A/B oligonucleotide arrays, and the results were validated by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. For the comparison between RA and NC, 568 genes with significantly different variances in the two groups (P ≤ 0.05; Bonferroni/Holm corrected Brown-Forsythe version of the Levene test) were selected. For the comparison between RA and OA, 333 genes were selected. By means of the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, the pathways/complexes significantly affected by higher gene expression variances were identified in each group. Results Ten pathways/complexes significantly affected by higher gene expression variances were identified in RA compared with NC, including cytokine–cytokine receptor interactions, the transforming growth factor-beta pathway, and anti-apoptosis. Compared with OA, three pathways with significantly higher variances were identified in RA (for example, B-cell receptor signaling and vascular endothelial growth factor signaling). Functionally, the majority of the identified pathways are involved in the regulation of inflammation, proliferation, cell survival, and angiogenesis. Conclusion In RA, a number of disease-relevant or even disease-specific pathways/complexes are characterized by broad intra-group inter-individual expression variances. Thus, RA pathogenesis in different individuals may depend to a lesser extent on common alterations of the expression of specific key genes, and rather on individual-specific alterations of different genes resulting in common disturbances of key pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- René Huber
- Department of Orthopedics, Experimental Rheumatology Unit, University Hospital Jena, Waldkrankenhaus Rudolf Elle, Eisenberg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
199
|
Aberrant expression of the Th2 cytokine IL-21 in Hodgkin lymphoma cells regulates STAT3 signaling and attracts Treg cells via regulation of MIP-3alpha. Blood 2008; 112:3339-47. [PMID: 18684866 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-01-134783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The malignant Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells of classical Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) are derived from mature B cells, but have lost a considerable part of the B cell-specific gene expression pattern. Consequences of such a lineage infidelity for lymphoma pathogenesis are currently not defined. Here, we report that HRS cells aberrantly express the common cytokine-receptor gamma-chain (gamma(c)) cytokine IL-21, which is usually restricted to a subset of CD4(+) T cells, and the corresponding IL-21 receptor. We demonstrate that IL-21 activates STAT3 in HRS cells, up-regulates STAT3 target genes, and protects HRS cells from CD95 death receptor-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, IL-21 is involved in up-regulation of the CC chemokine macrophage-inflammatory protein-3alpha (MIP-3alpha) in HRS cells. MIP-3alpha in turn attracts CCR6(+)CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+)CD127(lo) regulatory T cells toward HRS cells, which might favor their immune escape. Together, these data support the concept that aberrant expression of B lineage-inappropriate genes plays an important role for the biology of HL tumor cells.
Collapse
|
200
|
Coquet JM, Chakravarti S, Smyth MJ, Godfrey DI. Cutting edge: IL-21 is not essential for Th17 differentiation or experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:7097-101. [PMID: 18490706 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have suggested that IL-21 is a key factor in the development of IL-17-producing CD4 T cells (Th17) and that the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, which depends on mounting an efficient Th17 response, is reportedly impaired in the absence of IL-21 signaling. In this study, we provide supportive in vitro evidence that IL-21 can drive Th17 responses in conjunction with TGF-beta. However, more importantly we also demonstrate, using IL-21- and IL-21R-deficient mice, that IL-21 is not essential for the differentiation of Th17 cells in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we show that IL-21- and IL-21R-deficient mice are highly susceptible to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with disease scores that were comparable, or even higher at the peak of disease, to those of control mice. Thus, our results challenge the notion that IL-21 is a key factor in driving Th17 immunity and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Coquet
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|