151
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Bartlett NW, Buttigieg K, Kotenko SV, Smith GL. Murine interferon lambdas (type III interferons) exhibit potent antiviral activity in vivo in a poxvirus infection model. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:1589-1596. [PMID: 15914836 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80904-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human interferon lambdas (IFN-lambdas) (type III IFNs) exhibit antiviral activity in vitro by binding to a receptor complex distinct from that used by type I and type II IFNs, and subsequent signalling through the Janus kinase signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) pathway. However, evidence for a function of type III IFNs during virus infection in vivo is lacking. Here, the expression of murine IFN-lambdas by recombinant vaccinia virus (VACV) is described and these proteins are shown to have potent antiviral activity in vivo. VACV expressing murine IFN-lambda2 (vIFN-lambda2) and IFN-lambda3 (vIFN-lambda3) showed normal growth in tissue culture and expressed N-glycosylated IFN-lambda in infected cell extracts and culture supernatants. The role that murine IFN-lambdas play during virus infection was assessed in two different mouse models. vIFN-lambda2 and vIFN-lambda3 were avirulent for mice infected intranasally and induced no signs of illness or weight loss, in contrast to control viruses. Attenuation of vIFN-lambda2 was associated with increases in lymphocytes in bronchial alveolar lavages and CD4+ T cells in total-lung lymphocyte preparations. In addition, vIFN-lambda2 was cleared more rapidly from infected lungs and, in contrast to control viruses, did not disseminate to the brain. Expression of IFN-lambda2 also attenuated VACV in an intradermal-infection model, characterized by a delay in lesion onset and reduced lesion size. Thus, by characterizing murine IFN-lambdas within a mouse infection model, the potent antiviral and immunostimulatory activity of IFN-lambdas in response to poxvirus infection has been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan W Bartlett
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Karen Buttigieg
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Sergei V Kotenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, USA
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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152
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Delgado R, Regueiro BJ. El futuro en la infección por VIH: terapia génica y ARN de interferencia. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0213-005x(05)75162-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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153
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Delgado R, Regueiro BJ. The future of HIV infection: gene therapy and RNA interference. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0213-005x(05)75163-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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154
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Thomma BPHJ, VAN Esse HP, Crous PW, DE Wit PJGM. Cladosporium fulvum (syn. Passalora fulva), a highly specialized plant pathogen as a model for functional studies on plant pathogenic Mycosphaerellaceae. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2005; 6:379-93. [PMID: 20565665 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2005.00292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED SUMMARY Taxonomy: Cladosporium fulvum is an asexual fungus for which no sexual stage is currently known. Molecular data, however, support C. fulvum as a member of the Mycosphaerellaceae, clustering with other taxa having Mycosphaerella teleomorphs. C. fulvum has recently been placed in the anamorph genus Passalora as P. fulva. Its taxonomic disposition is supported by its DNA phylogeny, as well as the distinct scars on its conidial hila, which are typical of Passalora, and unlike Cladosporium s.s., which has teleomorphs that reside in Davidiella, and not Mycosphaerella. Host range and disease symptoms: The presently known sole host of C. fulvum is tomato (members of the genusLycopersicon). C. fulvum is mainly a foliar pathogen. Disease symptoms are most obvious on the abaxial side of the leaf and include patches of white mould that turn brown upon sporulation. Due to stomatal clogging, curling of leaves and wilting can occur, leading to defoliation. C. fulvum as a model pathogen: The interaction between C. fulvum and tomato is governed by a gene-for-gene relationship. A total of eight Avr and Ecp genes, and for four of these also the corresponding plant Cf genes, have been cloned. Obtaining conclusive evidence for gene-for-gene relationships is complicated by the poor availability of genetic tools for most Mycosphaerellaceae-plant interactions. Newly developed tools, including Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and RNAi, added to the genome sequence of its host tomato, which will be available within a few years, render C. fulvum attractive as a model species for plant pathogenic Mycosphaerellaceae. USEFUL WEBSITES http://www.sgn.cornell.edu/help/about/index.html; http://cogeme.ex.ac.uk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart P H J Thomma
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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155
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Liu L, Xu Z, Fuhlbrigge RC, Peña-Cruz V, Lieberman J, Kupper TS. Vaccinia virus induces strong immunoregulatory cytokine production in healthy human epidermal keratinocytes: a novel strategy for immune evasion. J Virol 2005; 79:7363-70. [PMID: 15919891 PMCID: PMC1143660 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.12.7363-7370.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Iatrogenic cutaneous infection with vaccinia virus (VV) and naturally occurring systemic infection with variola virus both lead to the characteristic skin "pox" lesions. Despite significant medical experience with both viruses, surprisingly little is understood about the interactions between these poxviruses and healthy resident skin cells. In recent years, it has become clear that skin plays an essential role in modulating both innate and adaptive immune responses, in part by producing and responding to a variety of cytokines and chemokines upon stimulation. Antagonists of many of these compounds are encoded in poxvirus genomes. Infection of skin cells with poxvirus may lead to a unique pattern of cytokine and chemokine production that might alter the cutaneous immune surveillance function. In this study, we infected primary cultures of human skin cells with VV and monitored antigen expression, virus replication, and cytokine production from the infected cells. While T cells, Langerhans cells, and dermal dendritic cells were infected abortively, keratinocytes, dermal fibroblasts, and dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVEC-d) all supported the complete virus life cycle. In contrast to the robust viral replication in fibroblasts and HMVEC-d, only limited viral replication was observed in keratinocytes. Importantly, VV infection of keratinocytes led to up-regulation of immunoregulatory and Th2 cytokines, including transforming growth factor beta, interleukin-10 (IL-10), and IL-13. We propose that the rapid induction of keratinocyte Th2 and immunoregulatory cytokines represents a poxvirus strategy to evade immune surveillance, and the limited viral multiplication in keratinocytes may be a protective mechanism to help the immune system "win the race."
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Affiliation(s)
- Luzheng Liu
- Harvard Skin Disease Research Center, Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Suite 672, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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156
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Jackson SS, Ilyinskii P, Philippon V, Gritz L, Yafal AG, Zinnack K, Beaudry KR, Manson KH, Lifton MA, Kuroda MJ, Letvin NL, Mazzara GP, Panicali DL. Role of genes that modulate host immune responses in the immunogenicity and pathogenicity of vaccinia virus. J Virol 2005; 79:6554-9. [PMID: 15858042 PMCID: PMC1091706 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.10.6554-6559.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxvirus vaccine vectors, although capable of eliciting potent immune responses, pose serious health risks in immunosuppressed individuals. We therefore constructed five novel recombinant vaccinia virus vectors which contained overlapping deletions of coding regions for the B5R, B8R, B12R, B13R, B14R, B16R, B18R, and B19R immunomodulatory gene products and assessed them for both immunogenicity and pathogenicity. All five of these novel vectors elicited both cellular and humoral immunity to the inserted HIV-BH10 env comparable to that induced by the parental Wyeth strain vaccinia virus. However, deletion of these immunomodulatory genes did not increase the immunogenicity of these vectors compared with the parental vaccinia virus. Furthermore, four of these vectors were slightly less virulent and one was slightly more virulent than the Wyeth strain virus in neonatal mice. Attenuated poxviruses have potential use as safer alternatives to current replication-competent vaccinia virus. Improved vaccinia virus vectors can be generated by deleting additional genes to achieve a more significant viral attenuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn S Jackson
- Division of Viral Pathogenesis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Research East -RE 113, 330 Brookline Ave., Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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157
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Schmitz N, Kurrer M, Bachmann MF, Kopf M. Interleukin-1 is responsible for acute lung immunopathology but increases survival of respiratory influenza virus infection. J Virol 2005; 79:6441-8. [PMID: 15858027 PMCID: PMC1091664 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.10.6441-6448.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) and IL-1beta are proinflammatory cytokines, which induce a plethora of genes and activities by binding to the type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1). We have investigated the role of IL-1 during pulmonary antiviral immune responses in IL-1R1(-/-) mice infected with influenza virus. IL-1R1(-/-) mice showed markedly reduced inflammatory pathology in the lung, primarily due to impaired neutrophil recruitment. Activation of CD4(+) T cells in secondary lymphoid organs and subsequent migration to the lung were impaired in the absence of IL-1R1. In contrast, activation of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and killing of virus-infected cells in the lung were intact. Influenza virus-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA antibody responses were intact, while the IgM response was markedly reduced in both serum and mucosal sites in IL-1R1(-/-) mice. We found significantly increased mortality in the absence of IL-1R1; however, lung viral titers were only moderately increased. Our results demonstrate that IL-1alpha/beta mediate acute pulmonary inflammatory pathology while enhancing survival during influenza virus infection. IL-1alpha/beta appear not to influence killing of virus-infected cells but to enhance IgM antibody responses and recruitment of CD4(+) T cells to the site of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Schmitz
- Molecular Biomedicine, ETH Zurich, Wagistrasse 27, 8952 Zurich, Switzerland.
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158
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Law M, Pütz MM, Smith GL. An investigation of the therapeutic value of vaccinia-immune IgG in a mouse pneumonia model. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:991-1000. [PMID: 15784892 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80660-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia-immune globulin (VIG) was used to treat severe complications of smallpox vaccination, but its use was controversial because it resolved disease in only some clinical cases. VIG is a pool of hyperimmune sera collected from individuals with a high neutralizing titre against the intracellular mature form (IMV) of vaccinia virus (VACV), but activity against the extracellular enveloped form (EEV) was often not considered. Here, the efficacy of anti-VACV antibodies (Abs) in protecting mice from intranasal infection with the VACV strain Western Reserve (WR) was evaluated. Mice were immunized passively with hyperimmune rabbit Abs (IgG) generated against inactivated IMV or produced following infection by VACV; subsequently, animals were challenged with VACV WR. The results demonstrated that: (i) good protection requires Abs to EEV in addition to IMV; (ii) Abs were effective when given before or up to 4 days after infection; and (iii) protection of mice from VACV WR correlated with a reduction of virus replication in lungs, but not in brain. In agreement with studies conducted before smallpox was eradicated and recent studies using EEV antigens for immunization, this study reiterates the importance of anti-EEV Abs in protecting against orthopoxvirus infection and illustrates the need to evaluate both anti-IMV and anti-EEV neutralizing Abs in VIG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansun Law
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Mike M Pütz
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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159
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Stack J, Haga IR, Schröder M, Bartlett NW, Maloney G, Reading PC, Fitzgerald KA, Smith GL, Bowie AG. Vaccinia virus protein A46R targets multiple Toll-like-interleukin-1 receptor adaptors and contributes to virulence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 201:1007-18. [PMID: 15767367 PMCID: PMC2213104 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20041442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Viral immune evasion strategies target key aspects of the host antiviral response. Recently, it has been recognized that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have a role in innate defense against viruses. Here, we define the function of the vaccinia virus (VV) protein A46R and show it inhibits intracellular signalling by a range of TLRs. TLR signalling is triggered by homotypic interactions between the Toll-like–interleukin-1 resistance (TIR) domains of the receptors and adaptor molecules. A46R contains a TIR domain and is the only viral TIR domain–containing protein identified to date. We demonstrate that A46R targets the host TIR adaptors myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), MyD88 adaptor-like, TIR domain–containing adaptor inducing IFN-β (TRIF), and the TRIF-related adaptor molecule and thereby interferes with downstream activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor κB. TRIF mediates activation of interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and induction of IFN-β by TLR3 and TLR4 and suppresses VV replication in macrophages. Here, A46R disrupted TRIF-induced IRF3 activation and induction of the TRIF-dependent gene regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted. Furthermore, we show that A46R is functionally distinct from another described VV TLR inhibitor, A52R. Importantly, VV lacking the A46R gene was attenuated in a murine intranasal model, demonstrating the importance of A46R for VV virulence.
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MESH Headings
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Adaptor Proteins, Vesicular Transport/metabolism
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Cell Line
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral/physiology
- Humans
- Interferon Regulatory Factor-3
- Interferon-beta/biosynthesis
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/physiology
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/genetics
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/physiology
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88
- Periplasmic Binding Proteins
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/genetics
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/physiology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/physiology
- Toll-Like Receptor 3
- Toll-Like Receptor 4
- Toll-Like Receptors
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Vaccinia virus/genetics
- Vaccinia virus/metabolism
- Vaccinia virus/pathogenicity
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
- Virus Diseases/genetics
- Virus Diseases/physiopathology
- Virus Replication/genetics
- Virus Replication/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianne Stack
- Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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160
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Shen Y, Nemunaitis J. Fighting Cancer with Vaccinia Virus: Teaching New Tricks to an Old Dog. Mol Ther 2005; 11:180-95. [PMID: 15668130 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2004.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Accepted: 10/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus has played a huge part in human beings' victory over smallpox. With smallpox being eradicated and large-scale vaccination stopped worldwide, vaccinia has assumed a new role in our fight against another serious threat to human health: cancer. Recent advances in molecular biology, virology, immunology, and cancer genetics have led to the design of novel cancer therapeutics based on vaccinia virus backbones. With the ability to infect efficiently a wide range of host cells, a genome that can accommodate large DNA inserts and express multiple genes, high immunogenicity, and cytoplasmic replication without the possibility of chromosomal integration, vaccinia virus has become the platform of many exploratory approaches to treat cancer. Vaccinia virus has been used as (1) a delivery vehicle for anti-cancer transgenes, (2) a vaccine carrier for tumor-associated antigens and immunoregulatory molecules in cancer immunotherapy, and (3) an oncolytic agent that selectively replicates in and lyses cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiao Shen
- Mary Crowley Medical Research Center, 1717 Main Street, 60th Floor, Dallas, TX 75201, USA
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161
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Gillet L, Vanderplasschen A. Viral Subversion of the Immune System. APPLICATIONS OF GENE-BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVING ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 2005. [PMCID: PMC7121541 DOI: 10.1007/1-4020-3312-5_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The continuous interactions between host and viruses during their co-evolution have shaped not only the immune system but also the countermeasures used by viruses. Studies in the last decade have described the diverse arrays of pathways and molecular targets that are used by viruses to elude immune detection or destruction, or both. These include targeting of pathways for major histocompatibility complex class I and class II antigen presentation, natural killer cell recognition, apoptosis, cytokine signalling, and complement activation. This paper provides an overview of the viral immune-evasion mechanisms described to date. It highlights the contribution of this field to our understanding of the immune system, and the importance of understanding this aspect of the biology of viral infection to develop efficacious and safe vaccines.
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162
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Abstract
Soluble cytokine receptors regulate inflammatory and immune events by functioning as agonists or antagonists of cytokine signaling. As such, they act within complex receptor systems that include signaling receptors, nonsignaling decoy receptors, receptor-associated proteins, and soluble receptor antagonists. Soluble cytokine receptors can be generated by several mechanisms, which include proteolytic cleavage of receptor ectodomains, alternative splicing of mRNA transcripts, transcription of distinct genes that encode soluble cytokine-binding proteins, release of full-length receptors within the context of exosome-like vesicles, and cleavage of GPI-anchored receptors. Furthermore, the important role of soluble cytokine receptors in regulating host defense mechanisms is evidenced by viruses that encode soluble homologues of mammalian receptors and thereby evade innate host immune responses via the sequestration of essential cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart J Levine
- Pulmonary-Critical Care Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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163
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Abstract
Granzymes (gzm) are major components of the granules of cytolytic lymphocytes, natural killer and cytotoxic T cells. Their generally accepted mode of action consists of their directed secretion towards a virus-infected or neoplastic target cell and perforin-dependent delivery to the target cell cytosol, where they engage in various actions resulting in target cell apoptosis. Here, based on observations of infection of gzmAxB(-/-) mice with ectromelia virus, mousepox, we propose an additional--and distinct--function for gzmA and B. In this model, gzm constitute one of the first lines of defence of immune cells against virus infection of immune cells themselves. Accordingly, endogenous gzm interfere with viral replication in cytolytic lymphocytes either directly, as a result of their proteolytic activity, leading to destruction of viral proteins, or indirectly, via: (i) processes akin to the caspase cascade when acting as effector molecules in the induction of target cell apoptosis; or (ii) their capacity to induce early inflammatory mediators. We discuss the predictions of the model in the light of available data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Regner
- Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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164
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Johnston JB, McFadden G. Technical knockout: understanding poxvirus pathogenesis by selectively deleting viral immunomodulatory genes. Cell Microbiol 2004; 6:695-705. [PMID: 15236637 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2004.00423.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The study of viral pathogens with genomes as large and complex as poxviruses represents a constant experimental challenge. Advances in recombinant DNA technologies have provided sophisticated methods to produce mutants defective in one or more viral genes, termed knockout (KO) viruses, thereby facilitating research into the impact of specific gene products on viral pathogenesis. Such strategies have rapidly advanced the systematic mining of many poxvirus genomes and enabled researchers to identify and characterize poxvirus genes whose functions represent the culmination of host and pathogen coevolution. Of particular interest are the multiple classes of virus-encoded immunomodulatory proteins that have evolved specifically to allow poxviruses to evade, obstruct or subvert critical elements within the host innate and acquired immune responses. Functional characterization of these viral genes by generating KO viruses and investigating the phenotypic changes that result is an important tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying poxvirus replication and pathogenesis. Moreover, the insights gained have led to new developments in basic and clinical virology, provided a basis for the design of new vaccines and antivirals, and increased the potential application of poxviruses as investigative tools and sources of biotherapeutics for the treatment of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Johnston
- Biotherapeutics Research Group, Robarts Research Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
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165
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Liu G, Zhai Q, Schaffner DJ, Wu A, Yohannes A, Robinson TM, Maland M, Wells J, Voss TG, Bailey C, Alibek K. Prevention of lethal respiratory vaccinia infections in mice with interferon-alpha and interferon-gamma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 40:201-6. [PMID: 15039095 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-8244(03)00358-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2003] [Revised: 11/10/2003] [Accepted: 11/11/2003] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The antiviral efficacy of interferons (IFNs) was evaluated using a vaccinia intranasal infection model in mice in this study. We provide evidence that intranasal administration of IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma (days -1 to +3) resulted in 100 and 90% survival against a lethal respiratory vaccinia infection (8 LD50) in mice, respectively; whereas no animals in the placebo group survived through the study period (21 days). The IFN treatment consisted of a single daily dose of 5x10(3) U per mouse for 5 consecutive days. The efficacy of IFN-gamma was evident even when the IFN-gamma treatments started 1-2 days after infection and when a lower dose (2x10(3) U per mouse) was used. The treatment of IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma reduced the virus titers in the lungs of infected mice by 1000-10,000-fold, when the administration started 1 day after infection. Our data suggest that IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma are effective in protecting vaccinia-infected mice from viral replication in lungs and mortality, and may be beneficial in other human orthopoxvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Liu
- Advanced Biosystems, Inc, 10900 University Blvd MSN 1A8, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
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166
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Bartlett NW, Dumoutier L, Renauld JC, Kotenko SV, McVey CE, Lee HJ, Smith GL. A new member of the interleukin 10-related cytokine family encoded by a poxvirus. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:1401-1412. [PMID: 15166422 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.79980-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses express numerous proteins involved in manipulating the host immune response. Analysis of the primary sequence and predicted structure of the 134R protein of Yaba-like disease virus (Y134R) indicated that it is similar to cellular proteins of the IL-10 family, specifically IL-19, IL-20 and IL-24. A flag-tagged Y134R was expressed from mammalian cells and identified as a secreted, monomeric glycoprotein that stimulated signal transduction from class II cytokine receptors IL-20Ralpha/IL-20Rbeta (IL-20R type1) and IL-22R/IL-20Rbeta (IL-20R type 2). Y134R induced phosphorylation of signal transducers and activators of transcription, their translocation to the nucleus and the induction of reporter gene expression. In contrast, Y134R was unable to induce similar responses from either the IL-22 or IFN-lambda (IL-28A, IL-28B, IL-29) class II cytokine receptors. To examine the role Y134R plays during a poxvirus infection, a vaccinia virus recombinant expressing Y134R was constructed and tested in a murine intranasal infection model. Compared with control viruses, the virus expressing Y134R had a reduced virulence, manifested by reduced weight loss, signs of illness and virus titres in infected organs. These results demonstrate that Y134R is a new viral member of the IL-10-related cytokine family and that its activity in vivo affects virus virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan W Bartlett
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Laure Dumoutier
- LICR, Experimental Medicine Unit, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Sergei V Kotenko
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, USA
| | - Colin E McVey
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Han-Joo Lee
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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167
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Nathaniel R, MacNeill AL, Wang YX, Turner PC, Moyer RW. Cowpox virus CrmA, Myxoma virus SERP2 and baculovirus P35 are not functionally interchangeable caspase inhibitors in poxvirus infections. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:1267-1278. [PMID: 15105544 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.79905-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPV) expresses the serpin (serine proteinase inhibitor) CrmA, an anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic protein required for production of red pocks on chicken chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs). In vitro, CrmA inhibits several caspases and granzyme B. Altering the critical P1-aspartate in the CrmA reactive centre loop to alanine resulted in a virus (CPV-CrmA-D303A) that resembled CPV deleted for CrmA (CPVDeltaCrmA : : lacZ); on CAMs it produced white, inflammatory pocks with activated caspase-3 and reduced virus yields, suggesting that CrmA activities are mediated via proteinase inhibition. CrmA in CPV was replaced with SERP2 from Myxoma virus (MYX) or baculovirus P35, which inhibit similar proteinases in vitro. SERP2 and P35 each blocked caspase-3-mediated apoptosis but were unable to control inflammation of CAMs. However, SERP2 and P35 restored virus yields, indicating that the decreased virus titres seen with CPVDeltaCrmA : : lacZ resulted from apoptosis rather than inflammation. To compare the activities of CrmA and SERP2 further, rabbits were infected with MYX recombinant viruses. Intradermal infection of rabbits with MYX was uniformly lethal, generating raised primary lesions and many secondary lesions. In contrast, deletion of SERP2 from MYX (MYXDeltaSERP2 : : lacZ) caused little mortality and produced flat primary lesions with few secondary lesions. Replacement of SERP2 with CrmA (MYXDeltaSERP2 : : CrmA) resulted in partial complementation with flat primary lesions, many secondary lesions and death in 70 % of the rabbits. Therefore, CrmA and SERP2 were not functionally interchangeable during infection of CAMs or rabbits, implying that these serpins have activities that are not evident from biochemical studies with human caspases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajkumar Nathaniel
- Section of Digestive Disease and Nutrition, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Amy L MacNeill
- University of Florida, College of Medicine, Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, PO Box 100266, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0266, USA
| | - Yun-Xiang Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Peter C Turner
- University of Florida, College of Medicine, Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, PO Box 100266, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0266, USA
| | - Richard W Moyer
- University of Florida, College of Medicine, Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, PO Box 100266, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0266, USA
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168
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Atrasheuskaya AV, Bukin EK, Fredeking TM, Ignatyev GM. Protective effect of exogenous recombinant mouse interferon-gamma and tumour necrosis factor-alpha on ectromelia virus infection in susceptible BALB/c mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 136:207-14. [PMID: 15086382 PMCID: PMC1809029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02460.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The resistance to mousepox is correlated with the production of type I cytokines: interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-gamma and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. We intend to describe the modulation of generalized ectromelia virus (EV) infection with exogenous administration of mrIFN-gamma and mrTNF-alpha separately and in combination using susceptible BALB/c mice. The treatment schemes presented resulted in the localization of the generalized EV infection and its development into non-fatal sloughing of the infected limb. This was accompanied by low virus titres in the treated mice due to control of systemic virus replication and virus clearance. The balance of type I versus type II cytokines was dominated by a type I response in the treated groups. The group treated with the combination of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha exhibited the best survival with Th1-dominant (IFN-gamma and IL-12) cytokine profiles, whereas the TNF-alpha-treated group of mice was less successful in clearance of virus and demonstrated the lowest survival rate. The successful cytokine treatment schemes in this orthopoxvirus model system may have important implications in the treatment of viral diseases in humans and, in particular, of variola virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Atrasheuskaya
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology Vector, Koltsovo, Russia.
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169
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Chen N, Danila MI, Feng Z, Buller RML, Wang C, Han X, Lefkowitz EJ, Upton C. The genomic sequence of ectromelia virus, the causative agent of mousepox. Virology 2004; 317:165-86. [PMID: 14675635 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00520-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Ectromelia virus is the causative agent of mousepox, an acute exanthematous disease of mouse colonies in Europe, Japan, China, and the U.S. The Moscow, Hampstead, and NIH79 strains are the most thoroughly studied with the Moscow strain being the most infectious and virulent for the mouse. In the late 1940s mousepox was proposed as a model for the study of the pathogenesis of smallpox and generalized vaccinia in humans. Studies in the last five decades from a succession of investigators have resulted in a detailed description of the virologic and pathologic disease course in genetically susceptible and resistant inbred and out-bred mice. We report the DNA sequence of the left-hand end, the predicted right-hand terminal repeat, and central regions of the genome of the Moscow strain of ectromelia virus (approximately 177,500 bp), which together with the previously sequenced right-hand end, yields a genome of 209,771 bp. We identified 175 potential genes specifying proteins of between 53 and 1924 amino acids, and 29 regions containing sequences related to genes predicted in other poxviruses, but unlikely to encode for functional proteins in ectromelia virus. The translated protein sequences were compared with the protein database for structure/function relationships, and these analyses were used to investigate poxvirus evolution and to attempt to explain at the cellular and molecular level the well-characterized features of the ectromelia virus natural life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanhai Chen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, 1402 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63104, USA
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170
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Laidlaw SM, Skinner MA. Comparison of the genome sequence of FP9, an attenuated, tissue culture-adapted European strain of Fowlpox virus, with those of virulent American and European viruses. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:305-322. [PMID: 14769888 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19568-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The 266 kbp genome sequence of plaque-purified, tissue culture-adapted, attenuated EuropeanFowlpox virusFP9 has been determined and compared with the 288 kbp sequence of a pathogenic US strain (FPVUS). FP9 carries 244 of the 260 reported FPVUS ORFs (both viruses also have an unreported orthologue of conserved poxvirus gene A14.5L). Relative to FPVUS, FP9 differed by 118 mutations (26 deletions, 15 insertions and 77 base substitutions), affecting FP9 equivalents of 71 FPVUS ORFs. To help to identify mutations involved in adaptation and attenuation, the virulent parent of FP9, HP1, was sequenced at positions where FP9 differed from FPVUS. At 68 positions, FP9 and HP1 sequences were identical, reflecting differences between American and European lineages. Mutations at the remaining 50 positions in FP9 relative to FPVUS and HP1, involving 46 ORFs, therefore accounted for adaptation and attenuation. ORFs deleted during passage included those encoding members of multigene families: 12 ankyrin repeat proteins, three C-type lectin-like proteins, two C4L/C10L-like proteins, one G-protein coupled receptor protein, one V-type Ig domain protein, two N1R/p28 proteins and one EFc family protein. Tandem ORFs encodingVariola virusB22R orthologues were fused by a 5·8 kbp deletion. Single-copy genes disrupted or deleted during passage included those encoding a homologue of murine T10, a conserved DNA/pantothenate metabolism flavoprotein, photolyase, the A-type inclusion protein and an orthologue of vaccinia A47L. Gene assignments have been updated for DNase II/DLAD, binding proteins for IL-18 and interferon-γ, phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX/GPX-4) and for a highly conserved homologue of ELOVL4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Laidlaw
- Institute for Animal Health, Division of Molecular Biology, Compton, Newbury, Berks RG20 7NN, UK
| | - Michael A Skinner
- Institute for Animal Health, Division of Molecular Biology, Compton, Newbury, Berks RG20 7NN, UK
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171
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Najarro P, Lee HJ, Fox J, Pease J, Smith GL. Yaba-like disease virus protein 7L is a cell-surface receptor for chemokine CCL1. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:3325-3336. [PMID: 14645913 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19591-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Yaba-like disease virus (YLDV) genes7Land145Rare located on opposite ends of the genome and are predicted to encode 7-transmembrane proteins (7-TM) that share 53 and 44 % amino acid identity, respectively, to human CC chemokine receptor 8 (hCCR8). In this report, we demonstrate that early after infection with YLDV, cells acquire the ability to bind human CCL1. By expression of genes7Land145Rin vaccinia virus, we demonstrated that each protein is glycosylated and is exposed on the cell surface with the N terminus outside the cell. Protein 7L, but not 145R, is able to bind hCCL1 (Kd=0·6±0·13 nM) and couple to heterotrimeric G-proteins and to activate the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2). 7L binds several chemokines including the viral chemokines vMIPI and vMIPII and hCCL7/MCP3. This binding seems species-specific as 7L does not bind the murine orthologues of CCL1 and CCL7 in the assays used. This represents the first example of a poxviral 7-TM chemokine receptor that has functional interactions with a human chemokine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Najarro
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Han-Joo Lee
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - James Fox
- Department of Leukocyte Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, Exhibition Road, London SW1 2AZ, UK
| | - James Pease
- Department of Leukocyte Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, Exhibition Road, London SW1 2AZ, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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172
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Reading PC, Smith GL. Vaccinia virus interleukin-18-binding protein promotes virulence by reducing gamma interferon production and natural killer and T-cell activity. J Virol 2003; 77:9960-8. [PMID: 12941906 PMCID: PMC224600 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.18.9960-9968.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a proinflammatory cytokine that promotes natural killer (NK) and T-cell activation. Several poxviruses, including vaccinia virus (VV), encode a soluble IL-18-binding protein (IL-18bp). The role of the VV IL-18bp (gene C12L) in vivo was studied with wild-type (vC12L), deletion mutant (vDeltaC12L), and revertant (vC12L-rev) viruses in a murine intranasal model of infection. The data show that vDeltaC12L was markedly attenuated, characterized by a mild weight loss and reduced virus titers in lungs, brain, and spleen. Three days after infection, NK cytotoxic activity was augmented in the lung, spleen, and mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs) of vDeltaC12L-infected mice compared to controls. Seven days after infection, vDeltaC12L-infected mice displayed heightened VV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses in the lungs, spleen, and MLNs. Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) levels were also dramatically elevated in lavage fluids and cells from lungs of mice infected with vDeltaC12L. Finally, we demonstrate that IL-18 is produced in vitro and in vivo after VV infection. Taken together, these data demonstrate a role for the vIL-18bp in counteracting IL-18 in both the innate and the specific immune response to VV infection and indicate that the ability of IL-18 to promote vigorous T-cell responses (cytotoxic activity and IFN-gamma production) is a critical factor in the accelerated clearance of the vDeltaC12L mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Reading
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
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173
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Ribas G, Rivera J, Saraiva M, Campbell RD, Alcami A. Genetic variability of immunomodulatory genes in ectromelia virus isolates detected by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography. J Virol 2003; 77:10139-46. [PMID: 12941926 PMCID: PMC224613 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.18.10139-10146.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic variability of nine genes in 12 isolates and strains of ectromelia virus, which causes a smallpox-like disease (mousepox) in mice, was determined and allows for classification of ectromelia viruses. The low genetic variability suggests that evolutionary pressure maintains the activity of immunomodulatory genes in natural poxvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Ribas
- MRC UK HGMP Resource Centre, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SB, UK
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174
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Abstract
Variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, encodes approximately 200 proteins. Over 80 of these proteins are located in the terminal regions of the genome, where proteins associated with host immune evasion are encoded. To date, only two variola proteins have been characterized. Both are located in the terminal regions and demonstrate immunoregulatory functions. One protein, the smallpox inhibitor of complement enzymes (SPICE), is homologous to a vaccinia virus virulence factor, the vaccinia virus complement-control protein (VCP), which has been found experimentally to be expressed early in the course of vaccinia infection. Both SPICE and VCP are similar in structure and function to the family of mammalian complement regulatory proteins, which function to prevent inadvertent injury to adjacent cells and tissues during complement activation. The second variola protein is the variola virus high-affinity secreted chemokine-binding protein type II (CKBP-II, CBP-II, vCCI), which binds CC-chemokine receptors. The vaccinia homologue of CKBP-II is secreted both early and late in infection. CKBP-II proteins are highly conserved among orthopoxviruses, sharing approximately 85% homology, but are absent in eukaryotes. This characteristic sets it apart from other known virulence factors in orthopoxviruses, which share sequence homology with known mammalian immune regulatory gene products. Future studies of additional variola proteins may help illuminate factors associated with its virulence, pathogenesis and strict human tropism. In addition, these studies may also assist in the development of targeted therapies for the treatment of both smallpox and human immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lance R Dunlop
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 220 John Morgan Building, 3620 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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175
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Seet BT, Johnston JB, Brunetti CR, Barrett JW, Everett H, Cameron C, Sypula J, Nazarian SH, Lucas A, McFadden G. Poxviruses and immune evasion. Annu Rev Immunol 2003; 21:377-423. [PMID: 12543935 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 475] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Large DNA viruses defend against hostile assault executed by the host immune system by producing an array of gene products that systematically sabotage key components of the inflammatory response. Poxviruses target many of the primary mediators of innate immunity including interferons, tumor necrosis factors, interleukins, complement, and chemokines. Poxviruses also manipulate a variety of intracellular signal transduction pathways such as the apoptotic response. Many of the poxvirus genes that disrupt these pathways have been hijacked directly from the host immune system, while others have demonstrated no clear resemblance to any known host genes. Nonetheless, the immunological targets and the diversity of strategies used by poxviruses to disrupt these host pathways have provided important insights into diverse aspects of immunology, virology, and inflammation. Furthermore, because of their anti-inflammatory nature, many of these poxvirus proteins hold promise as potential therapeutic agents for acute or chronic inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce T Seet
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
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176
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Reading PC, Smith GL. A kinetic analysis of immune mediators in the lungs of mice infected with vaccinia virus and comparison with intradermal infection. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1973-1983. [PMID: 12867627 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19285-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The early inflammatory response to a virus may be critical in restricting infection and in shaping the subsequent adaptive immune response. In this study we have examined the early inflammatory response of mice following infection with vaccinia virus (VV) strain Western Reserve (WR). Respiratory challenge of BALB/c mice with VV led to early virus replication in the lung and upper respiratory tract followed by dissemination of virus to other visceral organs and to the brain. The number of inflammatory cells, largely macrophages and T lymphocytes, recovered from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid increased markedly during infection and coincided with the expression of CC chemokine ligands (CCL) 3, 2 and 11 and CXC chemokine ligands (CXCL) 1 and 2/3 in BAL. The peak of the inflammatory response occurred around day 10 and declined thereafter. The antiviral cytokines IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha, and the reactive nitrogen intermediate nitric oxide (NO), were also detected in BAL from VV-infected mice. A markedly different inflammatory response was observed after intradermal inoculation of WR into the ear pinnae of mice. Intradermal challenge was followed by highly localized virus replication and by a cellular influx, consisting largely of neutrophils and T lymphocytes, into the dermal compartment of the infected ear. Together these findings highlight differences in the pathogenesis and in the cellular inflammatory response to WR following intranasal and intradermal inoculation of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Reading
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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177
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Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) constitute a specialised system of antigen-presenting cells with a high capacity to induce and to modulate the immune response against microbial, tumour and self-antigens. New techniques to generate large amounts of DCs together with the molecular identification of human tumour-associated antigens (TAA) have opened new ways for antigen-specific cancer immunotherapies. DCs loaded either with TAA-derived MHC class I-specific synthetic peptides or with whole tumour cell preparations have been used in numerous clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of DCs in patients with cancer. However, the disadvantages of DCs pulsed with synthetic peptides from TAA include the uncertainty regarding the longevity of antigen presentation, the restriction by the patient's haplotype and the relatively low number of known MHC class I and in particular of MHC class II helper cell-related epitopes. Whole tumour cell preparations are difficult to standardise, and they depend on the availability of tumour cells. Thus the utilisation of viral vectors genetically modified to express TAA for the ex vivo transduction of DCs is an attractive alternative to achieve a MHC I- and MHC II-restricted presentation of tumoural antigens. To induce protective anti-tumoural immune response an increasing number of modified viral vectors have been used to transduce DCs. Although high transduction efficacies were reported for several viruses, analysis of the interaction of viral vectors with DCs has revealed several viral mechanisms that interfere with main functions of DCs, dampening somewhat the initial optimism in the field of DC transduction. However, promising results with different vectors have been achieved. In this review we summarise available data and discuss advantages and drawbacks of currently available vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Humrich
- Department of Dermatology, University of Erlangen, Hartmannstrasse 14, 91052 Erlangen, Germany
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178
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Reading PC, Moore JB, Smith GL. Steroid hormone synthesis by vaccinia virus suppresses the inflammatory response to infection. J Exp Med 2003; 197:1269-78. [PMID: 12756265 PMCID: PMC2193778 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20022201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD) isoenzymes play a key role in cellular steroid hormone synthesis. Vaccinia virus (VV) also synthesizes steroid hormones with a 3beta-HSD enzyme (v3beta-HSD) encoded by gene A44L. Here we examined the effects of v3beta-HSD in VV disease using wild-type (vA44L), deletion (vDeltaA44L), and revertant (vA44L-rev) viruses in a murine intranasal model. Loss of A44L was associated with an attenuated phenotype. Early (days 1-3) after infection with vDeltaA44L or control viruses the only difference observed between groups was the reduced corticosterone level in lungs and plasma of vDeltaA44L-infected animals. Other parameters examined (body weight, signs of illness, temperature, virus titres, the pulmonary inflammatory infiltrate, and interferon [IFN]-gamma levels) were indistinguishable between groups. Subsequently, vDeltaA44L-infected animals had reduced weight loss and signs of illness, and displayed a vigorous pulmonary inflammatory response. This was characterized by rapid recruitment of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, enhanced IFN-gamma production and augmented cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. These data suggest that steroid production by v3beta-HSD contributes to virus virulence by inhibiting an effective inflammatory response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Reading
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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179
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The role of nitric oxide (NO) in the host defense against viruses has not been well defined. Several studies have implicated NO as responsible for the destruction of a variety of viruses. However, others have reported that certain viruses can impair the ability of macrophages to produce NO. This study was initiated to determine the ability of macrophages to produce NO in response to vaccinia virus infection. METHODS RAW 264.7 murine macrophages in minimum essential medium were exposed to virus-containing supernatants for 1 h before stimulation with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.001 and 1.0 microg/ml). After further 24-h incubations, nitrite concentration, cell viability, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were quantitated. RESULTS The viral preparation alone did not stimulate nitric oxide synthesis (measured as nitrite) by macrophages. However, macrophages exposed to 0.001 and 1.0 microg/ml LPS produced 7.7 +/- 0.6 and 16.6 +/- 0.8 nmole/1.1 x 10(6) cells/24-h nitrite, respectively. Production of nitrite caused cell death. Macrophages incubated with vaccinia virus prior to exposure to LPS resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in nitrite production. An 80% inhibition of nitrite was noted when macrophages were exposed to vaccinia virus (m.o.i. 10(-4)) plus LPS (1.0 microg/ml) (P < 0.05). Further study showed that this inhibition was not associated with changes in cell viability or substrate availability, but was associated with a marked reduction in iNOS protein. When the virus was inactivated with UV-irradiation, the same incubation caused a 46% inhibition of nitrite production (P < 0.05 vs active virus). However, this effect occurred without altering the quantity of iNOS protein. CONCLUSION These results indicate that active vaccinia virus inhibits the ability of stimulated macrophages to produce NO by hindering iNOS protein expression. Because live viral particles were not entirely required for this inhibition, it is possible that by products of viral infection, such as soluble viral proteins, may also be responsible for this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles F Bellows
- Department of Surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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180
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Puehler F, Schwarz H, Waidner B, Kalinowski J, Kaspers B, Bereswill S, Staeheli P. An interferon-gamma-binding protein of novel structure encoded by the fowlpox virus. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:6905-11. [PMID: 12486029 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m207336200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses have evolved various strategies to counteract the host immune response, one of which is based on the expression of soluble cytokine receptors. Using various biological assays, we detected a chicken interferon-gamma (chIFN-gamma)-neutralizing activity in supernatants of fowlpox virus (FPV)-infected cells that could be destroyed by trypsin treatment. Secreted viral proteins were purified by affinity chromatography using matrix-immobilized chIFN-gamma, followed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis indicated that the viral IFN-gamma-binding protein in question was encoded by the FPV gene 016. The chicken IFN-gamma binding and neutralizing activity of the recombinant FPV016 protein was confirmed using supernatants of cells infected with a recombinant vaccinia virus that lacked its own IFN-gamma-binding protein but instead expressed the FPV016 gene. The FPV016 gene product also neutralized the activity of duck and human IFN-gamma but failed to neutralize the activity of mouse and rat IFN-gamma. Unlike previously known cellular and poxviral IFN-gamma receptors, which all contain fibronectin type III domains, the IFN-gamma-binding protein of FPV contains an immunoglobulin domain. Remarkably, it exhibits no significant homology to any known viral or cellular protein. Because IFN-gamma receptors of birds have not yet been characterized at the molecular level, the possibility remains that FPV016 represents a hijacked chicken gene and that avian and mammalian IFN-gamma receptors have fundamentally different primary structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Puehler
- Department of Virology, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
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181
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Dunne A, O'Neill LAJ. The Interleukin-1 Receptor/Toll-Like Receptor Superfamily: Signal Transduction During Inflammation and Host Defense. Sci Signal 2003. [DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.1712003re3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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182
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Dunne A, O'Neill LAJ. The interleukin-1 receptor/Toll-like receptor superfamily: signal transduction during inflammation and host defense. SCIENCE'S STKE : SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION KNOWLEDGE ENVIRONMENT 2003; 2003:re3. [PMID: 12606705 DOI: 10.1126/stke.2003.171.re3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The signal transduction pathways activated by the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-1) have been the focus of much attention because of the important role that IL-1 plays in inflammatory diseases. A number of proteins have been described that participate in the post-receptor activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB), and stress-activated protein kinases such as p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). It has also emerged that the type I IL-1 receptor (IL-1RI) is a member of an expanding receptor superfamily. These related receptors all have sequence similarity in their cytosolic regions. The family includes the Drosophila melanogaster protein Toll, the IL-18 receptor (IL-18R), and 10 Toll-like receptors (TLRs), TLR-1 to TLR-10, which bind to microbial products, activating host defense responses. Because of the similarity of IL-1RI to Toll, the conserved sequence in the cytosolic region of these proteins has been termed the Toll-IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain. The same proteins activated during signaling by IL-1RI also participate in signaling by other receptors with TIR domains. The receptor superfamily is evolutionarily conserved; members also occur in plants and insects, where they also function in host defense. The signaling proteins that are activated are also conserved across species. Differences are, however, starting to emerge in signaling pathways activated by different receptors. This receptor superfamily, therefore, represents an ancient signaling system that is a critical determinant of the innate immune and inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisling Dunne
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology Institute, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
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183
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Harte MT, Haga IR, Maloney G, Gray P, Reading PC, Bartlett NW, Smith GL, Bowie A, O'Neill LAJ. The poxvirus protein A52R targets Toll-like receptor signaling complexes to suppress host defense. J Exp Med 2003; 197:343-51. [PMID: 12566418 PMCID: PMC2193841 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20021652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are crucial in the innate immune response to pathogens, in that they recognize and respond to pathogen associated molecular patterns, which leads to activation of intracellular signaling pathways and altered gene expression. Vaccinia virus (VV), the poxvirus used to vaccinate against smallpox, encodes proteins that antagonize important components of host antiviral defense. Here we show that the VV protein A52R blocks the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) by multiple TLRs, including TLR3, a recently identified receptor for viral RNA. A52R associates with both interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase 2 (IRAK2) and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), two key proteins important in TLR signal transduction. Further, A52R could disrupt signaling complexes containing these proteins. A virus deletion mutant lacking the A52R gene was attenuated compared with wild-type and revertant controls in a murine intranasal model of infection. This study reveals a novel mechanism used by VV to suppress the host immunity. We demonstrate viral disabling of TLRs, providing further evidence for an important role for this family of receptors in the antiviral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary T Harte
- The Cytokine Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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184
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Abstract
Viruses have evolved elegant mechanisms to evade detection and destruction by the host immune system. One of the evasion strategies that have been adopted by large DNA viruses is to encode homologues of cytokines, chemokines and their receptors--molecules that have a crucial role in control of the immune response. Viruses have captured host genes or evolved genes to target specific immune pathways, and so viral genomes can be regarded as repositories of important information about immune processes, offering us a viral view of the host immune system. The study of viral immunomodulatory proteins might help us to uncover new human genes that control immunity, and their characterization will increase our understanding of not only viral pathogenesis, but also normal immune mechanisms. Moreover, viral proteins indicate strategies of immune modulation that might have therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Alcami
- Department of Medicine and Division of Virology, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Level 5, Box 157, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK.
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185
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Abstract
Poxviruses express several different classes of immune modulators that suppress the host response to infection, including soluble cytokine binding proteins, serpins, chemokine binding proteins, a complement control protein, and members of the semaphorin and Toll/IL-1 receptor families. Biochemical activity of these proteins has been demonstrated by many in vitro studies. Conservation in evolution of poxvirus immune modulators implies that these genes are functional in vivo, but the results of infecting animals with knockout viruses have not always been clear cut. Studies involving different animal models are reviewed, and the criteria for suitable models are discussed. Challenges include finding an appropriate animal host, and using an inoculation route that resembles the process of natural infection. The fact that multiple immune modulators can target the same pathway at different steps may explain why single knockout mutants are not always attenuated in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Turner
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0266, USA.
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186
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Symons JA, Adams E, Tscharke DC, Reading PC, Waldmann H, Smith GL. The vaccinia virus C12L protein inhibits mouse IL-18 and promotes virus virulence in the murine intranasal model. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:2833-2844. [PMID: 12388820 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-11-2833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A bioassay that measured the interleukin (IL)-12-induced production of interferon (IFN)-gamma from mouse splenocytes was used to identify a soluble factor in the supernatants of vaccinia virus (VV)-infected cells that inhibited the production of IFN-gamma. This soluble factor was expressed by 14 out of 16 VV strains including the Western Reserve (WR) strain, but strains Copenhagen and Tashkent and a mutant of strain WR called 6/2 lacked this activity. The gene encoding this activity was identified as C12L by transferring DNA present in VV WR but missing in VV WR 6/2 into VV Copenhagen and testing for expression of the soluble factor. The C12L protein shows amino acid similarity to IL-18 binding proteins that are encoded by poxviruses, mice and humans, and C12L protein produced from VV or baculovirus inhibited the biological activity of mouse IL-18 in vitro. Thus the inhibition of IL-12-induced IFN-gamma production was due to indirect effects of C12L on IL-18, illustrating the synergistic action of these pro-inflammatory cytokines. To study the role of the C12L protein in the virus life-cycle, we constructed a deletion mutant lacking the C12L gene and a revertant virus in which the gene was reinserted into the deletion mutant. In vitro the replication and plaque size of these viruses were indistinguishable. However, infection of BALB/c mice by the intranasal route showed that the deletion mutant was attenuated and induced lower weight loss and signs of illness compared to controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian A Symons
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Elizabeth Adams
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - David C Tscharke
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Patrick C Reading
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Herman Waldmann
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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187
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Tscharke DC, Reading PC, Smith GL. Dermal infection with vaccinia virus reveals roles for virus proteins not seen using other inoculation routes. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1977-1986. [PMID: 12124461 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-8-1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we developed a model for testing the virulence and immunogenicity of vaccinia virus (VV) mutants based on the intradermal injection of BALB/c mouse ear pinnae. The model is characterized by a local infection in the inoculated skin without signs of systemic illness, mimicking dermal vaccination with VV. Here a further characterization of this model is presented, including the responses of mice to infectious virus doses as low as 10 p.f.u., a quantification of the infiltrate at the site of infection and use of different virus and mouse strains. The model was then used to compare the pathogenesis of six mutants of VV strain Western Reserve (WR) lacking genes A36R, A40R, A44L, B12R, B13R or B15R with that of appropriate control viruses. All of these genes except B12R and B15R influence the outcome of dermal infection with WR and for A40R and B13R this is the first role that has been reported after infection of mammals. A comparison of new and published results from intradermal and intranasal models is presented, showing that out of 16 gene deletion or insertion mutants of VV, half have phenotypes distinct from controls in only one of these models. Thus, the intranasal and intradermal models are complementary tools for dissecting the genetic basis of VV virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Tscharke
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Patrick C Reading
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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188
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Symons JA, Tscharke DC, Price N, Smith GL. A study of the vaccinia virus interferon-gamma receptor and its contribution to virus virulence. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1953-1964. [PMID: 12124459 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-8-1953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VV) strain Western Reserve gene B8R encodes a 43 kDa glycoprotein that is secreted from infected cells early in infection as a homodimer. This protein has amino acid similarity with the extracellular domain of cellular IFN-gamma receptor (IFN-gammaR) and binds and inhibits IFN-gamma from a wide range of species. Here we demonstrate that the B8R protein also inhibits equine IFN-gamma. The 5' end of the B8R mRNA has been mapped by primer extension analysis and the contribution of IFN-gammaRs to VV virulence was studied by the construction of a deletion mutant lacking the B8R gene (vDeltaB8R) and a revertant virus (vB8R-R) in which the B8R gene was re-inserted into the deletion mutant. A recombinant virus that expressed a soluble form of the mouse IFN-gammaR was also constructed and studied. The virulence of these viruses was tested in rodent models of infection. In mice, the loss of the VV IFN-gammaR did not affect virulence compared with WT and revertant viruses, consistent with the low affinity of the VV IFN-gammaR for mouse IFN-gamma. However, expression of the mouse soluble IFN-gammaR increased virus virulence slightly. In rabbit skin, loss of the VV IFN-gammaR produced lesions with histological differences compared with WT and revertant viruses. Lastly, the affinity constants of the VV IFN-gammaR for human and mouse IFN-gamma were determined by surface plasmon resonance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian A Symons
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - David C Tscharke
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Nicola Price
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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189
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Bartlett N, Symons JA, Tscharke DC, Smith GL. The vaccinia virus N1L protein is an intracellular homodimer that promotes virulence. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1965-1976. [PMID: 12124460 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-8-1965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The vaccinia virus (VV) N1L gene encodes a protein of 14 kDa that was identified previously in the concentrated supernatant of virus-infected cells. Here we show that the protein is present predominantly (>90%) within cells rather than in the culture supernatant and it exists as a non-glycosylated, non-covalent homodimer. The N1L protein present in the culture supernatant was uncleaved at the N terminus and was released from cells more slowly than the VV A41L gene product, a secreted glycoprotein that has a conventional signal peptide. Bioinformatic analyses predict that the N1L protein is largely alpha-helical and show that it is conserved in many VV strains, in other orthopoxviruses and in members of other chordopoxvirus genera. However, database searches found no non-poxvirus proteins with significant amino acid similarity to N1L. A deletion mutant lacking the N1L gene replicated normally in cell culture, but was attenuated in intranasal and intradermal murine models compared to wild-type and revertant controls. The conservation of the N1L protein and the attenuated phenotype of the deletion mutant indicate an important role in the virus life-cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Bartlett
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Julian A Symons
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - David C Tscharke
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Virology, The Wright-Fleming Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK2
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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190
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Tato CM, Hunter CA. Host-pathogen interactions: subversion and utilization of the NF-kappa B pathway during infection. Infect Immun 2002; 70:3311-7. [PMID: 12065467 PMCID: PMC128040 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.7.3311-3317.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- C M Tato
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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191
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Panus JF, Smith CA, Ray CA, Smith TD, Patel DD, Pickup DJ. Cowpox virus encodes a fifth member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family: a soluble, secreted CD30 homologue. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:8348-53. [PMID: 12034885 PMCID: PMC123070 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.122238599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (Brighton Red strain) possesses one of the largest genomes in the Orthopoxvirus genus. Sequence analysis of a region of the genome that is type-specific for cowpox virus identified a gene, vCD30, encoding a soluble, secreted protein that is the fifth member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family known to be encoded by cowpox virus. The vCD30 protein contains 110 aa, including a 21-residue signal peptide, a potential O-linked glycosylation site, and a 58-aa sequence sharing 51-59% identity with highly conserved extracellular segments of both mouse and human CD30. A vCD30Fc fusion protein binds CD153 (CD30 ligand) specifically, and it completely inhibits CD153/CD30 interactions. Although the functions of CD30 are not well understood, the existence of vCD30 suggests that the cellular receptor plays a significant role in normal immune responses. Viral inhibition of CD30 also lends support to the potential therapeutic value of targeting CD30 in human inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Fanelli Panus
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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192
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Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Safronov PF, Mikheev MV, Gutorov VV, Ryazankina OI, Petrov NA, Babkin IV, Uvarova EA, Sandakhchiev LS, Sisler JR, Esposito JJ, Damon IK, Jahrling PB, Moss B. Analysis of the monkeypox virus genome. Virology 2002; 297:172-94. [PMID: 12083817 PMCID: PMC9534300 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPV) belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus of the family Poxviridae, is endemic in parts of Africa, and causes a human disease that resembles smallpox. The 196,858-bp MPV genome was analyzed with regard to structural features and open reading frames. Each end of the genome contains an identical but oppositely oriented 6379-bp terminal inverted repetition, which similar to that of other orthopoxviruses, includes a putative telomere resolution sequence and short tandem repeats. Computer-assisted analysis was used to identify 190 open reading frames containing >/=60 amino acid residues. Of these, four were present within the inverted terminal repetition. MPV contained the known essential orthopoxvirus genes but only a subset of the putative immunomodulatory and host range genes. Sequence comparisons confirmed the assignment of MPV as a distinct species of orthopoxvirus that is not a direct ancestor or a direct descendent of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology Vector, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Region, Russia
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193
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Tulman ER, Afonso CL, Lu Z, Zsak L, Sur JH, Sandybaev NT, Kerembekova UZ, Zaitsev VL, Kutish GF, Rock DL. The genomes of sheeppox and goatpox viruses. J Virol 2002; 76:6054-61. [PMID: 12021338 PMCID: PMC136203 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.12.6054-6061.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sheeppox virus (SPPV) and goatpox virus (GTPV), members of the Capripoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae, are etiologic agents of important diseases of sheep and goats in northern and central Africa, southwest and central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Here we report the genomic sequence and comparative analysis of five SPPV and GTPV isolates, including three pathogenic field isolates and two attenuated vaccine viruses. SPPV and GTPV genomes are approximately 150 kbp and are strikingly similar to each other, exhibiting 96% nucleotide identity over their entire length. Wild-type genomes share at least 147 putative genes, including conserved poxvirus replicative and structural genes and genes likely involved in virulence and host range. SPPV and GTPV genomes are very similar to that of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), sharing 97% nucleotide identity. All SPPV and GTPV genes are present in LSDV. Notably in both SPPV and GTPV genomes, nine LSDV genes with likely virulence and host range functions are disrupted, including a gene unique to LSDV (LSDV132) and genes similar to those coding for interleukin-1 receptor, myxoma virus M003.2 and M004.1 genes (two copies each), and vaccinia virus F11L, N2L, and K7L genes. The absence of these genes in SPPV and GTPV suggests a significant role for them in the bovine host range. SPPV and GTPV genomes contain specific nucleotide differences, suggesting they are phylogenetically distinct. Relatively few genomic changes in SPPV and GTPV vaccine viruses account for viral attenuation, because they contain 71 and 7 genomic changes compared to their respective field strains. Notable genetic changes include mutation or disruption of genes with predicted functions involving virulence and host range, including two ankyrin repeat proteins in SPPV and three kelch-like proteins in GTPV. These comparative genomic data indicate the close genetic relationship among capripoxviruses, and they suggest that SPPV and GTPV are distinct and likely derived from an LSDV-like ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Tulman
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Greenport, New York 11944, USA
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194
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Kluczyk A, Siemion IZ, Szewczuk Z, Wieczorek Z. The immunosuppressive activity of peptide fragments of vaccinia virus C10L protein and a hypothesis on the role of this protein in the viral invasion. Peptides 2002; 23:823-34. [PMID: 12084512 DOI: 10.1016/s0196-9781(02)00006-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Our previous studies revealed that the 143-148 fragment of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1 Ra) molecule with a Val-Thr-Lys-Phe-Tyr-Phe (VTKFYF) sequence inhibits the interleukin-1 (IL-1) interaction with its cellular receptor. The Val-Thr-Arg-Phe-Tyr-Phe (VTRFYF) sequence of the 322-327 fragment of the C-terminal domain of vaccinia virus protein related to the C10L vaccinia gene shows a very high homology to the 143-148 IL-1 Ra fragment, suggesting a similar inhibitory activity. To test this suggestion, we investigated the inhibitory activity of a series of synthetic peptides derived from 316 to 327 fragment of C10L on the interaction of IL-1 with its receptor. We also tested the peptides for their influence on the humoral and cellular immune response. The results indicate that biological activities of the C10L fragments are similar to those obtained for respective fragments of IL-1 Ra. The C-terminal domain of C10L protein can be easily folded into spatial structure similar to the crystallographic one of IL-1 Ra. Based on the crystallographic structure of IL-1 Ra, we constructed a 3-D model of the C10L protein. According to the model, the Val(322)-Asn(328) sequence is localized on the surface of the molecule and, therefore, it may be involved in the interactions with receptors. Our results indicate that the C10L viral protein can play an important role in vaccinia virus evasion of the host immune system. It may consist in the blockade of IL-1 receptors by the C10L protein, a homologue of the IL-1 Ra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja Kluczyk
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, 14 F. Joliot-Curie Street, Wroclaw, Poland
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195
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Price N, Tscharke DC, Smith GL. The vaccinia virus B9R protein is a 6 kDa intracellular protein that is non-essential for virus replication and virulence. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:873-878. [PMID: 11907337 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-4-873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VV) strain Western Reserve gene B9R is shown to encode an intracellular 6 kDa protein that is expressed late during the infectious cycle. In vitro transcription and translation produced two polypeptides in the presence of microsomal membranes, but only the larger protein in the absence of membranes. The smaller protein sedimented with microsomes during centrifugation, suggesting it was inserted into the lipid membrane or into the microsomal lumen via the N-terminal hydrophobic signal sequence that was subsequently cleaved proteolytically. A VV mutant lacking B9R was constructed and found to replicate normally in cell culture and two in vivo models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Price
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - David C Tscharke
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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196
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Abstract
The vaccinia virus (VV) interferon (IFN)-gamma receptor (IFN-gammaR) is a 43 kDa soluble glycoprotein that is secreted from infected cells early during infection. Here we demonstrate that the IFN-gammaR from VV, cowpox virus and camelpox virus exists naturally as a homodimer, whereas the cellular IFN-gammaR dimerizes only upon binding the homodimeric IFN-gamma. The existence of the virus protein as a dimer in the absence of ligand may provide an advantage to the virus in efficient binding and inhibition of IFN-gamma in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Alcamí
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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197
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Abstract
The cytokines IL-1 and IL-18 are key molecules in both the innate and the adaptive immune response. Recently, important insights have been gained into the regulation of their functions. Moreover, it has become apparent that they are members of a larger family of related receptors, some of which can also be shown to contribute to host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Sims
- Immunex Corporation, 51 University Street, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
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198
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Smith VP, Alcami A. Inhibition of interferons by ectromelia virus. J Virol 2002; 76:1124-34. [PMID: 11773388 PMCID: PMC135801 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.3.1124-1134.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2001] [Accepted: 10/31/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (EV) is an orthopoxvirus (OPV) that causes mousepox, a severe disease of laboratory mice. Mousepox is a useful model of OPV infection because EV is likely to be a natural mouse pathogen, unlike its close relatives vaccinia virus (VV) and variola virus. Several studies have highlighted the importance of mouse interferons (IFNs) in resistance to and recovery from EV infection, but little is known of the anti-IFN strategies encoded by the virus itself. We have determined that 12 distinct strains and isolates of EV encode soluble, secreted receptors for IFN-gamma (vIFN-gammaR) and IFN-alpha/beta (vIFN-alpha/betaR) that are homologous to those identified in other OPVs. We demonstrate for the first time that the EV vIFN-gammaR has the unique ability to inhibit the biological activity of mouse IFN-gamma. The EV vIFN-alpha/betaR was a potent inhibitor of human and mouse IFN-alpha and human IFN-beta but, surprisingly, was unable to inhibit mouse IFN-beta. The replication of all of the EVs included in our study and of cowpox virus was more resistant than VV to the antiviral effects induced in mouse L-929 cells by IFN-alpha/beta and IFN-gamma. Sequencing studies showed that this EV resistance is likely to be partly mediated by the double-stranded-RNA-binding protein encoded by an intact EV homolog of the VV E3L gene. The absence of a functional K3L gene, which encodes a viral eIF-2alpha homolog, in EV suggests that the virus encodes a novel mechanism to counteract the IFN response. These findings will facilitate future studies of the role of viral anti-IFN strategies in mousepox pathogenesis. Their significance in the light of earlier data on the role of IFNs in mousepox is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent P Smith
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
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199
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Reading PC, Khanna A, Smith GL. Vaccinia virus CrmE encodes a soluble and cell surface tumor necrosis factor receptor that contributes to virus virulence. Virology 2002; 292:285-98. [PMID: 11878931 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.1236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Poxviruses encode soluble cytokine receptors to interfere with host immune functions. Cells infected with vaccinia virus (VV) strains USSR, Lister, and Evans express soluble and cell surface tumor necrosis factor receptors (vTNFRs). We have characterized vTNFR activity in VV USSR and identified an open reading frame that encodes both soluble and cell surface activity, hereafter referred to as VV cytokine response modifier E (VV CrmE). Expression and characterization from recombinant VV and baculovirus showed VV CrmE to be an 18-kDa protein that bound human, mouse, and rat TNF-alpha, but not human LT alpha. VV CrmE inhibited the cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of human, but not mouse or rat, TNF in vitro. Nonetheless, in a murine intranasal model, USSR recombinants lacking CrmE were attenuated, demonstrating a role in vivo. Furthermore, expression of VV or cowpox virus vTNFRs from VV strain WR (which itself does not express a vTNFR) was shown to enhance virulence in the murine model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Reading
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Investigative Science, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, St. Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
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200
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Law M, Hollinshead R, Smith GL. Antibody-sensitive and antibody-resistant cell-to-cell spread by vaccinia virus: role of the A33R protein in antibody-resistant spread. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:209-222. [PMID: 11752718 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-1-209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The roles of vaccinia virus (VV) intracellular mature virus (IMV), intracellular enveloped virus (IEV), cell-associated enveloped virus (CEV) and extracellular enveloped virus (EEV) and their associated proteins in virus spread were investigated. The plaques made by VV mutants lacking individual IEV- or EEV-specific proteins (vDeltaA33R, vDeltaA34R, vDeltaA36R, vDeltaA56R, vDeltaB5R, vDeltaF12L and vDeltaF13L) were compared in the presence of IMV- or EEV-neutralizing antibodies (Ab). Data presented show that for long-range spread, the comet-shaped plaques of VV were caused by the unidirectional spread of EEV probably by convection currents, and for cell-to-cell spread, VV uses a combination of Ab-resistant and Ab-sensitive pathways. Actin tails play a major role in the Ab-resistant pathway, but mutants such as vDeltaA34R and vDeltaA36R that do not make actin tails still spread from cell to cell in the presence of Ab. Most strikingly, the Ab-resistant pathway was abolished when the A33R gene was deleted. This effect was not due to alterations in the efficiency of neutralization of EEV made by this mutant, nor due to a deficiency in IMV wrapping to form IEV, which was indispensable for EEV formation by vDeltaA33R and vDeltaA34R. We suggest a role for A33R in promoting Ab-resistant cell-to-cell spread of virus. The roles of the different virus forms in the VV life-cycle are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansun Law
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Ruth Hollinshead
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK1
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