Tumor angiogenesis: MMP-mediated induction of intravasation- and metastasis-sustaining neovasculature

Exosomes derived from Piwil2‑induced cancer stem cells transform fibroblasts into cancer‑associated fibroblasts

Recently, several studies have demonstrated that cancer cell‑derived exosomes can facilitate tumor development and metastasis formation. However, the detailed function of exosomes released by cancer stem cells (CSCs) requires further investigation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of CSC‑derived exosomes in tumor development. For this purpose, Piwil2‑induced cancer stem cells (Piwil2‑iCSCs) were used as exosome‑generating cells, while fibroblasts (FBs) served as recipient cells. Exosomes were isolated by the ultracentrifugation of Piwil2‑iCSC‑conditioned medium and identified by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis and western blot analysis. To evaluate the effects of the exosomes on cell proliferation, migration and invasion, cell counting assay (CCK‑8), a wound healing assay and a Transwell assay were performed. Protein expression [matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)2, MMP9, α‑smooth muscle actin (α‑SMA) and vimentin and fibroblast‑activating protein (FAP)] was examined in FBs by western blot analysis. It was found that the Piwil2‑iCSC‑derived exosomes (Piwil2‑iCSC‑Exo) were oval or spherical, membrane‑coated vesicles with a uniform size (30‑100 nm in diameter). They are characterized by the surface expression of CD9, CD63, Hsp70 and Piwil2 proteins. Additional results from functional analyses revealed that Piwil2‑iCSC‑Exo enhanced the proliferative, migratory and invasive abilities of FBs, accompanied by the upregulated expression of MMP2 and MMP9. In addition, the increased expression of α‑SMA (P<0.05), vimentin (P<0.01 vs. control group, P<0.05 vs. PBS group) and FAP (P<0.001 vs. control group, P<0.01 vs. PBS group) following exposure to Piwil2‑iCSC‑Exo suggested that the exosomes induced FB transformation into cancer‑associated fibroblasts (CAFs). On the whole, the findings of this study demonstrate that Piwil2‑iCSC‑Exo induce the cancer‑associated phenotype in fibroblasts in vitro, suggesting that CSCs can promote tumor development through the modulation of the tumor microenvironment.

Potential Therapeutic Strategies for Lung and Breast Cancers through Understanding the Anti-Angiogenesis Resistance Mechanisms

Breast and lung cancers are among the top cancer types in terms of incidence and mortality burden worldwide. One of the challenges in the treatment of breast and lung cancers is their resistance to administered drugs, as observed with angiogenesis inhibitors. Based on clinical and pre-clinical findings, these two types of cancers have gained the ability to resist angiogenesis inhibitors through several mechanisms that rely on cellular and extracellular factors. This resistance is mediated through angiogenesis-independent vascularization, and it is related to cancer cells and their microenvironment. The mechanisms that cancer cells utilize include metabolic symbiosis and invasion, and they also take advantage of neighboring cells like macrophages, endothelial cells, myeloid and adipose cells. Overcoming resistance is of great interest, and researchers are investigating possible strategies to enhance sensitivity towards angiogenesis inhibitors. These strategies involved targeting multiple players in angiogenesis, epigenetics, hypoxia, cellular metabolism and the immune system. This review aims to discuss the mechanisms of resistance to angiogenesis inhibitors and to highlight recently developed approaches to overcome this resistance.

Identification of Hub Genes in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Using Bioinformatics Analysis

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the most common chronic diseases in the world with complicated pathogenesis. This study aimed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and molecular pathways in T2DM using bioinformatics analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To explore potential therapeutic targets for T2DM, we analyzed three microarray datasets (GSE50397, GSE38642, and GSE44035) acquired from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. DEGs between T2DM islet and normal islet were picked out by the GEO2R tool and Venn diagram software. Gene Ontology (GO) function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed using the Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) to identify the pathways and functional annotation of DEGs. Then, protein-protein interaction (PPI) of these DEGs was visualized by Cytoscape with Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING).

RESULTS

In total, we identified 36 DEGs in the three datasets, including 32 up-regulated genes and four down-regulated genes. The improved functions and pathways of the DEGs enriched in cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, pathways in cancer, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and Rheumatoid arthritis. Among them, ten hub genes with a high degree of connectivity were selected. Furthermore, via the re-analysis of DAVID, four genes (IL6, MMP3, MMP1, and IL11) were significantly enriched in the Rheumatoid arthritis pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our study, based on the GEO database, identified four significant up-regulated DEGs and provided novel targets for diagnosis and treatment of T2DM.

A multi-functional drug delivery system based on polyphenols for efficient tumor inhibition and metastasis prevention

A multi-functional drug delivery system EINP@DOX, which integrated therapy, imaging and anti-metastatic functions, was constructed to realize a systematic tumor treatment.

Monocytes as Endothelial Progenitor Cells (EPCs), Another Brick in the Wall to Disentangle Tumor Angiogenesis

Bone marrow contains endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) that, upon pro-angiogenic stimuli, migrate and differentiate into endothelial cells (ECs) and contribute to re-endothelialization and neo-vascularization. There are currently no reliable markers to characterize EPCs, leading to their inaccurate identification. In the past, we showed that, in a panel of tumors, some cells on the vessel wall co-expressed CD14 (monocytic marker) and CD31 (EC marker), indicating a putative differentiation route of monocytes into ECs. Herein, we disclosed monocytes as potential EPCs, using in vitro and in vivo models, and also addressed the cancer context. Monocytes acquired the capacity to express ECs markers and were able to be incorporated into blood vessels, contributing to cancer progression, by being incorporated in tumor neo-vasculature. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) push monocytes to EC differentiation, and this phenotype is reverted by cysteine (a scavenger and precursor of glutathione), which indicates that angiogenesis is controlled by the interplay between the oxidative stress and the scavenging capacity of the tumor microenvironment.

Towards Cell free Therapy of Premature Ovarian Insufficiency: Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Secretome Enhances Angiogenesis in Human Ovarian Microvascular Endothelial Cells

Primary Ovarian Insufficiency (POI) refers to an ovarian loss of function in women under the age of 40. Unfortunately, currently, there is no effective treatment available for POI-related infertility. Alternatives such as the use of egg donations are culturally and ethically unacceptable to many couples. Human Bone marrow-derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) are known for their ability to differentiate into other cell types, once primed by the organ microenvironment. Importantly MSCs produce a vast array of bioactive factors many of them have been shown to enhance neovascularization in various tissues. Recently, preliminary data from our ongoing clinical trial revealed encouraging preliminary data after autologous MSC engraftment into the ovaries of 2 POI patients with durable elevation in serum estrogen levels and increase in size of treated ovaries sustained up to one-year post cell therapy.

In this study, we investigated the action of the mechanisms of MSCs treatment on a POI ovary. We designed an in vitro study using MSC secretome and Human Ovarian Endothelial Cells (HOVECs) to understand the molecular mechanisms by which MSC mediates their angiogenic properties and regenerative effects. Human primary HOVECs were treatment with MSC secretome and examined by FACS for the expression of angiogenesis markers such as Endoglin, Tie-2, and VEGF. The formation of vessels was evaluated by using a 3D Matrigel tubulogenesis assay.

We observed that the expression of proliferation marker Ki67 was significantly increased under treatment with MSC secretome in HOVEC cells (P4). MSCs secretome treatment also induced significantly higher expression of several angiogenic markers such as VEGFR2, Tie2/Tek, VE-Cadherin, Endoglin, and VEGF compared to matched control (P4). Furthermore, MSC secretome significantly increased the number of branching points in tubulogenesis assay (P4). Our study suggests that MSC secretome likely contains bioactive factors that can enhance ovarian angiogenesis. Further characterization of these factors can lead to novel therapeutic options for women with premature ovarian insufficiency and other related causes of female infertility.

Single-cell assays using integrated continuous-flow microfluidics

The recent maturation of continuous-flow microfluidic technologies has coincided with transformative new methods to profile single cells, including their genetic types, protein expression and enzyme activities. Continuous-flow high-throughput single-cell screening and sorting can reveal relationships across cellular phenotypes (e.g., enzyme activity and secretion) and genetic fingerprints. This technology provides unique opportunities, as well as experimental and computational challenges, for integrative approaches that can process large amounts of single-cell data. In this chapter, we discuss recent advances in integrated continuous-flow microfluidic approaches with a focus on measurements and statistical analysis of single-cell enzyme activity and their applications in quantitative biology, synthetic biology, and diagnosis.

Neuroendocrine Regulation of Tumor-Associated Immune Cells

Mounting preclinical and clinical evidence continues to support a role for the neuroendocrine system in the modulation of tumor biology and progression. Several studies have shown data supporting a link between chronic stress and cancer progression. Dysregulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been implicated in promoting angiogenesis, tumor cell proliferation and survival, alteration of the immune response and exacerbating inflammatory networks in the tumor microenvironment. Here, we review how SNS and HPA dysregulation contributes to disturbances in immune cell populations, modifies cancer biology, and impacts immunotherapy response. We also highlight several interventions aimed at circumventing the adverse effects stress has on cancer patients.

Antitumor activity of Cuphea ignea extract against benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung tumorigenesis in Swiss Albino mice

Lung cancer has one of the highest mortality rates among various types of cancer and is the most frequent cancer in the world. The incidence of lung cancer is increasing rapidly, in parallel with an increased incidence of smoking. Effective chemoprevention may be an alternative strategy to control the incidence of lung cancer. Thus, the objective of current work was to ascertain the possible preventive and therapeutic efficacies of Cuphea ignea extract in a mouse model of lung tumorigenesis and its cytotoxicity toward the A549 human lung cancer cell line. Lung tumorigenesis was induced by the oral administration of benzo(a)pyrene (50 mg/kg b.w.) twice per week to Swiss albino mice for 4 weeks. Benzo(a)pyrene-treated mice were orally administered C. ignea (300 mg/kg body weight, 5 days/week) for 2 weeks before or 9 weeks after the first benzo(a)pyrene dose, for a total of 21 weeks. At the end of the administration period, various parameters were measured in the serum and lung tissues. The results revealed that the oral administration of benzo(a)pyrene resulted in increases in relative lung weight, serum levels of tumor markers (ADA, AHH, and LDH), and the inflammatory marker NF-κB, and a decreased total antioxidant capacity compared with the control. In addition, decreased levels of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, with a concomitant increase in lipid peroxidation, metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-12), and the angiogenic marker VEGF were detected in lung tissues. Moreover, benzo(a)pyrene administration induced the upregulation of PKCα, COX-2, and Bcl-2 expression, with the downregulation of BAX and caspase-3 expression. C. ignea treatment alleviated all alterations in these parameters, which was further confirmed by the histopathological analysis of lung tissues. The findings of the current work provide the first verification of the preventive and therapeutic potentials of C. ignea extract against benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung tumorigenesis in mice.

The role of the RGD motif in CD97/ADGRE5-and EMR2/ADGRE2-modulated tumor angiogenesis

CD97/ADGRE5, an adhesion G protein-coupled receptor (aGPCR), is highly expressed in several tumor cell types. CD97 has been shown to modulate tumorigenesis in part by promoting HUVEC migration, invasion and angiogenesis through the interaction with integrin α5β1 via its ectodomain RGD motif. In this study, we show that CD97 could induce angiogenesis via an alternative RGD-independent mechanism. Overexpression of CD97 with the wild-type or mutant RGD motif in HT1080 cells led to up-regulated MMP-9 and induced angiogenesis as revealed by the in vitro endothelial cell tube formation assay and in ovo chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. By contrast, expression of EMR2/ADGRE2, the CD97-homologous aGPCR that contains a corresponding SGD sequence, fails to induce angiogenesis due to lower MMP-9 expression. Interestingly, a single change of the SGD to RGD sequence allowed EMR2 to up-regulate MMP-9 expression, leading to enhanced angiogenesis. MMP-9 was shown to promote the proliferation, migration, and invasion of HUVEC partly by modulating the levels of VEGF, PIGF, and bFGF. Finally, we showed that the MMP-9 expression was in turn modulated by N-cadherin that was up-regulated by CD97 and EMR2/RGD. Our results indicate that two homologous aGPCRs, CD97 and EMR2, modulate angiogenesis and HUVEC proliferation, migration, and invasion through N-cadherin-regulated MMP-9 expression by RGD-independent and -dependent mechanisms, respectively.

Neurokinin-1 Receptor Antagonists as Anticancer Drugs

Background::

Human tumor cells lines and tumor samples overexpress the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R). Substance P (SP), after binding to NK-1Rs, induces tumor cell proliferation, an antiapoptotic effect and promotes angiogenesis and the migration of cancer cells for invasion and metastasis.

Methods: :

In contrast, NK-1R antagonists block the previous pathophysiological actions mediated by SP. These antagonists promote the death of tumor cells by apoptosis. Peptide and non-peptide NK-1R antagonists have been reported.

Results: :

Peptide NK-1R antagonists show chemical modifications of the SP molecule (L-amino acids being replaced by D-amino acids), whereas non-peptide NK-1R antagonists include numerous compounds with different chemical compositions while showing similar stereochemical features (affinity for the NK- 1R). Currently, there are more than 300 NK-1R antagonists.

Conclusion::

In combination therapy with classic cytostatics, NK-1R antagonists have additive or synergic effects and minimize the side-effects of cytostatics. The effect of NK-1R antagonists as broad-spectrum anticancer drugs is reviewed and the use of these antagonists for the treatment of cancer is suggested.

Lipopolysaccharide and interferon-γ team up to activate HIF-1α via STAT1 in normoxia and exhibit sex differences in human aortic valve interstitial cells

In early stages of calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD), immune cells infiltrate into the valve leaflets and release cytokines such as interferon (IFN)-γ. IFN-γ has context-dependent direct effects, and also regulates other immune pathways. The purpose of this study was addressing the effects of IFN-γ on human aortic valve interstitial cells (AVICs), focusing on the pathogenic processes underlying CAVD. Strikingly, under normoxic conditions, IFN-γ induced hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α expression, an effect strongly potentiated by the Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Immunodetection studies confirmed the nuclear translocation of HIF-1α. Gene silencing showed that HIF-1α expression is dependent on signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1 expression. Consistent with HIF-1α induction, the secretion of the endothelial growth factor was detected by ELISA, and downregulation of the antiangiogenic factor chondromodulin-1 gene was observed by qPCR. Results also disclosed IFN-γ as a proinflammatory cytokine that cooperates with LPS to induce the expression of adhesion molecules, prostaglandin E2 and interleukins. Moreover, IFN-γ induced an osteogenic phenotype and promoted in vitro calcification that were markedly potentiated by LPS. Pharmacological experiments disclosed the involvement of Janus Kinases (JAK)/STATs as well as ERK/HIF-1α routes on the induction of calcification. Notably, IFN-γ receptor 1 expression, as well as ERK/HIF-1α activation, and the subsequent responses were more robust in male AVICs. This is the first report uncovering an immune and non-hypoxic activation of HIF-1α via STAT1 in AVIC. The aforementioned results and the sex-differential responses may be potentially relevant to better understand CAVD pathogenesis.

Current perspectives on the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma: challenges and opportunities

Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is on the rise due to the prevalence of chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis. Although there are surgical and chemotherapy treatment avenues the mortality rate of HCC remains high. Immunotherapy is currently the new frontier of cancer treatment and the immunobiology of HCC is emerging as an area for further exploration. The tumor microenvironment coexists and interacts with various immune cells to sustain the growth of HCC. Thus, immunosuppressive cells play an important role in the anti-tumor immune response. This review will discuss the current concepts of immunosuppressive cells, including tumor-associated macrophages, marrow-derived suppressor cells, tumor-associated neutrophils, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and regulatory T cell interactions to actively promote tumorigenesis. It further elaborates on current treatment modalities and future areas of exploration.

iNOS is associated with tumorigenicity as an independent prognosticator in human intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) has supposed to implicate in inflammation, infection, liver cirrhosis, and neoplastic diseases. This study was designed to explore the biological and clinical function of iNOS in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC).

METHODS

RT-PCR (Real-time quantitative PCR) and immunohistochemical staining were used to analyze the expression of iNOS in ICC and adjacent tissues. CCK8, transwell assays, flow cytometry were conducted to detect the proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle. Western blotting was performed to detect the expression of target proteins. Multivariate analyses were conducted to analysis associates between clinicopathological values and survival.

RESULTS

We found that levels of iNOS mRNA and protein were dramatically increased in ICC samples and positively correlated with complicated bile duct stone, differentiation, pathology T, pathology M, Wip1, MMP-2, and MMP-9. iNOS expression was significantly correlated with the poor survival of ICC patients. Furthermore, iNOS was high expression in ICC cell lines (QBC-939, ICC-9810, SSP-25) compare with human normal biliary epithelium cell line (HIBEpic); both iNOS knockdown and iNOS inhibitor (1400 W) suppressed cell proliferation, invasion, and migration though nitric oxide production in ICC cells. Down-regulation of iNOS also induced G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and ICC cell apoptosis. Moreover, iNOS knockdown treatment significantly decreased Wip1, MMP-9, and MMP-2 gene expression.

CONCLUSION

Lowly expressed iNOS-inhibited proliferation yet promoted apoptosis of ICC cells. Our data show targeted inhibition of iNOS in ICC may have therapeutic value.

Antitumor effect of kurarinone and underlying mechanism in small cell lung carcinoma cells

Background

Kurarinone, a prenylated flavonone isolated from the roots of Sophora flavescens, is known to be cytotoxic against many human cancer cells but not human small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) yet. Also, the exact molecular mechanism of kurarinone for induction cytotoxicity remains unknown.

Material and methods

We investigated the effects of kurarinone on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration in H1688 SCLC cells. Cell viability was determined by the MTT assay. Apoptotic indices such as cell cycle, mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, caspase activity, and death receptors were evaluated by flow cytometry. Transwell migration and invasion assays were also included.

Results

Our results indicated that kurarinone significantly decreased H1688 cell viability and induced the accumulation of sub-G1 fractions by activating caspase-3, -9, and PARP cleavage accompanied by the elevated release of cytochrome c and mitochondrial dysfunction in H1688 cells. Additionally, kurarinone promoted Fas and TRAIL receptor-1 and -2 expression via the caspase-8/Bid pathway, suggesting that kurarinone triggered apoptosis via the mitochondria-mediated and receptor-mediated apoptotic pathways. We also observed that kurarinone repressed migration and invasion capabilities of SCLC cells by suppressing the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins and matrix metalloproteinases.

Conclusion

Our findings provided evidence that kurarinone can induce apoptosis in SCLC cells via multiple mechanisms and delayed the cell migration and invasion of SCLC cells.

Differential regulation of blood vessel formation between traumatic temporomandibular joint fibrous ankylosis and bony ankylosis in a sheep model

OBJECTIVES

Clinical and experimental studies show that the etiology of traumatic temporomandibular joint (TMJ) fibrous ankylosis and bony ankylosis are associated with the severity of trauma. However, how the injury severity affects the tissue differentiation is not clear. We tested the hypothesis that angiogenesis affects the outcomes of TMJ trauma, and that enhanced neovascularization after severe TMJ trauma would promote the development of bony ankylosis.

METHODS

Bilateral condylar sagittal fracture and discectomy were performed for each sheep, with the glenoid fossa receiving either severe trauma to induce bony ankylosis or minor trauma to induce fibrous ankylosis. At days 7, 14, 28, and 56 after surgery, total RNA was extracted from the ankylosed callus. Temporal gene expressions of several molecules functionally important for blood vessel formation were studied by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

Histological examination revealed a prolonged hematoma phase and a lack of cartilage formation in fibrous ankylosis. mRNA expression levels of HIF-1α, VEGF, VEGFR2, SDF1, Ang1, Tie2, vWF, CYR61, FGF2, TIMP1, MMP2, and MMP9 were distinctly lower in fibrous ankylosis compared with bony ankylosis at several time points.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that inhibition of angiogenesis after TMJ trauma might be a promising strategy for preventing bony ankylosis in the future.

Mechanochemical Signaling of the Extracellular Matrix in Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) is a critical process in embryonic development in which epithelial cells undergo a transdifferentiation into mesenchymal cells. This process is essential for tissue patterning and organization, and it has also been implicated in a wide array of pathologies. While the intracellular signaling pathways that regulate EMT are well-understood, there is increasing evidence that the mechanical properties and composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) also play a key role in regulating EMT. In turn, EMT drives changes in the mechanics and composition of the ECM, creating a feedback loop that is tightly regulated in healthy tissues, but is often dysregulated in disease. Here we present a review that summarizes our understanding of how ECM mechanics and composition regulate EMT, and how in turn EMT alters ECM mechanics and composition.

Treponema pallidum enhances human monocyte migration and invasion by dysregulating the MMP/TIMP balance

Although the infiltration of monocytes into local lesions is an obvious pathological manifestation in the pathogenesis of syphilis, little is known about the role of metalloproteinase (MMP)/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP) imbalance in the migration/invasion of THP-1 cells induced by Treponema pallidum (T. pallidum). The influence of T. pallidum on the invasion and migration of THP-1 cells was evaluated. Changes in the MMP/TIMP balance and the mechanisms underlying the involvement of the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in this process were explored. T. pallidum induced the migration/invasion of THP-1 cells and the mRNA and protein expression of MMP-1, MMP-9 and TIMP-1. The mRNA expression of TIMP-2 was reduced, and the protein expression of TIMP-2 was not changed. The MMP-1/TIMP-1, MMP-1/TIMP-2, MMP-9/TIMP-1 and MMP-9/TIMP-2 ratios were increased. Inhibition of JNK, MEK/ERK, p38 MAPK and NF-κB significantly decreased the MMP/TIMP ratio and ultimately suppressed the migration/invasion of THP-1 cells. These findings revealed that MMP/TIMP imbalances induced by T. pallidum enhanced THP-1 cell migration and invasion via MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathway activation, which revealed a novel step in syphilis pathophysiology.

Atractylon induces apoptosis and suppresses metastasis in hepatic cancer cells and inhibits growth in vivo

Background: Hepatic cancer is the most common primary liver malignancy, with high incidence and mortality worldwide. Atractylon is an active constituent isolated from Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. and Atractylodes chinensis (DC.) Koidz., which proved to have multiple activities. Methods: In this study, we evaluated the antihepatic cancer (HCC) effect of atractylon in vitro and in vivo and investigated its underlying mechanism. Cell proliferation, colony formation, cell apoptosis, migration and invaison and was identified by MTT, crystal violet staining, flow cytometry analysis, and Transwell assay. The ∆Ψm of HepG2 and MHCC97H cells were detected by Rhodamine 123. The ROS level was determined by 2,7-Dichlorodi-hydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) method. Protein expression was identified by Western blot analysis. The anti-HCC effect of atractylon in vivo was evaluated by a subcutaneous tumor model. Results: The results suggested that atractylon significantly inhibits the proliferation and promotes apoptosis of hepatic cancer cell lines, including HepG2, SMCC7721, and MHCC97H. Moreover, the results showed that atractylon reduces the mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψm), increases ROS level, inhibits the expression of Bcl-2, and promotes the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3, indicating that atractylon induces HCC apoptosis through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Our results also demonstrated that atractylon inhibits migration and invasion of hepatic cancer cells by inhibiting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process and downregulating MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression. In addition, atractylon inhibited the growth of hepatic cancer and showed an inhibition effect on EMT process in vivo. Conclusion: In all, this study suggested that atractylon showed a promising anti-HCC effect with inhibiting proliferation, inducing apoptosis, and blocking invasion in vitro and inhibiting growth in vivo.

Crosstalk between cancer and immune cells: Role of tumor-associated macrophages in the tumor microenvironment

Tumor microenvironment is a complex system that contains multiple cells and cytokines. Among the multiple immune cells, macrophage is particularly abundant and plays an important role throughout the tumor progression process, namely, tumor‐associated macrophage (TAM) in this special tumor microenvironment. Many kinds of cytokines from TAMs and other immune cells in tumor niche are involved in the linkage of inflammation, immunity and tumorigenesis. Inflammatory responses induced by TAMs are crucial to tumor development of different stages. This review highlights the critical role of TAMs in the linkage of inflammation, immunity, and cancer. It outlines the molecules of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors mainly from TAMs in tumor microenvironment and their functions in tumor development during the major issues of angiogenesis, chronic inflammation, and immune suppression. Additionally, the signaling pathways involved in tumor progression and the crosstalk between them are also summarized.

Vascular Disrupting Agents in cancer treatment: Cardiovascular toxicity and implications for co-administration with other cancer chemotherapeutics

Destruction of the established tumour vasculature by a class of compound termed Vascular Disrupting Agents (VDAs) is showing considerable promise as a viable approach for the management of solid tumours. VDAs induce a rapid shutdown and collapse of tumour blood vessels, leading to ischaemia and consequent necrosis of the tumour mass. Their efficacy is hindered by the persistence of a viable rim of tumour cells, supported by the peripheral normal vasculature, necessitating their co-administration with additional chemotherapeutics for maximal therapeutic benefit. However, a major limitation for the use of many cancer therapeutics is the development of life-threatening cardiovascular toxicities, with significant consequences for treatment response and the patient's quality of life. The aim of this review is to outline VDAs as a cancer therapeutic approach and define the mechanistic basis of cardiovascular toxicities of current chemotherapeutics, with the overall objective of discussing whether VDA combinations with specific chemotherapeutic classes would be good or bad in terms of cardiovascular toxicity.

Doxycycline inhibits electric field-induced migration of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells

Adenocarcinoma, large cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are the most commonly diagnosed subtypes of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). Numerous lung cancer cell types have exhibited electrotaxis under direct current electric fields (dcEF). Physiological electric fields (EF) play key roles in cancer cell migration. In this study, we investigated electrotaxis of NSCLC cells, including human large cell lung carcinoma NCI-H460 and human lung squamous cell carcinoma NCI-H520 cells. Non-cancerous MRC-5 lung fibroblasts were included as a control. After dcEF stimulation, NCI-H460 and NCI-H520 cells, which both exhibit epithelial-like morphology, migrated towards the cathode, while MRC-5 cells, which have fibroblast-like morphology, migrated towards the anode. The effect of doxycycline, a common antibiotic, on electrotaxis of MRC-5, NCI-H460 and NCI-H520 cells was examined. Doxycycline enhanced the tested cells’ motility but inhibited electrotaxis in the NSCLC cells without inhibiting non-cancerous MRC-5 cells. Based on our finding, further in-vivo studies could be devised to investigate the metastasis inhibition effect of doxycycline in an organism level.

Metastasis is impaired by endothelial-specific Dll4 loss-of-function through inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and reduction of cancer stem cells and circulating tumor cells

Systemic inhibition of Dll4 has been shown to thoroughly reduce cancer metastasis. The exact cause of this effect and whether it is endothelial mediated remains to be clarified. Therefore, we proposed to analyze the impact of endothelial Dll4 loss-of-function on metastasis induction on three early steps of the metastatic process, regulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stem cell (CSC) frequency and circulating tumor cell (CTC) number. For this, Lewis Lung Carcinoma (LLC) cells were used to model mouse tumor metastasis in vivo, by subcutaneous transplantation into endothelial-specific Dll4 loss-of-function mice. We observed that endothelial-specific Dll4 loss-of-function is responsible for the tumor vascular regression that leads to the reduction of tumor burden. It induces an increase in tumoral blood vessel density, but the neovessels are poorly perfused, with increased leakage and reduced perivascular maturation. Unexpectedly, although hypoxia was increased in the tumor, the number and burden of macro-metastasis was significantly reduced. This is likely to be a consequence of the observed reduction in both EMT and CSC numbers caused by the endothelial-specific Dll4 loss-of-function. This multifactorial context may explain the concomitantly observed reduction of the circulating tumor cell count. Furthermore, our results suggest that endothelial Dll4/Notch-function mediates tumor hypoxia-driven increase of EMT. Therefore, it appears that endothelial Dll4 may constitute a promising target to prevent metastasis.

Hyaluronan preconditioning of monocytes/macrophages affects their angiogenic behavior and regulation of TSG-6 expression in a tumor type-specific manner

Hyaluronan is a glycosaminoglycan normally present in the extracellular matrix in most tissues. Hyaluronan is a crucial player in many processes associated with cancer, such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. However, little has been reported regarding the action of hyaluronan on monocytes/macrophages (Mo/MØ) in tumor angiogenesis and its consequences on tumor development. In the present study, we investigated the effects of hyaluronan of different sizes on human Mo/MØ angiogenic behavior in colorectal and breast carcinoma. In vitro, the treatment of Mo/MØ with lysates and conditioned media from a breast but not from colorectal carcinoma cell line plus high-molecular weight hyaluronan induced: (a) an increased expression of angiogenic factors VEGF, IL-8, FGF-2, and MMP-2, (b) an increased endothelial cell migration, and (c) a differential expression of hyaluronan-binding protein TSG-6. Similar results were observed in Mo/MØ derived from breast cancer patients treated with tumor lysates. Besides, macrophages primed with high-molecular weight hyaluronan and inoculated in human breast cancer xenograft tumor increased blood vessel formation and diminished TSG-6 levels. In contrast, the effects triggered by high-molecular weight hyaluronan on Mo/MØ in breast cancer context were not observed in the context of colorectal carcinoma. Taken together, these results indicate that the effect of high-molecular weight hyaluronan as an inductor of the angiogenic behavior of macrophages in breast tumor context is in part consequence of the presence of TSG-6.

MMP14-Containing Exosomes Cleave VEGFR1 and Promote VEGFA-Induced Migration and Proliferation of Vascular Endothelial Cells

Purpose

Investigate the impact matrix metalloproteinase 14 (MMP14) delivered via exosomes produced by corneal fibroblasts on vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1) cleavage on endothelial cells, and other key processes of angiogenesis.

Methods

Proteolysis of VEGFR1 and R2 by the catalytic domain of MMP14 was investigated via immunocytochemistry with anti-VEGFR1, anti-VEGFR2, and anti-MMP14 antibodies. Exosomes were isolated via precipitation and serial ultracentrifugation from wild-type (WT) and MMP14 exon4-deficient corneal fibroblasts. Transmission electron microscopy and nanotracking analysis were used to characterize the isolated exosomes. The presence of MMP14 in exosomes from WT fibroblasts was confirmed by Western blotting. VEGFR1 cleavage upon treatment with WT-derived exosomes, Δexon4-derived exosomes, or the pan-MMP inhibitor GM60001 was examined via in vitro proteolysis analysis using recombinant mouse (rm) VEGFR1/R2. Endothelial cell migration and proliferation were investigated using a Boyden chamber assay and BrdU incorporation, respectively.

Results

WT-derived exosomes specifically cleaved rmVEGFR1 in vitro, whereas Δexon4-derived exosomes did not. Treatment with the pan-MMP inhibitor GM6001 effectively inhibited VEGFR1 cleavage by WT-derived exosomes, confirming the role of MMP14 in this cleavage. WT-derived exosomes induced greater endothelial cell migration (P < 0.01) and proliferation (P < 0.5) compared to Δexon4-derived exosomes.

Conclusions

MMP14-containing exosomes may be involved in the regulation of corneal neovascularization through degradation of VEGFR1 and VEGFA-induced endothelial cell proliferation and migration.

The extracellular matrix in tumor progression and metastasis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) constitutes the scaffold of tissues and organs. It is a complex network of extracellular proteins, proteoglycans and glycoproteins, which form supramolecular aggregates, such as fibrils and sheet-like networks. In addition to its biochemical composition, including the covalent intermolecular cross-linkages, the ECM is also characterized by its biophysical parameters, such as topography, molecular density, stiffness/rigidity and tension. Taking these biochemical and biophysical parameters into consideration, the ECM is very versatile and undergoes constant remodeling. This review focusses on this remodeling of the ECM under the influence of a primary solid tumor mass. Within this tumor stroma, not only the cancer cells but also the resident fibroblasts, which differentiate into cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), modify the ECM. Growth factors and chemokines, which are tethered to and released from the ECM, as well as metabolic changes of the cells within the tumor bulk, add to the tumor-supporting tumor microenvironment. Metastasizing cancer cells from a primary tumor mass infiltrate into the ECM, which variably may facilitate cancer cell migration or act as barrier, which has to be proteolytically breached by the infiltrating tumor cell. The biochemical and biophysical properties therefore determine the rates and routes of metastatic dissemination. Moreover, primed by soluble factors of the primary tumor, the ECM of distant organs may be remodeled in a way to facilitate the engraftment of metastasizing cancer cells. Such premetastatic niches are responsible for the organotropic preference of certain cancer entities to colonize at certain sites in distant organs and to establish a metastasis. Translational application of our knowledge about the cancer-primed ECM is sparse with respect to therapeutic approaches, whereas tumor-induced ECM alterations such as increased tissue stiffness and desmoplasia, as well as breaching the basement membrane are hallmark of malignancy and diagnostically and histologically harnessed.

Piceatannol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (PG) exhibits in vitro anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic activities in HT1080 malignant fibrosarcoma cells

BACKGROUND

Several components isolated from rhubarb, the root of Rheum undulatum L., including emodin, rhein, rhaponticin, and piceatannol, have been reported to induce cell death and inhibit metastasis in various types of cancer. Recently, piceatannol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (PG) isolated from rhubarb was demonstrated to improve vascular dysfunction by inhibiting arginase activity.

PURPOSE

In this study, we examined the anti-cancer activities of PG, including effects on the proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis of endothelial and malignant cancer cells.

RESULTS

We found that PG did not affect the proliferation of human fibrosarcoma (HT1080) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) at treatments up to 100  μM. However, PG efficiently suppressed the metastatic ability of HT1080 cells, as determined by scratch wound migration, transwell migration/invasion assay, and three-dimensional (3D) spheroid invasion assay. PG significantly suppressed the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced increase of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 expression as well as gelatinolytic MMP-9 activity, which are essential for cancer metastasis. In addition, PG treatment reduced the production of proangiogenic factors in HT1080 cells under normoxic and hypoxic conditions and suppressed hypoxia-induced activation of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α pathway. We also found that HUVEC angiogenic activity, including migration and tubular structure formation, were significantly reduced by PG treatment. Moreover, in an in ovo chick chorioallantoic membrane assay, spontaneous and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced vessel formation were significantly inhibited by PG treatment.

CONCLUSION

These results collectively indicate that PG has potent anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic activities with no cytotoxicity. Thus, PG may be useful to limit the hyperplasia of malignant tumors and the spread of cancer to distant secondary organs.

Tumor targeting and microenvironment-responsive multifunctional fusion protein for pro-apoptotic peptide delivery

The great therapeutic potential of peptides has not yet been achieved, mainly due to their remarkably short in vivo half-life. Although conjugation to macromolecules has been an effective way of improving protein in vivo half-life, the steric hindrance of macromolecules usually reduces the in vivo efficacy of peptides. Here we report a complex delivery system made from PsTag polypeptide, polyglutamic acid chain, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2)-degradable domain and cationic cell penetrating peptide for anticancer peptide delivery. Clear evidence was shown in vitro and in vivo to demonstrate that this multifunctional protein fusing a pro-apoptotic KLAKLAKKLAKLAK (KLA), named PAK, can increase circulation time in blood, enhance accumulation at tumor sites, eliminate the PsTag domain and the polyanionic sequence when triggered by tumor overexpressing MMP2, and then expose the cell penetrating peptide to realize the potent cellular uptake of KLA. Treatment of tumor-bearing mice with PAK could markedly induce tumor cells apoptosis and inhibit tumor growth, with no significant adverse effects. These results suggest our fusion protein can be a potential delivery system for peptide delivery in cancer treatments.

Rare-Earth-Doped Calcium Carbonate Exposed to X-ray Irradiation to Induce Reactive Oxygen Species for Tumor Treatment

Conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT) is limited by its penetration depth due to the photosensitizer and light source. In this study, we developed X-ray induced photodynamic therapy that applied X-ray as the light source to activate Ce-doped CaCO₃ (CaCO₃:Ce) to generate an intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) for killing cancer cells. The A549 cell line was used as the in vitro and in vivo model to evaluate the efficacy of X-ray-induced CaCO₃:Ce. The cell viability significantly decreased and cell cytotoxicity obviously increased with CaCO₃:Ce exposure under X-ray irradiation, which is less harmful than radiotherapy in tumor treatment. CaCO₃:Ce produced significant ROS under X-ray irradiation and promoted A549 cancer cell death. CaCO₃:Ce can enhance the efficacy of X-ray induced PDT, and tumor growth was inhibited in vivo. The blood analysis and hematoxylin and eosin stain (H & E) stain fully supported the safety of the treatment. The mechanisms underlying ROS and CO₂ generation by CaCO₃:Ce activated by X-ray irradiation to induce cell toxicity, thereby inhibiting tumor growth, is discussed. These findings and advances are of great importance in providing a novel therapeutic approach as an alternative tumor treatment.

Tumor Neovascularization and Developments in Therapeutics

Tumors undergo fast neovascularization to support the rapid proliferation of cancer cells. Vasculature in tumors, unlike that in wound healing, is immature and affects the tumor microenvironment, resulting in hypoxia, acidosis, glucose starvation, immune cell infiltration, and decreased activity, all of which promote cancer progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. This innate defect of tumor vasculature can however represent a useful therapeutic target. Angiogenesis inhibitors targeting tumor vascular endothelial cells important for angiogenesis have attracted attention as cancer therapy agents that utilize features of the tumor microenvironment. While angiogenesis inhibitors have the advantage of targeting neovascularization factors common to all cancer types, some limitations to their deployment have emerged. Further understanding of the mechanism of tumor angiogenesis may contribute to the development of new antiangiogenic therapeutic approaches to control tumor invasion and metastasis. This review discusses the mechanism of tumor angiogenesis as well as angiogenesis inhibition therapy with antiangiogenic agents.

Immunohistochemical analysis of matrix metalloproteinase-9 predicts papillary thyroid carcinoma prognosis

The present study aimed to explore the association between immunohistochemical matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression and the clinicopathological characteristics of patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), and to determine whether it may be used as a diagnostic or prognostic tool for PTC. Immunohistochemical staining of MMP-9 was performed in thyroid tissues obtained from 112 patients with PTC and 42 subjects with benign thyroid nodules (BTNs). The receiver operating characteristic curve was used to evaluate the legitimacy of MMP-9 as a diagnostic tool for PTC, and a predictor for structurally persistent/recurrent disease (SPRD) and disease status. Cox regression was applied to identify the risk factors of disease status and SPRD. The present study revealed that MMP-9 was overexpressed in PTC tissues, compared with in BTN tissues. Furthermore, MMP-9 scores yielded an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.842 (95% CI, 0.776-0.908) for differentially diagnosing PTC from BTN. In addition, the MMP-9 score was greater if patients previously had central lymph node metastasis, lateral lymph node metastasis or an advanced tumor-node-metastasis stage (III+IV). When MMP-9 was employed to predict disease status and SPRD, an AUC of 0.811 (95% CI, 0.706-0.917) and 0.806 (95% CI, 0.620-0.992) was obtained, respectively. A tumor size of >2 cm and an MMP-9 staining score of ≥6 were independent risk factors for predicting disease status, whereas vascular invasion and an MMP-9 staining score of ≥8 were risk factors for predicting SPRD. Furthermore, an MMP-9 staining score of ≥6 and ≥8 indicated shortened disease-free survival and survival without SPRD, respectively. In conclusion, the assessment of MMP-9 expression in thyroid carcinoma samples may represent a potential and supplementary tool for the diagnosis and prognostic prediction of PTC.

Antrodia salmonea suppresses invasion and metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer cells by reversing EMT through the NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Antrodia salonea (AS), a fungus that is indigenous to Taiwan has been well known for its anti-cancer properties. We investigated the anti-metastatic and anti-epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) properties of AS in TNBC cells. To determine their EMT and metastasis levels, in vitro wound healing, wound invasion, Western blotting, RT-PCR, luciferase activity and immunofluorescence assays were performed, while the in vivo anti-metastatic efficacy of AS was evaluated in BALB/c-nu mice through bioluminescence imaging, HE staining, and immunohistochemical staining. MDA-MB-231 cells, when treated with AS concentrations (25-100 μg/mL) resulted in significant reduction of invasion and migration as well as the downregulation of VEGF, uPAR, uPA and MMP-9 (inhibition of PI3K/AKT/NFκB pathways). AS treatment prevented morphological changes and reversed EMT through the upregulation of E-cadherin and the downregulation of N-cadherin, Slug, Twist, and Vimentin. Inhibition of Smad3 signaling pathway, downregulation of β-catenin pathway and upregulation of GSK3β expression were also observed while, suppression of metastasis and EMT in TGF-β1-stimulated non-tumorigenic MCF-10A cells was observed when treated with AS. Histological analysis confirmed that AS reduced tumor metastasis and upregulated E-cadherin expression in biopsied lung tissues. Our results indicated that AS exhibits anti-EMT and anti-metastatic activity, that could contribute to develop anticancer drugs against TNBC.

CD147 Is a Novel Chemotherapy or Prevention Target in Melanoma

CD147, also named as BSG, was first identified from F9 embryonal carcinoma cells (Miyauchi et al., 1990) and the human BSG locus on chromosome 19p13.3 containing 10 exons (Belton et al., 2008; Kaname et al., 1993; Liao et al., 2011), which encodes four alternatively spliced transcripts:CD147/Bsg-1,2,3,4 (Kaname et al., 1993; Liao et al., 2011). Bsg-1 has three Ig-like domains (CD147/Bsg-1) (Hanna et al., 2003; Ochrietor et al., 2003), while CD147/Bsg-3,4 contains a single Ig-like domain (Belton et al., 2008; Liao et al., 2011). Evidence shows that CD147/Bsg-2 is the most abundant and best characterized splice product, which contains two Ig-like domains (Weidle et al., 2010). Analysis of amino acids showed that CD147 contains a single-chain type I transmembrane domain composed of a 21-amino acid signal sequence, an extracellular domain consisting of 186 amino acids with two Ig-like domains and a cytoplasmic domain of 41 residues (Kanekura et al., 2010; Yurchenko et al., 2005). There are three glycosylation sites at three conserved asparagine (Asn 44, 152, and 186) in the CD147 N-terminal domain (Fadool et al., 1993; Tang et al., 2004; Yu et al., 2006), which could explain the molecular mass of CD147 shifts from a predicted molecular weight of about 27 kDa to 40-65 kDa with Western blotting. Inhibition of glycosylation by specific inhibitors showed that on carbohydrate side groups bearing β-1,6-branched, polylactosamine-type sugars, fucosylations are the major glycosylation type in N-glycosylation of CD147 (Ni et al., 2014; Riethdorf et al., 2006; Tang et al., 2004). In addition, N-glycosylation of CD147 has been identified as low glycosylated (approximately 32 kDa) or high glycosylated (approximately 45-65 kDa). The fully glycosylated mature CD147 (high-glycosylated CD147) is translocated to the plasma membrane, while low-glycosylated CD147 is the precursor of high-glycosylated CD147 in the endoplasmic reticulum, which requires additional modification in the Golgi prior to being expressed on the cell surface; high levels of glycosylation are a primary biochemical property of CD147 (Jia et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2014; Ni et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2004).

Assessment of a bifendate derivative bearing a 6,7-dihydro-dibenzo[c,e]azepine scaffold as a potential anti-metastatic agent

Multidrug resistance (MDR) and metastasis are major causes of mortality in patients with cancer. We recently reported a bifendate derivative bearing a dibenzo[c,e]azepine scaffold (4i) as a P-gp and BCRP-medicated MDR reversal agent. As a continuation of the previous research, its ability to inhibit cancer metastasis was investigated in MDA-MB-231 cells in the present work. Wound-healing and chamber migration assays showed that 4i could significantly attenuate the migration of MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, 4i obviously suppressed the invasive activity of MDA-MB-231 cells, thus displaying potential anti-metastasis activity. Preliminary mechanism studies indicated that the anti-metastasis activity of 4i was associated with the inhibitory effect on the activity and expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9. These results, together with the previous findings, suggest that compound 4i could be a promising lead for the development of novel anti-cancer agents with anti-MDR and metastatic activities.

Angiotensin 1-7 modulates molecular and cellular processes central to the pathogenesis of prostate cancer

Angiotensin 1–7 (Ang1–7) is an endogenous bioactive component of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). In addition to its cardiovascular properties, its anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic traits are believed to play important roles in carcinogenesis. The present study examines the influence of Ang1–7 on processes associated with development and progression of prostate cancer cells. Our findings indicate that while Ang1–7 (1 nM; 48 h) can effectively reduce cell proliferation in DU-145, it can induce a significant decrease in the expression of MKI67 in LNCaP. In both cell lines we also observed a reduction in colony size in soft agar assay. A various changes in gene expression were noted after exposure to Ang1–7: those of anti- and pro-apoptotic agents and the NF-kB family of transcription factors, as well as mesenchymal cell markers and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). In addition, Ang1–7 was found to modulate cell adhesion and matrix metallopeptidase (MMP) activity. Changes were also observed in the levels of angiotensin receptors and sex steroid hormone receptors. Ang1–7 reduced the levels of estrogen receptor alpha gene (ESR1) and increased the expression of estrogen receptor beta gene (ESR2) in all prostate cancer cells; it also up-regulated androgen receptor (AR) expression in androgen-sensitive cells but contradictory effect was observed in androgen- irresponsive cell lines. In summary, the results confirm the existence of complex network between the various elements of the local RAS and the molecular and cellular mechanisms of prostate cancerogenesis. The response of cancer cells to Ang1–7 appears to vary dependently on the dose and time of incubation as well as the aggressiveness and the hormonal status of cells.

Self-Assembled Nanomedicines for Anticancer and Antibacterial Applications

Self-assembly strategies have been widely applied in the nanomedicine field, which provide a convenient approach for building various structures for delivery carriers. When cooperating with biomolecules, self-assembly systems have significant influence on the cell activity and life process and could be used for regulating nanodrug activity. In this review, self-assembled nanomedicines are introduced, including materials, encapsulation, and releasing strategies, where self-assembly strategies are involved. Furthermore, as a promising and emerging area for nanomedicine, in situ self-assembly of anticancer drugs and supramolecular antibiotic switches is also discussed about how to regulate drug activity. Selective pericellular assembly can block mass transformation of cancer cells inducing cell apoptosis, and the intracellular assembly can either cause cell death or effectively avoid drug elimination from cytosol of cancer cells because of the assembly-induced retention (AIR) effect. Host-guest interactions of drug and competitive molecules offer reversible regulations of antibiotic activity, which can reduce drug-resistance and inhibit the generation of drug-resistant bacteria. Finally, the challenges and development trend in the field are discussed.

Role of COX-2/PGE2 Mediated Inflammation in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

A significant amount of research indicates that the cyclooxygenase/prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) pathway of inflammation contributes to the development and progression of a variety of cancers, including squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx (OSCC). Although there have been promising results from studies examining the utility of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of OSCC, this strategy has been met with only variable success and these drugs are also associated with toxicities that make them inappropriate for some OSCC patients. Improved inflammation-targeting therapies require continued study of the mechanisms linking inflammation and progression of OSCC. In this review, a synopsis of OSCC biology will be provided, and recent insights into inflammation related mechanisms of OSCC pathobiology will be discussed. The roles of prostaglandin E2 and cluster of differentiation factor 147 (CD147) will be presented, and evidence for their interactions in OSCC will be explored. Through continued investigation into the protumourigenic pathways of OSCC, more treatment modalities targeting inflammation-related pathways can be designed with the hope of slowing tumour progression and improving patient prognosis in patients with this aggressive form of cancer.

Integrin alpha x stimulates cancer angiogenesis through PI3K/Akt signaling-mediated VEGFR2/VEGF-A overexpression in blood vessel endothelial cells

Integrin alpha x (ITGAX), a member of the integrin family, usually serves as a receptor of the extracellular matrix. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that ITGAX may be involved in angiogenesis in dendritic cells. Herein, we report a direct role of ITGAX in angiogenesis during tumor development. Overexpression of ITGAX in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) enhanced their proliferation, migration, and tube formation and promoted xenograft ovarian tumor angiogenesis and growth. Further study showed that overexpression of ITGAX activated the PI3k/Akt pathway, leading to the enhanced expression of c-Myc, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), whereas, the treatment of cells with PI3K inhibitor diminished these effects. Besides, c-Myc was observed to bind to the VEGF-A promoter. By Co-Immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assay, we manifested the interaction between ITGAX and VEGFR2 or the phosphorylated VEGFR2. Immunostaining of human ovarian cancer specimens suggested that endothelial cells of micro-blood vessels displayed strong expression of VEGF-A, c-Myc, VEGFR2, and the PI3K signaling molecules. Also, overexpression of ITGAX in HUVECs could stimulate the spheroid formation of ovarian cancer cells. Our study uncovered that ITGAX stimulates angiogenesis through the PI3K/Akt signaling-mediated VEGFR2/VEGF-A overexpression during cancer development.

Matrix modeling and remodeling: A biological interplay regulating tissue homeostasis and diseases

The overall structure and architecture of the extracellular matrix undergo dramatic alterations in composition, form, and functionality over time. The stochasticity begins during development, essential for maintaining organismal homeostasis and is heavily implicated in many pathobiological states including fibrosis and cancer. Modeling and remodeling of the matrix is driven by the local cellular milieu and secreted and cell-associated components in a framework of dynamic reciprocity. This collection of expertly-written reviews aims to relay state-of-the-art information concerning the mechanisms of matrix modeling and remodeling in physiological development and disease.