Rethinking and optimising plastic waste management under COVID-19 pandemic: Policy solutions based on redesign and reduction of single-use plastics and personal protective equipment

Potential biodegradable face mask to counter environmental impact of Covid-19

On the eve of the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a tremendous increase in the production of facemasks across the world. The primary raw materials for the manufacturing of the facemasks are non-biodegradable synthetic polymers derived from petrochemicals. Disposal of these synthetic facemasks increases waste-load in the environment causing severe ecological issues for flora and fauna. The synthesis processes of the polymers from the petrochemical by-products were also not eco-friendly, which releases huge greenhouse and harmful gases. Therefore, many research organizations and entrepreneurs realize the need for biodegradable facemasks to render similar performance as the existing non-biodegradable masks. The conventional textile fabrics made of natural fibers like cotton, flax, hemp, etc., can also be used to prepare facemasks with multiple layers in use for general protection. Such natural textile masks can be made anti-microbial by applying various herbal anti-microbial extracts like turmeric, neem, basil, aloe vera, etc. As porosity is the exclusive feature of the masks for arresting tiny viruses, the filter of the masks should have a pore size in the nanometre scale, and that can be achieved in nanomembrane manufactured by electrospinning technology. This article reviews the various scopes of electrospinning technology for the preparation of nanomembrane biomasks. Besides protecting us from the virus, the biomasks can be useful for skin healing, skincare, auto-fragrance, and organized cooling which are also discussed in this review article.

In the midst of every crisis, lies great opportunity? Analysing environmental attitudes in the face of the Covid-19 pandemic

A widely used media narrative suggests that the environment benefitted from the Covid-19 lockdowns. Numerous publications which came out following the lockdowns only reinforced this view by seeing Covid-19 as an opportunity to think more about the environment. However, these narratives are largely anecdotal, assumptive and pay little attention to the question of what people actually think about the lockdowns in environmental terms. To fill this gap, this study provides the empirical basis needed to either support or reject the aforementioned dominant narrative on Covid-19 and environment. Survey data (eighty questionnaires per country) were collected from participants in Cameroon (Buea), Egypt (Cairo), Italy (several major cities) India (Mumbai and New Delhi), and The Netherlands (mainly Amsterdam). The findings of this study reveal that generally, Covid-19 has not changed the way most people think about the environment. This is either because people were already pro-environmental before Covid-19, or people see Covid-19 and the visible environmental changes as temporal phenomenon. One other major observation in this study is the regional differences in environmental attitudes in relation to Covid-19. The least change in environmental attitudes was observed in high-income countries and the most change in low-middle-income countries. Therefore, the paper concludes that the importance of Covid-19 on a more sustainable future should not be overplayed or overemphasised. It will take more than a two-year break from normal living to mitigate environmental degradation. Accordingly, pro-environmentalism should focus on other intervention points.

Investigating the current status of COVID-19 related plastics and their potential impact on human health

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a sudden global increase in the production, consumption, and mismanagement of personal protective equipment (PPE). As plastic-based PPE such as disposable face masks and gloves have become widely used, human exposure to PPE-derived pollutants may occur through indirect and direct pathways. This review explores the potential health impacts related to plastic-based PPE through these pathways. Face masks release microplastics, which are directly inhaled during use or transported through the environment. The latter can adsorb chemical contaminants and harbor pathogenic microbiota, and once consumed by organisms, they can translocate to multiple organs upon intake, potentially causing detrimental and cytotoxic effects. However, more research is required to have a comprehensive overview of the human health effects.

A review of the medical waste management system at Covid-19 situation in Bangladesh

Medical waste (MW) poses serious threats to environmental and public health. Throughout the world, existing challenges of medical waste management (MWM) have been heightened in the Covid-19 situation due to an increase in the massive amount of MW. Even before the pandemic, MWM has always been a concern in Bangladesh. The objectives of this research are to review the related national policy initiatives and guidelines in Bangladesh in comparison with the international guidelines, to evaluate the present scenario of the MWM system, and to explore the scope of Impact Assessment (IA) in improving the system. From the analysis, it has been found that several national guidelines have been formulated during this pandemic covering important issues related to the MWM system, which is commendable. Some of these guidelines comply with international guidelines, but there are inconsistencies among these. However, neither the previous MWM policy tools nor these guidelines are implemented accordingly. In this pandemic, an IA framework has also been published in Bangladesh, which is praiseworthy. Although no evidence could be found on its implementation either. Therefore, it is necessary to take initiative for the implementation of this IA framework. Thereby the policy makers will be able to identify the gaps prohibiting the implementation of the MWM policy tools and guidelines. This will enable them to take corrective actions accordingly to improve the MWM system by enhancing the preparedness and capacity against any possible future situations like pandemic overwhelming the MW situation in Bangladesh.

Face mask waste generation and management during the COVID-19 pandemic: An overview and the Peruvian case

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has driven massive consumption of personal protective equipment (PPE) worldwide. Single-use face masks are one of the most used PPE to prevent the transmission of the virus. However, mismanagement of such materials threatens the environment with a new form of plastic pollution. Researchers argue that it is necessary to develop and implement innovative ways to manage and recycle PPE in order to reduce their impacts on the environment. In the present work, we have reviewed and discussed the recent development of sustainable face mask alternatives and recycling and repurposing routes under the COVID-19 pandemic context. Moreover, we have conducted estimations of the daily face mask waste generation in Peru, a developing country struggling with a poor solid waste management framework and infrastructure. Unlike previous studies, our equation incorporates the “economically active population” variable in order to provide more precise estimations, while evaluating single-use and reusable scenarios. The scenarios of incorporating reusable face masks significantly reduced the amount of solid waste generated in Peru. In situ evidence shows that face masks are polluting the streets and beaches of Peru, probably driven by mismanagement and poor environmental awareness.

Disposable masks release microplastics to the aqueous environment with exacerbation by natural weathering

The COVID-19 pandemic has driven explosive growth in the use of masks has resulted in many issues related to the disposal and management of waste masks. As improperly disposed masks enter the ocean, the risk to the marine ecological system is further aggravated, especially in the shoreline environment. The objective of this study is to explore the changing characteristics and environmental behaviors of disposable masks when exposed to the shoreline environment. The transformation of chain structure and chemical composition of masks as well as the decreased mechanical strength of masks after UV weathering were observed. The melt-blown cloth in the middle layer of masks was found to be particularly sensitive to UV irradiation. A single weathered mask can release more than 1.5 million microplastics to the aqueous environment. The physical abrasion caused by sand further exacerbated the release of microplastic particles from masks, with more than 16 million particles released from just one weathered mask in the presence of sand. The study results indicate that shorelines are not only the main receptor of discarded masks from oceans and lands, but also play host to further transformation of masks to plastic particles.

Characterization of littered face masks in the southeastern part of Turkey

A possible source of microplastics has started to be released into nature because of the single-use face masks that protect us against the spread of COVID-19 and are being thrown onto the streets and into seas and nature. This study aims to estimate the amount of face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey, thereby expressing our concerns about waste management and plastic pollution and calling on appropriate solid waste management policies and governments to take the necessary measures to formulate their strategies at all levels. In this context, the number of masks in an area of 1 km2 in 3 different cities was determined theoretically and experimentally. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were also used to evaluate plastic polymer characteristics of the single-use face mask. It was determined that the three cities produce roughly 10 tons of face masks in a day. With the increasing use of single-use plastics, the impact of face masks on microplastic pollution is of great concern. Although studies on the recovery of disposable masks continue, the level is insufficient. Therefore, studies to be carried out on technologies that will enable the repeated use of masks are important.

Post-Transcriptional Control in the Regulation of Polyhydroxyalkanoates Synthesis

The large production of non-degradable petrol-based plastics has become a major global issue due to its environmental pollution. Biopolymers produced by microorganisms such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are gaining potential as a sustainable alternative, but the high cost associated with their industrial production has been a limiting factor. Post-transcriptional regulation is a key step to control gene expression in changing environments and has been reported to play a major role in numerous cellular processes. However, limited reports are available concerning the regulation of PHA accumulation in bacteria, and many essential regulatory factors still need to be identified. Here, we review studies where the synthesis of PHA has been reported to be regulated at the post-transcriptional level, and we analyze the RNA-mediated networks involved. Finally, we discuss the forthcoming research on riboregulation, synthetic, and metabolic engineering which could lead to improved strategies for PHAs synthesis in industrial production, thereby reducing the costs currently associated with this procedure.

Environmental externalities of the COVID-19 lockdown: Insights for sustainability planning in the Anthropocene

The COVID-19 pandemic has abruptly halted the Anthropocene's ever-expanding reign for the time being. The resulting global human confinement, dubbed as the Anthropause, has created an unprecedented opportunity for us to evaluate the environmental consequences of large-scale changes in anthropogenic activities. Based on a methodical and in-depth review of related literature, this study critically evaluates the positive and negative externalities of COVID-19 induced lockdown on environmental components including air, water, noise, waste, forest, wildlife, and biodiversity. Among adverse impacts of the lockdown, increased amount of healthcare waste (300-400%), increased level of atmospheric ozone (30-300%), elevated levels of illicit felling in forests and wildlife poaching were prominent. Compared to the negative impacts, significant positive changes in various quality parameters related to key environmental components were evident. Positive impacts on air quality, water quality, noise level, waste generation, and wildlife were apparent in varying degrees as evaluated in this study. By presenting a critical overview of the recommendations given in the major literature in light of these documented impacts, this paper alludes to potential policy reforms as a guideline for future sustainable environmental management planning. Some of the key recommendations are e.g., enhance remote working facilities, cleaner design, use of internet of things, automation, systematic lockdown, and inclusion of hazardous waste management in disaster planning. The summarized lessons of this review, pertinent to the dynamic relationship between anthropogenic activities and environmental degradation, amply bring home the need for policy reforms and prioritization of Sustainable Development Goals in the context of the planetary boundaries to the environmental sustainability for a new post-pandemic world.

Post COVID-19 pandemic: Biofragmentation and soil ecotoxicological effects of microplastics derived from face masks

Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, used face masks have increasingly littered the environment and are causes for concern since they are commonly made of plastics such as polypropylene. Understanding production of microplastics from face masks is essential for predicting the post COVID-19 pandemic impact on the soil ecosystem. We investigated the generation of nanofibers from meltblown face mask filters (MB filters) and their adverse effects on soil species, particularly the earthworm and springtail. Results of MB filter soil bioassays at a high concentration (1000 mg/kg dry soil) suggest inhibited reproduction and stunted growth in springtails, decreased intracellular esterase activity in earthworm coelomocytes, and inhibited spermatogenesis in male earthworm reproductive tissues. Moreover, it was estimated that generation of nanofibers from microfibers and fragments of MB filters might occur in the soil ecosystem post COVID-19. This study does not oppose the use of face masks but aims to encourage appropriate disposal of the masks. Preservation of human health and the ecosystem should be prioritized even amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.

Healthcare Workers' Experiences and Views of Using Surgical Masks and Respirators, and Their Attitudes on the Sustainability: A Semi-Structured Survey Study during COVID-19

A universal mask use was instituted in healthcare during COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. The extensive growth in the consumption of surgical masks and respirators brought new challenges. Healthcare workers had to get accustomed to wearing the facemasks continuously, raising concerns on the patient, occupational, and environmental safety. The aim of this study is to describe frontline healthcare workers and other authorities’ views and experiences on continuous use of surgical masks and respirators (facemasks) and their attitudes towards environmental and sustainability issues. A cross-sectional web-based survey was conducted in Finland during the COVID-19 pandemic in autumn 2020. The respondents(N = 120) were recruited via social media, and the data were collected using a purpose-designed questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and inductive content analysis were used to analyze the quantitative data and qualitative data, respectively. The healthcare workers perceived their own and patient safety, and comfortability of facemasks as important, but according to their experiences, these properties were not evident with the current facemasks. They considered protection properties more important than environmental values. However, biodegradability and biobased material were seen as desired properties in facemasks. Based on the results, the current facemasks do not meet users’ expectations well enough. Especially the design, breathability, and sustainability issues should be taken more into account.

Green-based active packaging: Opportunities beyond COVID-19, food applications, and perspectives in circular economy-A brief review

The development of biodegradable packaging, based on agro-industrial plant products and by-products, can transform waste into products with high added value and reduce the use of conventional nonrenewable packaging. Green-based active packaging has a variety of compounds such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, aromatics, among others. These compounds interact with packaged products to improve food quality and safety and favor the migration of bioactive compounds from the polymeric matrix to food. The interest in the potential hygienic-sanitary benefit of these packages has been intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic, which made the population more aware of the relevant role of packaging for protection and conservation of food. It is estimated that the pandemic scenario expanded food packaging market due to shift in eating habits and an increase in online purchases. The triad health, sustainability, and circular economy is a trend in the development of packaging. It is necessary to minimize the consumption of natural resources, reduce the use of energy, avoid the generation of waste, and emphasize the creation of social and environmental values. These ideas underpin the transition from the emphasis on the more subjective discourse to the emphasis on the more practical method of thinking about the logic of production and use of sustainable packaging. Presently, we briefly review some trends and economic issues related to biodegradable materials for food packaging; the development and application of bio-based active films; some opportunities beyond COVID-19 for food packaging segment; and perspectives in circular economy.

Plastic Pollution by COVID-19 Pandemic: An Urge for Sustainable Approaches to Protect the Environment

COVID-19 pandemic has created a prolonged impact globally and destructed the life all over the world. The necessary use of personal protective equipments, masks, gloves and other plastic products has to some extent reduced transmission of virus. However, the impact of plastic waste generated worldwide due to the pandemic has affected the environment globally. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has destructed and altered every part of life and environment globally. Potential impacts on the environment are seen due to the transmission of virus as well as a slowdown in economic activities as lockdown prevails. Increased biomedical waste, improper usage and disposal of surgical masks, disinfectants, gloves, and increasing plastics wastes from domestic households continuously endangers environment. Not only it has an impact on environment, but also deteriorates human health in the future. Global environmental sustainability is necessitated to overcome the plastic pollution problem and facilitate strategies to recycle and reuse plastics products. This review highlights the influence of COVID-19 on wastes generated by plastic products along with environmental challenges and repercussions. Also, measures to combat the plastic pollution problem have to be implemented for future protection and safety of the environment.

Review of the valorization options for the proper disposal of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected not only human health and economies but also the environment due to the large volume of waste in the form of discarded personal protective equipment. The remarkable increase in the global usage of face masks, which mainly contain polypropylene, and improper waste management have led to a serious environmental challenge called microplastic pollution. Potential practices for waste management related to waste valorization of discarded face masks as the major type of waste during the COVID-19 pandemic are explored in this study. Recommendations based on governmental practices, situation of state facilities, and societal awareness and engagement applicable to emergency (including COVID-19 pandemic) and postpandemic scenarios are offered while considering potential solutions and available waste management practices in different countries during emergency conditions. However, multicriteria decision making for a country must determine the optimal solution for waste management on the basis of all affecting factors. Awareness of scientific, governments, and communities worldwide will successfully eradicate this important environmental issue.

The multidimensional effects of single-use and packaging plastic strategies on German household waste management

Single-use and packaging plastic (SUPP) strategies are intended to transform the linear make-use-dispose economy of SUPPs into a more circular, resource-efficient one. The aim of this study was to identify optimal SUPP management concepts from a circular-economy-perspective by assessing the effects of different SUPP strategies on household waste management. Data on the generation and management of SUPP-containing household waste in Germany in 2017 were compiled and a material flow model was established. Regulatory SUPP strategies were translated into scenarios (with effects on waste generation and waste composition) and implemented in the material flow model. The effects on material efficiency, waste generation and lower heating values were evaluated and trade-offs between these target dimensions were identified. In Germany in 2017, 32 kg per person and year of SUPP household waste were generated, of which 28 kg per person and year was packaging waste. From a material efficiency perspective, the combination of banning specific non-packaging SUPPs and optimizing source-separation leads to the maximum increase in final recycling rates of SUPPs in household waste, from 38% to 50%. However, in this scenario the amount of SUPP-containing household waste is hardly reduced as compared to the status quo. The trade-offs observed in different waste management target dimensions highlight the importance of understanding the systemic effects of SUPP strategies on waste management in order to identify optimal solutions from a circular-economy-perspective.

Exploration of Strategies for the Enhanced Biodegradation of Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) by A Soil Bacterium Enterobacter Cloacae AKS7

In the context of sustainable bioremediation of Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), in this study, several strategies were explored to enhance the LDPE degradation by the bacterium Enterobacter cloacae AKS7. Initially, Mineral oil and Tween 80 were used to test whether they could modulate microbial colonization and polymer degradation by AKS7. Results indicated Mineral oil could increase microbial colonization and LDPE degradation whereas Tween 80 compromised the same. Since LDPE holds hydrophobic characteristics, the organism showing higher cell-surface hydrophobicity could adhere efficiently to the polymer. Thus, the organism AKS7 was grown in media with different concentrations of glucose and ammonium sulphate to exhibit differences in cell-surface hydrophobicity. We noticed that with increasing cell-surface hydrophobicity, the microbial colonization and LDPE degradation got enhanced considerably. The observations indicated that cell-surface hydrophobicity promoted microbial colonization to LDPE that increased the degree of biodegradation. Besides, LDPE films were photo-oxidized before microbial exposure which showed that AKS7 could degrade ultra-violet (UV) treated LDPE more proficiently compared to the UV-untreated polymer. Moreover, AKS7 could colonize more effectively to the UV-treated LDPE in contrast to the untreated LDPE. Furthermore, it was observed that UV exposure increased the carbonyl bond index of the polymer which got utilized by the organism efficiently thereby increasing the polymer degradation. Hence, the observations indicated that effective microbial colonization to UV-treated LDPE films exhibited a promising metabolic activity that could show an enhanced degradation of LDPE. Therefore, AKS7 warrants to be considered as a promising organism for enhanced degradation of LDPE.

Marine litter: A review of educative interventions

Marine litter is claimed to be one of the most meaningful environmental crises of the century. Education that supports behavior change is a tool to tackle this problem. However, there is a lack of research linking educational initiatives and marine litter issues. A literature review was conducted through a bibliometric and content analysis to explore the state of knowledge regarding educational actions. The results revealed that 2019 was the year with the highest number of publications and that 83.4% of the documents were collaborative efforts. Concerning educational approaches, hands-on and technological activities are being explored to raise awareness and stimulate behavior change. Students and questionnaires represent, respectively, the most common audience and evaluating method. More integrative actions and respective long-term methodological triangulation evaluation were identified as necessary in future studies. This paper is expected to contribute to innovative knowledge in the area by identifying the main gaps in the literature.

Estimating marine plastic pollution from COVID-19 face masks in coastal regions

Face masks are playing an essential role in preventing the spread of COVID-19. Face masks such as N95, and surgical masks, contain a considerable portion of non-recyclable plastic material. Marine plastic pollution is likely to increase due to the rapid use and improper dispensing of face masks, but until now, no extensive quantitative estimation exists for coastal regions. Linking behaviour dataset on face mask usage and solid waste management dataset, this study estimates annual face mask utilization and plastic pollution from mismanaged face masks in coastal regions of 46 countries. It is estimated that approximately 0.15 million tons to 0.39 million tons of plastic debris could end up in global oceans within a year. With lower waste management facilities, the number of plastic debris entering the ocean will rise. Significant investments are required from global communities in improving the waste management facilities for better disposal of masks and solid waste.

What medical waste management system may cope With COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons from Wuhan

The global pandemic caused by the 2019 coronavirus (COVID-19) has led to a dramatic increase in medical waste worldwide. This tremendous increase in medical waste is an important transmission medium for the virus and thus poses new and serious challenges to urban medical waste management. This study investigates the response of medical waste management to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent changes in Wuhan City based on the most detailed data available, including waste generation, storage, transportation, and disposal. The results show that despite a 5-fold increase in the demand for daily medical waste disposal in the peak period, the quick responses in the storage, transportation, and disposal sectors during the pandemic ensured that all medical waste was disposed of within 24 hours of generation. Furthermore, this paper discusses medical waste management during future emergencies in Wuhan. The ability of the medical waste management system in Wuhan to successfully cope with the rapid increase in medical waste caused by major public health emergencies has important implications for other cities suffering from the pandemic and demonstrates the need to establish resilient medical emergency systems in urban areas.

The impact of COVID-19 outbreak and perceptions of people towards household waste management chain in Nepal

The spread of COVID-19 is posing significant challenges to the household (HH) waste management sectors putting waste personnel and concerned bodies under massive pressure. The chain of collection, segregation, recycling, and disposal of household generated wastes is interrupted. This study aimed to assess how the household waste management chain was disrupted by novel coronavirus in Nepal and find the perception of the people towards the existing household waste management system (HHWMS). A descriptive online survey was carried out among 512 people using a cross-sectional research design and data was collected through a self-administered questionnaire method. Both descriptive, as well as inferential tests, were conducted using SPSS software. The finding of this study showed that 62.3% of respondents were not satisfied with the present HHWMS. Furthermore, there was a significant association of the satisfaction level of household waste management during coronavirus outbreak with gender, waste volume change in lockdown, PPE for waste collectors, and education on waste handling techniques provided by the government sector at 5% level of significance (p < 0.05). Proper HH waste management has become a challenge, and to address this some innovative works such as awareness programs for people, health and hygiene related support to waste workers, and effective policy formulation and implementation should be done by the Government of Nepal.

Occurrence of personal protective equipment (PPE) associated with the COVID-19 pandemic along the coast of Lima, Peru

The use and disposal of face masks, gloves, face shields, and other types of personal protective equipment (PPE) have increased dramatically due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Many governments enforce the use of PPE as an efficient and inexpensive way to reduce the transmission of the virus. However, this may pose a new challenge to solid waste management and exacerbate plastic pollution. The aim of the present study was to report the occurrence and distribution of COVID-19-associated PPE along the coast of the overpopulated city of Lima, Peru, and determine the influence of the activities carried out in each study site. In general terms, 138 PPE items were found in 11 beaches during 12 sampling weeks. The density was in the range of 0 to 7.44 × 10^-4 PPE m^-2. Microplastic release, colonization of invasive species, and entanglement or ingestion by apex predators are some of the potential threats identified. Recreational beaches were the most polluted sites, followed by surfing, and fishing sites. This may be because recreational beaches are many times overcrowded by beachgoers. Additionally, most of the PPE was found to be discarded by beachgoers rather than washed ashore. The lack of environmental awareness, education, and coastal mismanagement may pose a threat to the marine environment through marine litter and plastic pollution. Significant efforts are required to shift towards a sustainable solid waste management. Novel alternatives involve redesigning masks based on degradable plastics and recycling PPE by obtaining liquid fuels through pyrolysis.

Valorisation of medical waste through pyrolysis for a cleaner environment: Progress and challenges

The COVID-19 pandemic has exerted great shocks and challenges to the environment, society and economy. Simultaneously, an intractable issue appeared: a considerable number of hazardous medical wastes have been generated from the hospitals, clinics, and other health care facilities, constituting a serious threat to public health and environmental sustainability without proper management. Traditional disposal methods like incineration, landfill and autoclaving are unable to reduce environmental burden due to the issues such as toxic gas release, large land occupation, and unsustainability. While the application of clean and safe pyrolysis technology on the medical wastes treatment to produce high-grade bioproducts has the potential to alleviate the situation. Besides, medical wastes are excellent and ideal raw materials, which possess high hydrogen, carbon content and heating value. Consequently, pyrolysis of medical wastes can deal with wastes and generate valuable products like bio-oil and biochar. Consequently, this paper presents a critical and comprehensive review of the pyrolysis of medical wastes. It demonstrates the feasibility of pyrolysis, which mainly includes pyrolysis characteristics, product properties, related problems, the prospects and future challenges of pyrolysis of medical wastes.

Disposable face masks and reusable face coverings as non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to prevent transmission of SARS-CoV-2 variants that cause coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Role of new sustainable NPI design innovations and predictive mathematical modelling

Best-published evidence supports the combined use of vaccines with non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), to reduce the relative risk of contracting severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes COVID-19; this will enable a safe transition to achieving herd immunity. Albeit complex, the strategic public health goal is to bundle NPIs to keep the basic reproduction number R₀ below one. However, validation of these NPIs is conducted using random clinical trials, which is challenging in a swiftly moving pandemic given the need for recruiting large participant cohort over a longitudinal analysis period. This review highlights emerging innovations for potentially improving the design, functionality and improved waste management of disposable face masks such as filtering facepiece (FFPs) respirators, medical masks, and reusable face coverings to help prevent COVID-19. It describes use of different mathematical models under varying scenarios to inform efficacy of single and combined use of NPIs as important counter-measures to break the cycle of COVID-19 infection including new SARS-CoV-2 variants. Demand for face masks during COVID-19 pandemic keeps increasing, especially for FFPs worn by medical workers. Collaborative and well-conducted randomised controlled trials across borders are required to generate robust data to inform common and consistent policies for COVID-19 and future pandemic planning and management; however, current use of systematic reviews of best available evidence can be considered to guide interim policies.

SARS-CoV-2 pandemic-induced PPE and single-use plastic waste generation scenario

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has demonstrated both positive and negative effects on the environment. Major concerns over personal hygiene, mandated and ease in lockdown actions and slackening of some policy measures have led to a massive surge in the use of disposable personal protective equipment (PPE) and other single-use plastic items. This generated an enormous amount of plastic waste from both healthcare and household units, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Apart from the healthcare workers, the general public have become accustomed to using PPE. These habits are threatening the land and marine environment with immense loads of plastic waste, due to improper disposal practices across the world, especially in developing nations. Contaminated PPE has already made its way to the oceans which will inevitably produce plastic particles alongside other pathogen-driven diseases. This study provided an estimation-based approach in quantifying the amount of contaminated plastic waste that can be expected daily from the massive usage of PPE (e.g. facemasks) because of the countrywide mandated regulations on PPE usage. The situation of Bangladesh has been analysed and projections revealed that a total of 3.4 billion pieces of single-use facemask, hand sanitizer bottles, hand gloves and disposable polyethylene bags will be produced monthly, which will give rise to 472.30 t of disposable plastic waste per day. The equations provided for the quantification of waste from used single-use plastic and PPE can be used for other countries for rough estimations. Then, the discussed recommendations will help concerned authorities and policy makers to design effective response plans. Sustainable plastic waste management for the current and post-pandemic period can be imagined and acted upon.

Afforestation, reforestation and new challenges from COVID-19: Thirty-three recommendations to support civil society organizations (CSOs)

Afforestation/reforestation (A/R) programs spearheaded by Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) play a significant role in reaching global climate policy targets and helping low-income nations meet the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, these organizations face unprecedented challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, these challenges affect their ability to address issues associated with deforestation and forest degradation in a timely manner. We discuss the influence COVID-19 can have on previous, present and future A/R initiatives, in particular, the ones led by International Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs). We provide thirty-three recommendations for exploring underlying deforestation patterns and optimizing forest policy reforms to support forest cover expansion during the pandemic. The recommendations are classified into four groups - i) curbing deforestation and improving A/R, ii) protecting the environment and mitigating climate change, iii) enhancing socio-economic conditions, and iv) amending policy and law enforcement practices.

Challenges and practices on waste management and disposal during COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has imposed a global emergency and also has raised issues with waste management practices. This study emphasized the challenges of increased waste disposal during the COVID-19 crisis and its response practices. Data obtained from the scientific research papers, publications from the governments and multilateral organizations, and media reports were used to quantify the effect of the pandemic towards waste generation. A huge increase in the amount of used personal protective equipments (facemasks, gloves, and other protective stuffs) and wide distribution of infectious wastes from hospitals, health care facilities, and quarantined households was found. The amount of food and plastic waste also increased during the pandemic. These factors caused waste treatment facilities to be overwhelmed, forcing emergency treatment and disposals (e.g., co-disposal in a municipal solid waste incinerator, cement kilns, industrial furnaces, and deep burial) to ramp up processing capacity. This paper discussed the ways the operation of those facilities must be improved to cope with the challenge of handling medical waste, as well as working around the restrictions imposed due to COVID-19. The study also highlights the need for short, mid, and longer-term responses towards waste management during the pandemic. Furthermore, the practices discussed in this paper may provide an option for alternative approaches and development of sustainable strategies for mitigating similar pandemics in the future.

Repurposing of COVID-19 single-use face masks for pavements base/subbase

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has not only created a global health crisis, but it is also now threatening the environment. A multidisciplinary collaborative approach is required to fight against the pandemic and reduce the environmental risks associated with the disposal of used personal protective equipment (PPE). This paper explores an innovative way to reduce pandemic-generated waste by recycling the used face masks with other waste materials in civil constructions. In this research, for the first time, a series of experiments, including modified compaction, unconfined compression strength and resilient modulus tests, were conducted on the blends of different percentages of the shredded face mask (SFM) added to the recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for road base and subbase applications. The experimental results show that RCA mixed with three different percentages (i.e., 1%, 2% and 3%) of SFM satisfied the stiffness and strength requirements for pavements base/subbase. The introduction of the shredded face mask not only increased the strength and stiffness but also improved the ductility and flexibility of RCA/SFM blends. The inclusion of 1% SFM to RCA resulted in the highest values of unconfined compressive strength (216 kPa) and the highest resilient modulus (314.35 MP). However, beyond 2%, increasing the amount of SFM led to a decrease in strength and stiffness.

Compromising situation of India's bio-medical waste incineration units during pandemic outbreak of COVID-19: Associated environmental-health impacts and mitigation measures

COVID-19 induced pandemic situations have put the bio-medical waste (BMW) management system, of the world, to test. Sudden influx, of COVID-infected patients, in health-care facilities, has increased the generation of yellow category BMW (Y-BMW) and put substantial burden on the BMW-incineration units of India. This study presents the compromising situation of the BMW-incineration units of India, in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic, from 21st March 2020 to 31st August 2020. This analysis revealed that on an average each COVID-infected patient in India generates approximately 3.41 kg/d of BMW and average proportion of Y-BMW in it is 50.44%. Further, it was observed that on 13th July 2020, the total Y-BMW, generated by both the normal and COVID-infected patients, fully utilized the BMW-incineration capacity of India. Also, it was made evident that, during the study period, BMW-incineration emitted several pollutants and their concentration was in the order: NO_x > CO > SO_x > PM > HCl > Cd > Pb > Hg > PCBs > Ni > Cr > Be > As. Subsequently, life time cancer risk assessment depicted that with hazard quotient >10^-6, Cd may induce carcinogenic health impacts on both the adults and children of India. Therefore, to mitigate the environmental-health impacts associated with the incineration of BMW, evaluation of various options, viz., alternative technologies, substitution of raw materials and separate treatment of specific wastes, was also done. It is expected that the findings of this study may encourage the global auditory comprising scientific community and authorities to adopt alternate BMW-management strategies during the pandemic.

The prospects of waste management in the hospitality sector post COVID-19

COVID-19 has imposed significant detrimental effects on the global hospitality sector. These effects have primarily been considered from the socio-economic perspective, ignoring the implications of the pandemic for the environmental performance of hospitality services. By drawing upon emerging evidence from various academic and non-academic sources, this conceptual paper critically evaluates the implications of the preventative and protective measures adopted against COVID-19 for the generation of the hospitality sector's food and plastic waste. The implications are divided into direct and indirect and considered through the prism of temporality of their anticipated occurrence (immediate, short-term and medium-term perspective). The paper proposes potential strategies to aid in the management of these wastes in the hospitality sector in a post-pandemic world. To address the issue of food waste, the hospitality sector should be integrated into alternative food networks (AFNs) and short food supply chains (SFSCs). Business coopetition between hospitality enterprises and other actors of the food supply chain is necessary for the success of such integration. To address the issue of plastic waste, the hospitality sector should invest in 'green' innovation. This investment needs to be encouraged and supported by targeted policy interventions. The paper argues that these strategies are critical not only in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, but will also remain valid for the sustained development of the hospitality sector in light of future disastrous events, especially climate change. The paper discusses the institutional and organisational prerequisites for the effective implementation of these strategies and highlights the related research opportunities.

Investigating the knowledge and attitude of the Greek public towards marine plastic pollution and the EU Single-Use Plastics Directive

This study investigates the knowledge and attitudes of the Greek public towards marine plastic pollution and the EU Single-Use Plastics Directive by interpreting the results of a questionnaire. In Greece, the issue of marine plastic pollution has been highlighted by scientists. Public consultation processes about the implementation of the Directive into the national law have been also carried out. However, the results of our study showed that participants were not informed about the issue of marine plastic pollution nor the EU Single-Use Plastics Directive. Nevertheless, they expressed positive attitudes towards it including their willingness to pay and act in order to reduce their plastic waste. Thereby, it is recommended that more initiatives should support the publicity of the Directive so that the Greek public would be able to participating in the decision-making process and support its implementation. In addition, the current study suggests that the topic of microplastics should be integrated into the context of formal education.

Novel consortia of enterobacter and pseudomonas formulated from cow dung exhibited enhanced biodegradation of polyethylene and polypropylene

This study prioritizes the biodegradation potential of novel bacterial consortia formulated from cow dung samples towards low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) in comparison with our previous studies. Ten possible consortia were formulated using 10 selected isolates with >10% weight reduction of LDPE and PP, these were pre-treated under UV for 1 h, and their biodegradation potential was studied for 160 days. The isolates present in prioritized consortia were characterized by standard microbiology and 16SrRNA gene sequencing methods. Out of 10 bacterial consortia formulated, potential consortium-CB3 showed greater percentage degradation (weight reduction) of 64.25 ± 2% and 63.00 ± 2% towards LDPE and PP films, respectively (p < 0.05) at 37 °C compared to other consortia. Significant structural variations due to the formation of bacterial biofilm were observed in CB3 treated LDPE and PP films. The three bacteria-IS1, IS2, and IS3-that constituted CB3 were found to be novel strains and designated to be Enterobacter sp nov. bt DSCE01, Enterobacter cloacae nov. bt DSCE02, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa nov. bt DSCE-CD03, respectively. This novel consortium can be scaled up for enhanced degradation of plastic polymers and probably design cost-effective bio-digester for industrial applications using CB3 as potential inoculum.

Disposable over Reusable Face Masks: Public Safety or Environmental Disaster?

Many governments have imposed the public use of face masks and they are now moving towards enforcing disposable masks to abate COVID-19 transmission. While disposable masks consistently provide higher protection, they also carry multiple environmental burdens, from greenhouse gases released during production to the landfilling and littering. Conversely, reusable masks’ protection can vary from >90% certified industrial masks, similar to disposable masks, to dubious homemade or artisanal masks. This work discusses the protection provided by different masks, their impact on the environment, and new proposals combining concerns about public health and sustainability.

COVID-19 Risk Assessment: Contributing to Maintaining Urban Public Health Security and Achieving Sustainable Urban Development

As the most infectious disease in 2020, COVID-19 is an enormous shock to urban public health security and to urban sustainable development. Although the epidemic in China has been brought into control at present, the prevention and control of it is still the top priority of maintaining public health security. Therefore, the accurate assessment of epidemic risk is of great importance to the prevention and control even to overcoming of COVID-19. Using the fused data obtained from fusing multi-source big data such as POI (Point of Interest) data and Tencent-Yichuxing data, this study assesses and analyzes the epidemic risk and main factors that affect the distribution of COVID-19 on the basis of combining with logistic regression model and geodetector model. What’s more, the following main conclusions are obtained: the high-risk areas of the epidemic are mainly concentrated in the areas with relatively dense permanent population and floating population, which means that the permanent population and floating population are the main factors affecting the risk level of the epidemic. In other words, the reasonable control of population density is greatly conducive to reducing the risk level of the epidemic. Therefore, the control of regional population density remains the key to epidemic prevention and control, and home isolation is also the best means of prevention and control. The precise assessment and analysis of the epidemic conducts by this study is of great significance to maintain urban public health security and achieve the sustainable urban development.

Environmental challenges induced by extensive use of face masks during COVID-19: A review and potential solutions

The ongoing COVID-19 disease significantly affects not only human health, it also affects the wealth of country' economy and everyday routine of human life. To control the spread of the virus, face mask is used as primary personal protective equipment (PPE). Thus, the production and usage of face masks significantly increase as the COVID-19 pandemic still escalating. Further, most of these masks contain plastics or other derivatives of plastics. Therefore, this extensive usage of face masks generates million tons of plastic wastes to the environments in a short span of time. This study aims to investigate the environmental impact induced by face mask wastes and sustainable solution to reduce this waste. An online survey was carried out to identify the types of face mask and number of masks used per week by an individual from 1033 people. Based on this survey and available literature, this study quantifies the amount of plastics waste generated by face masks. However, this survey was limited with certain ages, country and durations (July-August 2020). Thus, the prediction of plastic waste generation, only provide fundamental knowledge about the mask wastes. Results revealed that there is a huge plastic waste remained in land and marine environment in the form of mask waste, which will contribute to micro-plastic pollution. Therefore, this paper also highlights the sustainable approach to the mask production by integrating the use of natural plant fiber in the woven face mask technology to reduce the plastic waste induced by masks. Further, upcycling the mask waste and producing construction materials also discussed.

COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on plastic and antiviral polymeric textile causing pollution on beaches and coasts of South America

The propagation of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide has been alarming in the last months. According to recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO), the use of face masks is essential for slowing down the transmission rate of COVID-19 in human beings. This pandemic has generated a substantial increase in the use, as well as in the production, of face masks and other elements (gloves, face protectors, protective suits, safety shoes) manufactured with polymeric materials, including antiviral textiles most of which will end as microplastic pools. Focusing on South America, the use and mismanagement of this type of personal protective equipment (PPE) represents an environmental problem. Added to this issue are the increase in the use of single-use plastic, and the reduction of plastic recycling due to the curfew generated by the pandemic, further aggravating plastic pollution on coasts and beaches. Recently, researchers have developed antiviral polymeric textile technology composed of Ag and Cu nanoparticles for PPE to reduce the contagion and spread of COVID-19. Antiviral polymeric textile wastes could also have long-term negative repercussions on aquatic environments, as they are an important emerging class of contaminants. For this reason, this work provides reflections and perspectives on how the COVID-19 pandemic can aggravate plastic pollution on beaches and coastal environments, consequently increasing the damage to marine species in the coming years. In addition, the potential impact of the pandemic on waste management systems is discussed here, as well as future research directions to improve integrated coastal management strategies.

Environmental challenges from the increasing medical waste since SARS outbreak

Medical waste is a special class of hazardous pollutants. Improper treatment would cause secondary environmental pollution, especially when responding to public health emergencies. However, there are relatively few researches on the generation of medical waste, and there is a lack of basic understanding of its spatial-temporal heterogeneity. The outbreak of SARS in 2002 is a turning point in China's medical system reform. We estimated the production of medical waste and pollutants on a provincial scale in China from 2002 to 2018, using the data of medical statistics. Moreover, we forecasted the trend of medical waste in China until 2030, using a combination of environmental pressure model (STIRPAT) and time series model (ARIMA). We found that with the development of China's medical system and economy (such as the increase in personal income and popularization of universal health care), the number of seeking medical treatment rapidly increase led to explosive growth in medical waste (∼240%) and pollutants (∼260%), and large hospitals are the major sources. By 2030, the production of medical waste would still increase by more than 50% compared with 2018 even there is no the pandemic due to the huge population. The production of medical waste in the eastern region was higher than that in the west under the influence of higher population and GDP, while the per capita medical waste was only affected by household consumption level which had no regional characteristic. Additionally, Hg loads from medical waste are more than twice as high as that from discharged wastewater in some regions, which are facing great control pressures. In the future, when planning for medical waste disposal, policymakers shall increase the disposal facilities based on population and promote mobile treatment equipment to improve efficiency, increase the number of beds in medical institutions rather than building more hospitals, and strengthen basic research on the environmental impact.

Environmentally friendly non-medical mask: An attempt to reduce the environmental impact from used masks during COVID 19 pandemic

During COVID-19 pandemic, wearing a mask has become a usual custom as a personal protection in every activity. The growth in consumption of face masks leads the increasing of mask waste and became a particular problem in environment. This study uses analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to determine appropriate material for making environmentally friendly non-medical mask. Filtration efficiency, breathability, and environmental impact index are defined as main criteria and carried out 26 alternative material from previous study. AHP presents a ranking of priority for all the alternative materials with Quilt and Cotton 600 TPI are the best values and fulfilled the material characteristics required by WHO. The sensitivity analysis generates some material with constant global priority results, such as Quilt, Cotton 600 TPI, Quilting cotton, Polycotton, and Polypropylene fabric 1. Quilting cotton with woven structure becomes the third ranking of alternative material, and Polypropylene fabric 1 is the worst material for making environmentally friendly non-medical mask.

Plastic residues produced with confirmatory testing for COVID-19: Classification, quantification, fate, and impacts on human health

In March 2020, several international organizations started making recommendations regarding the need for prompt coronavirus-based diagnosis in order to prevent its spread among the world's population. The most widely used test for confirmation of COVID-19 is real-time PCR (RT-PCR). This technique uses plastic supplies in its procedures, which are 100% disposable to avoid cross-contamination and biological risks. The scientific community has become increasingly worried because of the environmental impacts associated with the current COVID-19 pandemic, such as medical plastic residues. We classified and estimated the amount of plastic residues generated as a consequence of COVID-19 diagnostic tests and analyzed the relationships of the plastics generated with number of confirmed cases, population size, and gross domestic product in each country. We evidenced that the RT-PCR generates 37.27 g of plastic residues per sample. All patients COVID-19 tested with RT-PCR have generated 15,439.59 tons of plastic residue worldwide, until August 2020. The plastic residues generated by the COVID-19 tests have no relation with size population or gross domestic product of the countries. There is also no relationship between the plastic residues generated by the COVID-19 tests and the confirmed cases. About 97% of the plastic residues from diagnostic tests for coronavirus are incinerated due to their hazardous nature to humans, but toxic chemicals are released into the environment during the process. In the short term, there is a need to reduce plastic waste and improve controls of gas emissions from incineration plants in countries where there is a deficit. In the long term, biodegradable biomedical manufacturing that are free of releasing toxic chemicals when they are incinerated, must be considered.

Plastic residues produced with confirmatory testing for COVID-19: Classification, quantification, fate, and impacts on human health

In March 2020, several international organizations started making recommendations regarding the need for prompt coronavirus-based diagnosis in order to prevent its spread among the world's population. The most widely used test for confirmation of COVID-19 is real-time PCR (RT-PCR). This technique uses plastic supplies in its procedures, which are 100% disposable to avoid cross-contamination and biological risks. The scientific community has become increasingly worried because of the environmental impacts associated with the current COVID-19 pandemic, such as medical plastic residues. We classified and estimated the amount of plastic residues generated as a consequence of COVID-19 diagnostic tests and analyzed the relationships of the plastics generated with number of confirmed cases, population size, and gross domestic product in each country. We evidenced that the RT-PCR generates 37.27 g of plastic residues per sample. All patients COVID-19 tested with RT-PCR have generated 15,439.59 tons of plastic residue worldwide, until August 2020. The plastic residues generated by the COVID-19 tests have no relation with size population or gross domestic product of the countries. There is also no relationship between the plastic residues generated by the COVID-19 tests and the confirmed cases. About 97% of the plastic residues from diagnostic tests for coronavirus are incinerated due to their hazardous nature to humans, but toxic chemicals are released into the environment during the process. In the short term, there is a need to reduce plastic waste and improve controls of gas emissions from incineration plants in countries where there is a deficit. In the long term, biodegradable biomedical manufacturing that are free of releasing toxic chemicals when they are incinerated, must be considered.

Environmental implication of personal protection equipment in the pandemic era: LCA comparison of face masks typologies

In the present global health emergency, face masks play a key role in limiting the diffusion of the COVID-19 pandemic, by acting as physical barriers to avoid droplets and filtrate exhalations coming from infected subjects. Since the most widespread devices are disposable products made of plastic materials, this means that relevant quantities of fossil resources will be consumed, and huge amounts of wastes will be generated. The present paper aims to compare the environmental performances of five different typologies of face masks (i.e. 3D printed reusable mask with filter, surgical mask, filtering face-piece masks – FFPs with and without valve, washable masks), considering an average Italian use scenario and the whole mask lifecycle: materials, manufacturing processes, use, sanitization, and disposal. The Life Cycle Assessment methodology has been used to assess the environmental impacts in terms of both ReCiPe midpoints and endpoints. Reusable masks and masks with interchangeable filters could potentially contribute to improve the environmental performances in all the considered impact and damage categories. Eco-design actions can be developed starting from the study results.

Plastics in the time of COVID-19 pandemic: Protector or polluter?

The COVID-19 pandemic has reemphasized the indispensable role of plastics in our daily life. Plastics in terms of personal protective equipment (PPEs) and other single-use medical equipment along with packaging solutions owing to their inherent properties have emerged as a life-savior for protecting the health and safety of the frontline health workers and the common citizens during the pandemic. However, plastics have been deemed as evil polluter due to their indiscriminate littering and mismanagement amid increased plastic usage and waste generation during this unprecedented crisis. This article reviews and assesses to dwell upon whether plastics in the time of pandemic are acting as protector of the public health or polluter of the environment. Considering the utilities and limitations of plastic along with its management or mismanagement, and the fate, an equitable appraisal suggests that the consumers' irresponsible behavior, and attitude and poor awareness, and the stress on waste management infrastructure in terms of collection, operation, and financial constraints as the major drivers, leading to mismanagement, turn plastic into an evil polluter of the environment. Plastic can be a protector if managed properly and complemented by the circular economy strategies in terms of reduction, recycle and recovery, and thereby preventing leakage into the environment. To safeguard the supply chain of PPEs, several decontamination techniques have been adopted worldwide ensuring their effective reprocessing to prioritize the circular economy within the system. Policy guidelines encouraging to adopt safer practices and sustainable technical solutions along with consumers' education for awareness creation are the need of the hour for preventing plastic to turn from protector with high utility to polluter.

The Effect of Recycled HDPE Plastic Additions on Concrete Performance

This study examined HDPE (high-density polyethylene) plastic waste as an added material for concrete mixtures. The selection of HDPE was based on its increased strength, hardness, and resistance to high temperatures compared with other plastics. It focused on how HDPE plastic can be used as an additive in concrete to increase its tensile strength and compressive strength. 156 specimens were used to identify the effect of adding different percentages and sizes of HDPE lamellar particles to lower, medium, and higher strength concrete for non-structural applications. HDPE 0.5 mm thick lamellar particles with sizes of 10 × 10 mm, 5 × 20 mm, and 2.5 × 40 mm were added at 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and 20% by weight of cement. The results showed that the medium concrete class (with compressive strength equal to 10 MPa) had the best response to the addition of HDPE. The 5% HDPE addition represented the optimal mix for all concrete types, while the 5 × 20 mm size was best.

Review of Current Healthcare Waste Management Methods and Their Effect on Global Health

Healthcare is a rapidly growing industry as medical treatments become more sophisticated, more in demand due to increasing incidence of chronic disease and more widely available worldwide. This booming industry is also creating more waste than ever before and, as such, there is a growing need to treat and dispose of this waste. Healthcare waste (HCW) disposal includes a multitude of disposal methods, including incineration, landfilling and chemical treatments. These rudimentary methods and their growing use present their own problems that negatively impact both the environment and, in turn, damage public health, thus contributing to a global healthcare crisis. The aim of this review was to examine the current HCW disposal methods in place and the harmful effects they have on the environment and on public health. The findings accumulated in this review demonstrate a heavy reliance on basic, low tech HCW disposal techniques and uncovered the negative impacts of these methods. There is a notable lack of employment of "greener" HCW disposal methods on a largescale due to cost, access and feasibility. Despite innovations in HCW disposal, there is no scalable, global green solution at present. Further, the review highlights that global health consequences of HCW disposal methods often differ depending on how developed the country is.

Repercussions of COVID-19 pandemic on solid waste generation and management strategies

It has been over ten months since the beginning of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-2019), and its impact on solid waste management, especially medical waste, is becoming clearer. This study systematically reviews the potential influences of the COVID-19 pandemic on medical waste, personal protection equipment waste and municipal solid waste (MSW), and discusses the corresponding measures and policies of solid waste management in typical countries. The results show that the generation of medical waste from the pandemic increased significantly, with 18%-425% growth. It is estimated that the daily output of COVID-19 medical waste increased from 200 t/d on Feb. 22 to over 29000 t/d at the end of September 2020 throughout the world. The use of personal protective equipment will continue to grow in the long-term, while the blockade and isolation measures greatly reduced the volume of commercial waste, especially for tourist cities, and part of this waste was transferred to household waste. Residents' attitudes and behavior toward food waste have changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In response to the pandemic, international organizations and several countries have issued new policies and guidelines and adjusted their management strategies for medical waste and MSW treatment. The pandemic has brought specific challenges to the disposal capacity of medical waste worldwide. It has also brought about the stagnation of policies related to the reduction of plastic products and waste recycling. This study will provide some useful information for managers and governmental officials on effective solid waste management during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Microplastics in Surface Waters and Sediments from Guangdong Coastal Areas, South China

Microplastic is an emerging global pollutant that have attracted a great deal of attention from researchers and the public. Guangdong Province has a large population and a relatively well-developed economy, but lacks a modern pollution control system. Guangdong has a long coastline with varying levels of pollution, and little research has been conducted on microplastics. Therefore, we investigated the level of microplastic pollution in coastal areas of Guangdong Province, and the abundance of microplastics in surface waters and sediments at 13 sampling sites. The abundance of microplastics in surface water and sediment samples ranged from 850 to 3500 items/L and 433.3 to 4166.3 items/kg, respectively. Fiber is the main type of microplastics in both surface water and sediment. The sampled microplastics were typically transparent. Raman results show that the surface water sample mainly includes rayon (38.2%), polyethylene terephthalate (16.4%), and ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymer (12.7%). This study used the pollution load index method to evaluate the pollution risk of microplastics along the coast of Guangdong, and provided the basis for the formulation of environmental policy.

Impacts of COVID-19 on energy demand and consumption: Challenges, lessons and emerging opportunities

COVID-19 has caused great challenges to the energy industry. Potential new practices and social forms being facilitated by the pandemics are having impacts on energy demand and consumption. Spatial and temporal heterogeneities of impacts appear gradually due to the dynamics of pandemics and mitigation measures. This paper overviews the impacts and challenges of COVID-19 pandemics on energy demand and consumption and highlights energy-related lessons and emerging opportunities. The discussion on energy-related issues is divided into four main sections: emergency situation and its impacts, environmental impacts and stabilising energy demand, recovering energy demand, and lessons and emerging opportunities. The changes in energy requirements are compared and analysed from multiple perspectives according to available data and information. In general, although the overall energy demand declines, the spatial and temporal variations are complicated. The energy intensity has presented apparent changes, the extra energy for COVID-19 fighting is non-negligible for stabilising energy demand, and the energy recovery in different regions presents significant differences. A crucial issue has been to allocate and find energy-related emerging opportunities for the post pandemics. This study could offer a direction in opening new avenues for increasing energy efficiency and promoting energy saving.