Ultrafast X-ray absorption spectroscopy

Beyond carbon K-edge harmonic emission using a spatial and temporal synthesized laser field

We present numerical simulations of high-order harmonic generation in helium using a temporally synthesized and spatially nonhomogeneous strong laser field. The combination of temporal and spatial laser field synthesis results in a dramatic cutoff extension far beyond the usual semiclassical limit. Our predictions are based on the convergence of three complementary approaches: resolution of the three dimensional time dependent Schrödinger equation, time-frequency analysis of the resulting dipole moment, and classical trajectory extraction. A laser field synthesized both spatially and temporally has been proven capable of generating coherent extreme ultraviolet photons beyond the carbon K edge, an energy region of high interest as it can be used to initiate inner-shell dynamics and study time-resolved intramolecular attosecond spectroscopy.

Multidimensional attosecond resonant X-ray spectroscopy of molecules: lessons from the optical regime

New free-electron laser and high-harmonic generation X-ray light sources are capable of supplying pulses short and intense enough to perform resonant nonlinear time-resolved experiments in molecules. Valence-electron motions can be triggered impulsively by core excitations and monitored with high temporal and spatial resolution. We discuss possible experiments that employ attosecond X-ray pulses to probe the quantum coherence and correlations of valence electrons and holes, rather than the charge density alone, building on the analogy with existing studies of vibrational motions using femtosecond techniques in the visible regime.

Thin water film formation on metal oxide crystal surfaces

Reactions taking place at hydrated metal oxide surfaces are of considerable environmental and technological importance. Surface-sensitive X-ray methods can provide structural and chemical information on stable interfacial species, but it is challenging to perform in situ studies of reaction kinetics in the presence of water. We have implemented a new approach to creating a micrometer-scale water film on a metal oxide surface by combining liquid and gas jets on a spinning crystal. The water films are stable indefinitely and sufficiently thin to allow grazing incidence X-ray reflectivity and spectroscopy measurements. The approach will enable studies of a wide range of surface reactions and is compatible with interfacial optical-pump/X-ray-probe studies.

Ultrafast soft X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy at liquid water microjets

Since the pioneering work of Kai Siegbahn, electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) has been developed into an indispensable analytical technique for surface science. The value of this powerful method of photoelectron spectroscopy (PES, also termed photoemission spectroscopy) and Siegbahn's contributions were recognized in the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics. The need for high vacuum, however, originally prohibited PES of volatile liquids, and only allowed for investigation of low-vapor-pressure molecules attached to a surface (or close to a surface) or liquid films of low volatility. Only with the invention of liquid beams of volatile liquids compatible with high-vacuum conditions was PES from liquid surfaces under vacuum made feasible. Because of the ubiquity of water interfaces in nature, the liquid water-vacuum interface became a most attractive research topic, particularly over the past 10 years. PES studies of these important aqueous interfaces remained significantly challenging because of the need to develop high-pressure PES methods. For decades, ESCA or PES (termed XPS, for X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, in the case of soft X-ray photons) was restricted to conventional laboratory X-ray sources or beamlines in synchrotron facilities. This approach enabled frequency domain measurements, but with poor time resolution. Indirect access to time-resolved processes in the condensed phase was only achieved if line-widths could be analyzed or if processes could be related to a fast clock, that is, reference processes that are fast enough and are also well understood in the condensed phase. Just recently, the emergence of high harmonic light sources, providing short-wavelength radiation in ultrashort light pulses, added the dimension of time to the classical ESCA or XPS technique and opened the door to (soft) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy with ultrahigh time resolution. The combination of high harmonic light sources (providing radiation with laserlike beam qualities) and liquid microjet technology recently enabled the first liquid interface PES experiments in the IR/UV-pump and extreme ultraviolet-probe (EUV-probe) configuration. In this Account, we highlight features of the technology and a number of recent applications, including extreme states of matter and the discovery and detection of short-lived transients of the solvated electron in water. Properties of the EUV radiation, such as its controllable polarization and features of the liquid microjet, will enable unique experiments in the near future. PES measures electron binding energies and angular distributions of photoelectrons, which comprise unique information about electron orbitals and their involvement in chemical bonding. One of the future goals is to use this information to trace molecular orbitals, over time, in chemical reactions or biological transformations.

Unraveling the solid-liquid-vapor phase transition dynamics at the atomic level with ultrafast x-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy

X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) is a powerful probe of electronic and atomic structures in various media, ranging from molecules to condensed matter. We show how ultrafast time resolution opens new possibilities to investigate highly nonequilibrium states of matter including phase transitions. Based on a tabletop laser-plasma ultrafast x-ray source, we have performed a time-resolved (∼3  ps) XANES experiment that reveals the evolution of an aluminum foil at the atomic level, when undergoing ultrafast laser heating and ablation. X-ray absorption spectra highlight an ultrafast transition from the crystalline solid to the disordered liquid followed by a progressive transition of the delocalized valence electronic structure (metal) down to localized atomic orbitals (nonmetal-vapor), as the average distance between atoms increases.

Time-resolved soft x-ray absorption setup using multi-bunch operation modes at synchrotrons

Here, we report on a novel experimental apparatus for performing time-resolved soft x-ray absorption spectroscopy in the sub-ns time scale using non-hybrid multi-bunch mode synchrotron radiation. The present setup is based on a variable repetition rate Ti:sapphire laser (pump pulse) synchronized with the ~500 MHz x-ray synchrotron radiation bunches and on a detection system that discriminates and singles out the significant x-ray photon pulses by means of a custom made photon counting unit. The whole setup has been validated by measuring the time evolution of the L(3) absorption edge during the melting and the solidification of a Ge single crystal irradiated by an intense ultrafast laser pulse. These results pave the way for performing synchrotron time-resolved experiments in the sub-ns time domain with variable repetition rate exploiting the full flux of the synchrotron radiation.

Multilayer Fresnel zone plate for soft X-ray microscopy resolves sub-39nm structures

Best resolutions in X-ray focusing are obtained to date by using diffractive lenses called Fresnel zone plates (FZPs). Their further improvement is nevertheless hindered by fundamental limitations in the employed manufacturing techniques. Here, we show a novel method to fabricate FZPs based on multilayer deposition with atomic layer deposition (ALD) and subsequent sectioning with focused ion beam (FIB). For the first time a multilayer FZP working in the soft X-ray range was prepared and could achieve the best resolution obtained so far for multilayer FZPs by resolving features below 39nm in size in a scanning soft X-ray microscope. The new technique presents high potential for high resolution microscopy in both the soft and hard X-ray range.

Simulating picosecond iron K-edge X-ray absorption spectra by ab initio methods to study photoinduced changes in the electronic structure of Fe(II) spin crossover complexes

Recent time-resolved X-ray absorption experiments probing the low-spin to high-spin photoconversion in Fe(II) complexes have monitored the complex interplay between electronic and structural degrees of freedom on an ultrafast time scale. In this study, we use transition potential (TP) and time-dependent (TD) DFT to simulate the picosecond time-resolved iron K-edge X-ray absorption spectrum of the spin crossover (SCO) complex, [Fe(tren(py)(3))](2+). This is achieved by simulating the X-ray absorption spectrum of [Fe(tren(py)(3))](2+) in its low-spin (LS), (1)A(1), ground state and its high-spin (HS), (5)T(2), excited state. These results are compared with the X-ray absorption spectrum of the high-spin analogue (HSA), [Fe(tren(6-Me-py)(3))](2+), which has a (5)T(2) ground state. We show that the TP-DFT methodology can simulate a 40 eV range of the iron K-edge XANES spectrum reproducing all of the major features observed in the static and transient spectra of the LS, HS, and HSA complexes. The pre-edge region of the K-edge spectrum, simulated by TD-DFT, is shown to be highly sensitive to metal-ligand bonding. Changes in the intensity of the pre-edge region are shown to be sensitive to both symmetry and π-backbonding by analysis of relative electric dipole and quadrupole contributions to the transition moments. We generate a spectroscopic map of the iron 3d orbitals from our TD-DFT results and determine ligand field splitting energies of 1.55 and 1.35 eV for the HS and HSA complexes, respectively. We investigate the use of different functionals finding that hybrid functionals (such as PBE0) produce the best results. Finally, we provide a detailed comparison of our results with theoretical methods that have been previously used to interpret Fe K-edge spectroscopy of equilibrium and time-resolved SCO complexes.

Development of high-repetition-rate laser pump/x-ray probe methodologies for synchrotron facilities

We describe our implementation of a high repetition rate (54 kHz-6.5 MHz), high power (>10 W), laser system at the 7ID beamline at the Advanced Photon Source for laser pump/x-ray probe studies of optically driven molecular processes. Laser pulses at 1.06 μm wavelength and variable duration (10 or 130 ps) are synchronized to the storage ring rf signal to a precision of ~250 fs rms. Frequency doubling and tripling of the laser radiation using nonlinear optical techniques have been applied to generate 532 and 355 nm light. We demonstrate that by combining a microfocused x-ray probe with focused optical laser radiation the requisite fluence (with <10 μJ/pulse) for efficient optical excitation can be readily achieved with a compact and commercial laser system at megahertz repetition rates. We present results showing the time-evolution of near-edge x-ray spectra of a well-studied, laser-excited metalloporphyrin, Ni(II)-tetramesitylporphyrin. The use of high repetition rate, short pulse lasers as pump sources will dramatically enhance the duty cycle and efficiency in data acquisition and hence capabilities for laser-pump/x-ray probe studies of ultrafast structural dynamics at synchrotron sources.

A high-repetition rate scheme for synchrotron-based picosecond laser pump/x-ray probe experiments on chemical and biological systems in solution

We present the extension of time-resolved optical pump/x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) probe experiments towards data collection at MHz repetition rates. The use of a high-power picosecond laser operating at an integer fraction of the repetition rate of the storage ring allows exploitation of up to two orders of magnitude more x-ray photons than in previous schemes based on the use of kHz lasers. Consequently, we demonstrate an order of magnitude increase in the signal-to-noise of time-resolved XAS of molecular systems in solution. This makes it possible to investigate highly dilute samples at concentrations approaching physiological conditions for biological systems. The simplicity and compactness of the scheme allows for straightforward implementation at any synchrotron beamline and for a wide range of x-ray probe techniques, such as time-resolved diffraction or x-ray emission studies.

Simulation and visualization of attosecond stimulated x-ray Raman spectroscopy signals in trans-N-methylacetamide at the nitrogen and oxygen K-edges

The stimulated Raman component of the pump-probe spectrum of trans-N-methylacetamide obtained in response to two soft x-ray pulses is calculated by treating the core excitations at the Hartree-Fock static-exchange level. The signal reveals the dynamics of valence-electron wave packets prepared and detected in the vicinity of a selected atom (either nitrogen or oxygen). The evolving electronic charge density as well as electronic coherence of the doorway and the window created by the two pulses are visualized using a time-dependent basis set of natural orbitals, which reveals that the wave packets consist of several entangled valence particle-hole pairs.

Kikuchi ultrafast nanodiffraction in four-dimensional electron microscopy

Coherent atomic motions in materials can be revealed using time-resolved X-ray and electron Bragg diffraction. Because of the size of the beam used, typically on the micron scale, the detection of nanoscale propagating waves in extended structures hitherto has not been reported. For elastic waves of complex motions, Bragg intensities contain all polarizations and they are not straightforward to disentangle. Here, we introduce Kikuchi diffraction dynamics, using convergent-beam geometry in an ultrafast electron microscope, to selectively probe propagating transverse elastic waves with nanoscale resolution. It is shown that Kikuchi band shifts, which are sensitive only to the tilting of atomic planes, reveal the resonance oscillations, unit cell angular amplitudes, and the polarization directions. For silicon, the observed wave packet temporal envelope (resonance frequency of 33 GHz), the out-of-phase temporal behavior of Kikuchi's edges, and the magnitude of angular amplitude (0.3 mrad) and polarization elucidate the nature of the motion: one that preserves the mass density (i.e., no compression or expansion) but leads to sliding of planes in the antisymmetric shear eigenmode of the elastic waveguide. As such, the method of Kikuchi diffraction dynamics, which is unique to electron imaging, can be used to characterize the atomic motions of propagating waves and their interactions with interfaces, defects, and grain boundaries at the nanoscale.

Simulation study of chiral two-dimensional ultraviolet spectroscopy of the protein backbone

Amide n-pi* and pi-pi* excitations around 200 nm are prominent spectroscopic signatures of the protein backbone, which are routinely used in ultraviolet (UV) circular dichroism for structure characterization. Recently developed ultrafast laser sources may be used to extend these studies to two dimensions. We apply a new algorithm for modeling protein electronic transitions to simulate two-dimensional UV photon echo signals in this regime and to identify signatures of protein backbone secondary (and tertiary) structure. Simulated signals for a set of globular and fibrillar proteins and their specific regions reveal characteristic patterns of helical and sheet secondary structures. We investigate how these patterns vary and converge with the size of the structural motif. Specific chiral polarization configurations of the UV pulses are found to be sensitive to aspects of the protein structure. This information significantly augments that available from linear circular dichroism.

Double conical crystal x-ray spectrometer for high resolution ultrafast x-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy of Al K edge

An x-ray spectrometer devoted to dynamical studies of transient systems using the x-ray absorption fine spectroscopy technique is presented in this article. Using an ultrafast laser-induced x-ray source, this optical device based on a set of two potassium acid phthalate conical crystals allows the extraction of x-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy structures following the Al absorption K edge. The proposed experimental protocol leads to a measurement of the absorption spectra free from any crystal reflectivity defaults and shot-to-shot x-ray spectral fluctuation. According to the detailed analysis of the experimental results, a spectral resolution of 0.7 eV rms and relative fluctuation lower than 1% rms are achieved, demonstrated to be limited by the statistics of photon counting on the x-ray detector.

Direct probing of spin state dynamics coupled with electronic and structural modifications by picosecond time-resolved XAFS

The first direct observation of the transient spin-state in a disordered magnetic system with time-resolved XAFS is reported. By observing the evolution of the Fe(II) 1s-3d transition, the spin crossover transition from the (1)A(1) low spin state to (5)T(2) high spin state has been directly observed on a picosecond time scale. Moreover, observation of the transient spin state with time-resolved XAFS allows for the investigation of the variations in the electronic state and molecular structure. This unique experimental technique probes the excited states involved in the ultrafast photoinduced reactions in disordered magnetic systems.

Excited-state molecular structures captured by X-ray transient absorption spectroscopy: a decade and beyond

Transient molecular structures along chemical reaction pathways are important for predicting molecular reactivity, understanding reaction mechanisms, as well as controlling reaction pathways. During the past decade, X-ray transient absorption spectroscopy (XTA, or LITR-XAS, laser-initiated X-ray absorption spectroscopy), analogous to the commonly used optical transient absorption spectroscopy, has been developed. XTA uses a laser pulse to trigger a fundamental chemical process, and an X-ray pulse(s) to probe transient structures as a function of the time delay between the pump and probe pulses. Using X-ray pulses with high photon flux from synchrotron sources, transient electronic and molecular structures of metal complexes have been studied in disordered media from homogeneous solutions to heterogeneous solution-solid interfaces. Several examples from the studies at the Advanced Photon Source in Argonne National Laboratory are summarized, including excited-state metalloporphyrins, metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) states of transition metal complexes, and charge transfer states of metal complexes at the interface with semiconductor nanoparticles. Recent developments of the method are briefly described followed by a future prospective of XTA. It is envisioned that concurrent developments in X-ray free-electron lasers and synchrotron X-ray facilities as well as other table-top laser-driven femtosecond X-ray sources will make many breakthroughs and realise dreams of visualizing molecular movies and snapshots, which ultimately enable chemical reaction pathways to be controlled.

Picosecond and femtosecond X-ray absorption spectroscopy of molecular systems

The need to visualize molecular structure in the course of a chemical reaction, a phase transformation or a biological function has been a dream of scientists for decades. The development of time-resolved X-ray and electron-based methods is making this true. X-ray absorption spectroscopy is ideal for the study of structural dynamics in liquids, because it can be implemented in amorphous media. Furthermore, it is chemically selective. Using X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) in laser pump/X-ray probe experiments allows the retrieval of the local geometric structure of the system under study, but also the underlying photoinduced electronic structure changes that drive the structural dynamics. Recent developments in picosecond and femtosecond X-ray absorption spectroscopy applied to molecular systems in solution are reviewed: examples on ultrafast photoinduced processes such as intramolecular electron transfer, low-to-high spin change, and bond formation are presented.

Picosecond short-range disordering in isochorically heated aluminum at solid density

Using ultrafast x-ray probing, we experimentally observed a progressive loss of ordering within solid-density aluminum as the temperature raises from 300 K to >10{4} K. The Al sample was isochorically heated by a short ( approximately ps), laser-accelerated proton beam and probed by a short broadband x-ray source around the Al K edge. The loss of short-range ordering is detected through the progressive smoothing of the time-resolved x-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) structure. The results are compared with two different theoretical models of warm dense matter and allow us to put an upper bound on the onset of ion lattice disorder within the heated solid-density medium of approximately 10 ps.

The relationship of monodentate and bidentate coordinated uranium(VI) sulfate in aqueous solution

The coordination of U(VI) sulfate complexes has been investigated by uranium L III-edge EXAFS and HEXS measurements with the aim to distinguish monodentate and bidentate coordinated sulfate in aqueous solution. UV-vis absorption spectroscopy has been used to differentiate the species and to determine the species distribution as a function of the [SO4 2−]/[UO2 2+] ratio. A monodentate coordination prevails in solutions with [SO4 2−]/[UO2 2+] ratio of 1, where UO2SO4 is the dominant species. Besides the dominating monodentate sulfate a small amount of bidentate sulfate could be observed, indicating that two isomers may exist for UO2SO4. With increasing [SO4 2−]/[UO2 2+] ratio the UO2(SO4)2 2− species becomes the main species. The uranium atom of this species is coordinated by two bidentate sulfate groups.

Field-free molecular alignment for studies using x-ray pulses from a synchrotron radiation source

A short, intense laser pulse may be employed to create a spatially aligned molecular sample that persists after the laser pulse is over. We theoretically investigate whether this impulsive molecular alignment technique may be exploited for experiments using x-ray pulses from a third-generation synchrotron radiation facility. Using a linear rigid rotor model, the alignment dynamics of model molecular systems with systematically increasing size is calculated utilizing both a quantum density matrix formalism and a classical ensemble method. For each system, the alignment dynamics obtained for a 95 ps laser is compared with that obtained for a 10 ps laser pulse. The average degree of alignment after the laser pulse, as calculated quantum mechanically, increases with the size of the molecule. This effect is quantitatively reproduced by the classical calculations. The average degree of impulsive alignment is high enough to induce a pronounced linear dichroism in resonant x-ray absorption using the intense 100 ps x-ray pulses currently available. However, for structural studies based on elastic x-ray scattering, bright x-ray pulses with a duration of 1 ps or shorter will be required in order to make full use of impulsive molecular alignment.