Characteristics of a miniature compartment-less glucose-O2 biofuel cell and its operation in a living plant

Biofuel cells: enhanced enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis

Enzymatic biofuel cells represent an emerging technology that can create electrical energy from biologically renewable catalysts and fuels. A wide variety of redox enzymes have been employed to create unique biofuel cells that can be used in applications such as implantable power sources, energy sources for small electronic devices, self-powered sensors, and bioelectrocatalytic logic gates. This review addresses the fundamental concepts necessary to understand the operating principles of biofuel cells, as well as recent advances in mediated electron transfer- and direct electron transfer-based biofuel cells, which have been developed to create bioelectrical devices that can produce significant power and remain stable for long periods.

Hierarchically driven IrO2 nanowire electrocatalysts for direct sensing of biomolecules

Applying nanoscale device fabrications toward biomolecules, ultra sensitive, selective, robust, and reliable chemical or biological microsensors have been one of the most fascinating research directions in our life science. Here we introduce hierarchically driven iridium dioxide (IrO(2)) nanowires directly on a platinum (Pt) microwire, which allows a simple fabrication of the amperometric sensor and shows a favorable electronic property desired for sensing of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) without the aid of enzymes. This rational engineering of a nanoscale architecture based on the direct formation of the hierarchical 1-dimensional (1-D) nanostructures on an electrode can offer a useful platform for high-performance electrochemical biosensors, enabling the efficient, ultrasensitive detection of biologically important molecules.

Characterization of different FAD-dependent glucose dehydrogenases for possible use in glucose-based biosensors and biofuel cells

In this study, different flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent glucose dehydrogenases (FADGDHs) were characterized electrochemically after “wiring” them with an osmium redox polymer [Os(4,4′-dimethyl-2,2′-bipyridine)₂(PVI)₁₀Cl]⁺ on graphite electrodes. One tested FADGDH was that recently discovered in Glomerella cingulata (GcGDH), another was the recombinant form expressed in Pichia pastoris (rGcGDH), and the third was a commercially available glycosylated enzyme from Aspergillus sp. (AspGDH). The performance of the Os-polymer “wired” GDHs on graphite electrodes was tested with glucose as the substrate. Optimal operational conditions and analytical characteristics like sensitivity, linear ranges and current density of the different FADGDHs were determined. The performance of all three types of FADGDHs was studied at physiological conditions (pH 7.4). The current densities measured at a 20 mM glucose concentration were 494 ± 17, 370 ± 24, and 389 ± 19 μA cm⁻² for GcGDH, rGcGDH, and AspGDH, respectively. The sensitivities towards glucose were 2.16, 1.90, and 1.42 μA mM⁻¹ for GcGDH, rGcGDH, and AspGDH, respectively. Additionally, deglycosylated rGcGDH (dgrGcGDH) was investigated to see whether the reduced glycosylation would have an effect, e.g., a higher current density, which was indeed found. GcGDH/Os-polymer modified electrodes were also used and investigated for their selectivity for a number of different sugars.

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A comparison of redox polymer and enzyme co-immobilization on carbon electrodes to provide membrane-less glucose/O2 enzymatic fuel cells with improved power output and stability

Glassy carbon and graphite electrodes modified with films of enzyme and osmium redox polymer, cross linked with poly (ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether, were used for elaboration of a glucose/O(2) enzymatic fuel cell. The redox polymers [Os(4,4'-dimethoxy-2,2'-bipyridine)(2)(polyvinylimidazole)(10)Cl](+) and [Os(4,4'-dichloro-2,2'-bipyridine)(2)(polyvinylimidazole)(10)Cl](+) were selected to facilitate transfer of electrons from the glucose oxidase (GOx) active site to the T1 Cu site of multicopper oxygenases of Trametes hirsuta laccase (ThLacc) and Myrothecium verrucaria bilirubin oxidase (MvBOD). Maximum power density at pH 5.5 of 3.5 μW cm(-2) at a cell voltage of 0.35 V was obtained for an assembled membrane-less fuel cell based on ThLacc on glassy carbon as cathode, in the presence of 0.1 M glucose, 37 °C, with lower power observed at pH 7.4 and 4.5. Replacement of the ThLacc cathode with that of MvBOD produced 10 μW cm(-2) at 0.25 V under pseudo-physiological conditions. Replacement of glassy carbon with graphite as base electrode material resulted in increased redox polymer loading, leading to an increase in power output to 43 μW cm(-2) at 0.25 V under similar conditions. Improved stabilization of biofilms was achieved through covalent anchoring of enzyme and redox polymer on graphite electrodes, derivatized via electrochemical reduction of the diazonium cation generated in situ from p-phenylenediamine. Enzymatic fuel cells using this approach retained 70% power at 24 h, whereas fuel cells prepared without chemical anchoring to graphite retained only 10% of power over the same interval.

A metabolic biofuel cell: conversion of human leukocyte metabolic activity to electrical currents

An investigation of the electrochemical activity of human white blood cells (WBC) for biofuel cell (BFC) applications is described. WBCs isolated from whole human blood were suspended in PBS and introduced into the anode compartment of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The cathode compartment contained a 50 mM potassium ferricyanide solution. Average current densities between 0.9 and 1.6 μA cm-2 and open circuit potentials (Voc) between 83 and 102 mV were obtained, which were both higher than control values. Cyclic voltammetry was used to investigate the electrochemical activity of the activated WBCs in an attempt to elucidate the mechanism of electron transfer between the cells and electrode. Voltammograms were obtained for the WBCs, including peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs - a lymphocyte-monocyte mixture isolated on a Ficoll gradient), a B lymphoblastoid cell line (BLCL), and two leukemia cell lines, namely K562 and Jurkat. An oxidation peak at about 363 mV vs. SCE for the PMA (phorbol ester) activated primary cells, with a notable absence of a reduction peak was observed. Oxidation peaks were not observed for the BLCL, K562 or Jurkat cell lines. HPLC confirmed the release of serotonin (5-HT) from the PMA activated primary cells. It is believed that serotonin, among other biochemical species released by the activated cells, contributes to the observed BFC currents.

Nano-engineered flavin-dependent glucose dehydrogenase/gold nanoparticle-modified electrodes for glucose sensing and biofuel cell applications

A three-dimensional composite consisting of the oxygen-insensitive flavin-dependent glucose dehydrogenase, GDH, and Au nanoparticles (NPs) is assembled on a Au surface using an electropolymerization process. The bis-aniline-cross-linked GDH/Au NPs composite reveals effective electrical contact with the electrode (ket=1100 s(-1)), and the effective bioelectrocatalyzed oxidation is driven by the enzyme/NPs matrix. The GDH/Au NPs-functionalized electrode is implemented as an amperometric glucose sensor, and it reveals superior functions when compared to an analogous glucose oxidase/Au NPs system. The O2-insensitive GDH/Au NPs composite electrode was further used as an anode in a membraneless glucose/O2 biofuel cell. The cathode in this system was composed of bilirubin oxidase cross-linked onto a carbon nanotube-modified glassy carbon electrode. The power output of the cell was 32 μW cm(-2).

Triphenylmethane dyes, an alternative for mediated electronic transfer systems in glucose oxidase biofuel cells

The bioelectrochemical behavior of three triphenylmethane (TPM) dyes commonly used as pH indicators, and their application in mediated electron transfer systems for glucose oxidase bioanodes in biofuel cells was investigated. Bromophenol Blue, Bromothymol Blue, Bromocresol Green were compared bioelectrochemically against two widely used mediators, benzoquinone and ferrocene carboxy aldehyde. Biochemical studies were performed in terms of enzymatic oxidation, enzyme affinity, catalytic efficiency and co-factor regeneration. The different features of the TPM dyes as mediators are determined by the characteristics in the oxidation/reduction processes studied electrochemically. The reversibility of the oxidation/reduction processes was also established through the dependence of the voltammetric peaks with the sweep rates. All three dyes showed good performances compared to the FA and BQ when evaluated in a half enzymatic fuel cell. Potentiodynamic and power response experiments showed maxima power densities of 32.8 μW cm(-2) for ferrocene carboxy aldehyde followed by similar values obtained for TPM dyes around 30 μW cm(-2) using glucose and mediator concentrations of 10 mmol L(-1) and 1.0 mmol L(-1), respectively. Since no mediator consumption was observed during the bioelectrochemical process, and also good redox re-cycled processes were achieved, the use of triphenylmethane dyes is considered to be promising compared to other mediated systems used with glucose oxidase bioanodes and/or biofuel cells.

Energy sources and their development for application in medical devices

Electronic medical devices have become an indispensable part of modern healthcare. Currently, a wide variety of electronic medical devices are being used to monitor physiological parameters of the body, perform therapy and supplement or even entirely replace complex biological functions. Cardiac pacemakers, cardioverter-defibrillators and cochlear implants are a few examples of such medical devices. Proper functionality of these devices relies heavily on the continuous supply of a sufficient amount of electricity to them. In this sense, a reliable, safe and convenient method for the provision of energy is very crucial. Various approaches have been developed to fulfil the divergent and challenging energy requirements of medical devices. In this article, we present a brief overview of the energy requirements of medical devices and review the existing and emerging energy sources for application in these devices, particularly wearable and implantable devices.

MEMS-based power generation techniques for implantable biosensing applications

Implantable biosensing is attractive for both medical monitoring and diagnostic applications. It is possible to monitor phenomena such as physical loads on joints or implants, vital signs, or osseointegration in vivo and in real time. Microelectromechanical (MEMS)-based generation techniques can allow for the autonomous operation of implantable biosensors by generating electrical power to replace or supplement existing battery-based power systems. By supplementing existing battery-based power systems for implantable biosensors, the operational lifetime of the sensor is increased. In addition, the potential for a greater amount of available power allows additional components to be added to the biosensing module, such as computational and wireless and components, improving functionality and performance of the biosensor. Photovoltaic, thermovoltaic, micro fuel cell, electrostatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric based generation schemes are evaluated in this paper for applicability for implantable biosensing. MEMS-based generation techniques that harvest ambient energy, such as vibration, are much better suited for implantable biosensing applications than fuel-based approaches, producing up to milliwatts of electrical power. High power density MEMS-based approaches, such as piezoelectric and electromagnetic schemes, allow for supplemental and replacement power schemes for biosensing applications to improve device capabilities and performance. In addition, this may allow for the biosensor to be further miniaturized, reducing the need for relatively large batteries with respect to device size. This would cause the implanted biosensor to be less invasive, increasing the quality of care received by the patient.

Micellar polymer encapsulation of enzymes

Although enzymes are highly efficient and selective catalysts, there have been problems incorporating them into fuel cells. Early enzyme-based fuel cells contained enzymes in solution rather than immobilized on the electrode surface. One problem utilizing an enzyme in solution is an issue of transport associated with long diffusion lengths between the site of bioelectrocatalysis and the electrode. This issue drastically decreases the theoretical overall power output due to the poor electron conductivity. On the other hand, enzymes immobilized at the electrode surface have eliminated the issue of poor electron conduction due to close proximity of electron transfer between the electrode and the biocatalyst. Another problem is the short-term stability of the catalytic activity of the enzyme that is suspended in free flowing solution. Enzymes in solutions are only stable for hours to days, whereas immobilized enzymes can be stable for weeks to months and now even years. Over the last decade, there has been substantial research on immobilizing enzymes at electrode surfaces for biofuel cell and sensor applications. The most commonly used techniques are sandwich or wired techniques. Sandwich techniques are powerful and successful for enzyme immobilization; however, the enzymes optimal activity is not retained due to the physical distress applied by the polymer limiting its applications as well as the nonuniform distribution of the enzyme and the diffusion of analyte through the polymer is slowed significantly. Wired techniques have shown to extend the lifetime of an enzyme at the electrode surface; however, this technique is very hard to master due to specific covalent bonding of enzyme and polymer, which changes the three-dimensional configuration of enzyme and with that decreases the optimal catalytic activity. This chapter details an entrapment technique where an enzyme will be immobilized within the pores of a hydrophobically modified micellar polymers such as Nafion) and chitosan. This strategy has shown to safely immobilize enzymes at electrode surfaces with shelf and operation lifetimes of more than 2 years.

Technologies for continuous glucose monitoring: current problems and future promises

Devices for continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) are currently a major focus of research in the area of diabetes management. It is envisioned that such devices will have the ability to alert a diabetes patient (or the parent or medical care giver of a diabetes patient) of impending hypoglycemic/hyperglycemic events and thereby enable the patient to avoid extreme hypoglycemic/hyperglycemic excursions as well as minimize deviations outside the normal glucose range, thus preventing both life-threatening events and the debilitating complications associated with diabetes. It is anticipated that CGM devices will utilize constant feedback of analytical information from a glucose sensor to activate an insulin delivery pump, thereby ultimately realizing the concept of an artificial pancreas. Depending on whether the CGM device penetrates/breaks the skin and/or the sample is measured extracorporeally, these devices can be categorized as totally invasive, minimally invasive, and noninvasive. In addition, CGM devices are further classified according to the transduction mechanisms used for glucose sensing (i.e., electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric). However, at present, most of these technologies are plagued by a variety of issues that affect their accuracy and long-term performance. This article presents a critical comparison of existing CGM technologies, highlighting critical issues of device accuracy, foreign body response, calibration, and miniaturization. An outlook on future developments with an emphasis on long-term reliability and performance is also presented.