151
|
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous particles found in a variety of biofluids that encapsulate molecular information from the cell, which they originate from. This rich source of information that is easily obtained can then be mined to find diagnostic biomarkers. This article explores the current biological understanding of EVs and specific methods to isolate and analyze them. A case study of a company leading the charge in using EVs in diagnostic assays is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay N Strotman
- PGXL Technologies, 201 East Jefferson Street, Suite 306, Louisville, KY 40202, USA; Department of Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA.
| | - Mark W Linder
- PGXL Technologies, 201 East Jefferson Street, Suite 306, Louisville, KY 40202, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 511 S Floyd Street, MDR Building, Room 204, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| |
Collapse
|
152
|
Rosa-Fernandes L, Rocha VB, Carregari VC, Urbani A, Palmisano G. A Perspective on Extracellular Vesicles Proteomics. Front Chem 2017; 5:102. [PMID: 29209607 PMCID: PMC5702361 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2017.00102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing attention has been given to secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the past decades, especially in the portrayal of their molecular cargo and role as messengers in both homeostasis and pathophysiological conditions. This review presents the state-of-the-art proteomic technologies to identify and quantify EVs proteins along with their PTMs, interacting partners and structural details. The rapid growth of mass spectrometry-based analytical strategies for protein sequencing, PTMs and structural characterization has improved the level of molecular details that can be achieved from limited amount of EVs isolated from different biological sources. Here we will provide a perspective view on the achievements and challenges on EVs proteome characterization using mass spectrometry. A detailed bioinformatics approach will help us to picture the molecular fingerprint of EVs and understand better their pathophysiological function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Livia Rosa-Fernandes
- GlycoProteomics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Victória Bombarda Rocha
- GlycoProteomics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Andrea Urbani
- Proteomic and Metabonomic Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Biochemistry and Biochemical Clinic, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- GlycoProteomics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Proteomic and Metabonomic Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
153
|
Isolation and characterization of urinary extracellular vesicles: implications for biomarker discovery. Nat Rev Nephrol 2017; 13:731-749. [PMID: 29081510 DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2017.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Urine is a valuable diagnostic medium and, with the discovery of urinary extracellular vesicles, is viewed as a dynamic bioactive fluid. Extracellular vesicles are lipid-enclosed structures that can be classified into three categories: exosomes, microvesicles (or ectosomes) and apoptotic bodies. This classification is based on the mechanisms by which membrane vesicles are formed: fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membranes (exosomes), budding of vesicles directly from the plasma membrane (microvesicles) or those shed from dying cells (apoptotic bodies). During their formation, urinary extracellular vesicles incorporate various cell-specific components (proteins, lipids and nucleic acids) that can be transferred to target cells. The rigour needed for comparative studies has fueled the search for optimal approaches for their isolation, purification, and characterization. RNA, the newest extracellular vesicle component to be discovered, has received substantial attention as an extracellular vesicle therapeutic, and compelling evidence suggests that ex vivo manipulation of microRNA composition may have uses in the treatment of kidney disorders. The results of these studies are building the case that urinary extracellular vesicles act as mediators of renal pathophysiology. As the field of extracellular vesicle studies is burgeoning, this Review focuses on primary data obtained from studies of human urine rather than on data from studies of laboratory animals or cultured immortalized cells.
Collapse
|
154
|
Sódar BW, Kovács Á, Visnovitz T, Pállinger É, Vékey K, Pocsfalvi G, Turiák L, Buzás EI. Best practice of identification and proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles in human health and disease. Expert Rev Proteomics 2017; 14:1073-1090. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2017.1392244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara W. Sódar
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Árpád Kovács
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tamás Visnovitz
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Éva Pállinger
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Károly Vékey
- MS Proteomics Research Group, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest Hungary
| | - Gabriella Pocsfalvi
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Lilla Turiák
- MS Proteomics Research Group, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest Hungary
| | - Edit I Buzás
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- MTA-SE Immunoproteogenomic Extracellular Vesicle Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
155
|
Hu T, Zhang JL. Mass-spectrometry-based lipidomics. J Sep Sci 2017; 41:351-372. [PMID: 28859259 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201700709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Lipids, which have a core function in energy storage, signalling and biofilm structures, play important roles in a variety of cellular processes because of the great diversity of their structural and physiochemical properties. Lipidomics is the large-scale profiling and quantification of biogenic lipid molecules, the comprehensive study of their pathways and the interpretation of their physiological significance based on analytical chemistry and statistical analysis. Lipidomics will not only provide insight into the physiological functions of lipid molecules but will also provide an approach to discovering important biomarkers for diagnosis or treatment of human diseases. Mass-spectrometry-based analytical techniques are currently the most widely used and most effective tools for lipid profiling and quantification. In this review, the field of mass-spectrometry-based lipidomics was discussed. Recent progress in all essential steps in lipidomics was carefully discussed in this review, including lipid extraction strategies, separation techniques and mass-spectrometry-based analytical and quantitative methods in lipidomics. We also focused on novel resolution strategies for difficult problems in determining C=C bond positions in lipidomics. Finally, new technologies that were developed in recent years including single-cell lipidomics, flux-based lipidomics and multiomics technologies were also reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College & Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| | - Jin-Lan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Peking Union Medical College & Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
156
|
Bern MM. Extracellular vesicles: how they interact with endothelium, potentially contributing to metastatic cancer cell implants. Clin Transl Med 2017; 6:33. [PMID: 28933058 PMCID: PMC5607152 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-017-0165-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EV) are blebs of cellular membranes, which entrap small portions of subjacent cytosol. They are released from a variety of cells, circulate in the blood for an unknown length of time and come to rest on endothelial surfaces. They contribute to an array of physiologic pathways, the complexity of which is still being investigated. They contribute to metastatic malignant cell implants and tumor-related angiogenesis, possibly abetted by the tissue factor that they carry. It is thought that the adherence of the EV to endothelium is dependent upon a combination of their P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 and exposed phosphatidylserine, the latter of which is normally hidden on the inner bilayer of the intact cellular membrane. This manuscript reviews what is known about EV origins, their clearance from the circulation and how they contribute to malignant cell implants upon endothelium surfaces and subsequent tumor growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Murray M Bern
- University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, 1201 Camino de Salud, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
157
|
Üretmen Kagıalı ZC, Şentürk A, Özkan Küçük NE, Qureshi MH, Özlü N. Proteomics in Cell Division. Proteomics 2017; 17. [PMID: 28548456 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201600100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cell division requires a coordinated action of the cell cycle machinery, cytoskeletal elements, chromosomes, and membranes. Cell division studies have greatly benefitted from the mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic approaches for probing the biochemistry of highly dynamic complexes and their coordination with each other as a cell progresses into division. In this review, the authors first summarize a wide-range of proteomic studies that focus on the identification of sub-cellular components/protein complexes of the cell division machinery including kinetochores, mitotic spindle, midzone, and centrosomes. The authors also highlight MS-based large-scale analyses of the cellular components that are largely understudied during cell division such as the cell surface and lipids. Then, the authors focus on posttranslational modification analyses, especially phosphorylation and the resulting crosstalk with other modifications as a cell undergoes cell division. Combining proteomic approaches that probe the biochemistry of cell division components with functional genomic assays will lead to breakthroughs toward a systems-level understanding of cell division.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Aydanur Şentürk
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Mohammad Haroon Qureshi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Nurhan Özlü
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
158
|
Ferrari E, De Palma A, Mauri P. Emerging MS-based platforms for the characterization of tumor-derived exosomes isolated from human biofluids: challenges and promises of MudPIT. Expert Rev Proteomics 2017; 14:757-767. [PMID: 28780902 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2017.1364629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin that are produced and released by several type of cells. These vesicles contain different macromolecules: proteins, mRNA, miRNA, mitochondrial DNA, and lipids. Exosomes play an important role in cell-to-cell communication, also promoting cancer progression. Areas covered: Various proteomic approaches have been applied to study exosomes isolated from different human biofluids in search of possible cancer biomarkers. The results of these studies are reported, and pros and cons of each employed technique are described. Gel-free and gel-based mass spectrometry systems are discussed, giving particular emphasis on the innovative multidimensional protein identification technology (MudPIT). Expert commentary: Proteomic studies on exosomes as candidate cancer biomarkers from urine and other body fluids in cancer have shown the potential of MS-based techniques. In particular, MudPIT is a promising tool to be applied in clinical proteomics of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Ferrari
- a Institute of Biomedical Technologies , National Research Council of Italy , Segrate , Italy
| | - Antonella De Palma
- a Institute of Biomedical Technologies , National Research Council of Italy , Segrate , Italy
| | - Pierluigi Mauri
- a Institute of Biomedical Technologies , National Research Council of Italy , Segrate , Italy
| |
Collapse
|
159
|
Gool EL, Stojanovic I, Schasfoort RBM, Sturk A, van Leeuwen TG, Nieuwland R, Terstappen LWMM, Coumans FAW. Surface Plasmon Resonance is an Analytically Sensitive Method for Antigen Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles. Clin Chem 2017; 63:1633-1641. [PMID: 28784692 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2016.271049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Identification, enumeration, and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) are hampered by the small size of EVs, a low refractive index, and low numbers of antigens on their surface. METHODS We investigated the potential of a 48-multiplex surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) system to perform EV phenotyping. Antigen surface density of 11 antigens was measured on the human breast cancer cell lines HS578T, MCF7, and SKBR3 and their EVs by use of both SPRi and the widely used flow cytometry (FCM). RESULTS For cells, the SPRi and FCM signals for antigen exposure correlated (RHS578T cells2 = 0.66, RMCF7 cells2 = 0.78, RSKBR3 cells2 = 0.60). With regard to EVs, SPRi detected 31 out of 33 tested antibody-EV pairs, whereas our flow cytometer detected 5 antibody-EV pairs because of high blank and isotype control signals. For HS578T-derived EVs, the SPRi and FCM signals correlated (R2HS578T EVs = 0.98). However, on MCF7- and SKBR3-derived EVs, insufficient antigens were detected by our flow cytometer. To confirm that the SPRi responses correlated with mean antigen density on EVs, the SPRi responses of EVs were correlated with antigen density on parental cells as measured by FCM (RHS578T2 = 0.77, RMCF72 = 0.49, RSKBR32 = 0.52). CONCLUSIONS SPRi responses correlate with mean antigen density. Moreover, SPRi detects lower antigen-exposure levels than FCM because SPRi measures an ensemble of EVs binding to the sensor surface, whereas FCM detects antigens of single EV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elmar L Gool
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Physics; .,Department of Clinical Chemistry.,Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ivan Stojanovic
- Department of Medical Cell Biophysics, University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands
| | | | - Auguste Sturk
- Department of Clinical Chemistry.,Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ton G van Leeuwen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Physics.,Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rienk Nieuwland
- Department of Clinical Chemistry.,Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Leon W M M Terstappen
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Medical Cell Biophysics, University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands
| | - Frank A W Coumans
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Physics.,Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
160
|
Hartmann A, Muth C, Dabrowski O, Krasemann S, Glatzel M. Exosomes and the Prion Protein: More than One Truth. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:194. [PMID: 28469550 PMCID: PMC5395619 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are involved in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. The cellular prion protein (PrPC) is highly expressed on exosomes. In neurodegenerative diseases, PrPC has at least two functions: It is the substrate for the generation of pathological prion protein (PrPSc), a key player in the pathophysiology of prion diseases. On the other hand, it binds neurotoxic amyloid-beta (Aß) oligomers, which are associated with initiation and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This has direct consequences for the role of exosomal expressed PrPC. In prion diseases, exosomal PrP leads to efficient dissemination of pathological prion protein, thus promoting spreading and transmission of the disease. In AD, exosomal PrPC can bind and detoxify Aß oligomers thus acting protective. In both scenarios, assessment of the state of PrPC on exosomes derived from blood or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may be useful for diagnostic workup of these diseases. This review sums up current knowledge of the role of exosomal PrPC on different aspects of Alzheimer's and prion disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Hartmann
- Center of Diagnostics, Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-EppendorfHamburg, Germany
| | - Christiane Muth
- Center of Diagnostics, Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-EppendorfHamburg, Germany
| | | | - Susanne Krasemann
- Center of Diagnostics, Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-EppendorfHamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Glatzel
- Center of Diagnostics, Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-EppendorfHamburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
161
|
Nielsen CT, Østergaard O, Rasmussen NS, Jacobsen S, Heegaard NHH. A review of studies of the proteomes of circulating microparticles: key roles for galectin-3-binding protein-expressing microparticles in vascular diseases and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Proteomics 2017; 14:11. [PMID: 28405179 PMCID: PMC5385087 DOI: 10.1186/s12014-017-9146-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Subcellular microvesicles (MVs) have attracted increasing interest during the past decades. While initially considered as inert cellular debris, several important roles for MVs in physiological homeostasis, cancer, cardiovascular, and autoimmune diseases have been uncovered. Although still poorly understood, MVs are involved in trafficking of information from cell-to-cell, and are implicated in the regulation of immunity, thrombosis, and coagulation. Different subtypes of extracellular MVs exist. This review focuses on the cell membrane-derived shedded MVs (ranging in size from 200 to 1000 nm) typically termed microparticles (MPs). The numbers and particularly the composition of MPs appear to reflect the state of their parental cells and MPs may therefore carry great potential as clinical biomarkers which can be elucidated and developed by proteomics in particular. Determination of the identity of the specific proteins and their quantities, i.e. the proteome, in complex samples such as MPs enables an in-depth characterization of the phenotypical changes of the MPs during disease states. At present, only a limited number of proteomic studies of circulating MPs have been carried out in healthy individuals and disease populations. Interestingly, these studies indicate that a small set of MP-proteins, in particular, overexpression of galectin-3-binding protein (G3BP) distinguish MPs in patients with venous thromboembolism and the systemic autoimmune disease, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). G3BP is important in cell–cell adhesion, clearance, and intercellular signaling. MPs overexpressing G3BP may thus be involved in thrombosis and hemostasis, vascular inflammation, and autoimmunity, further favoring G3BP as a marker of “pathogenic” MPs. MPs expressing G3BP may also hold a potential as biomarkers in other conditions such as cancer and chronic viral infections. This review highlights the methodology and results of the proteome studies behind these discoveries and places them in a pathophysiological and biomarker perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christoffer T Nielsen
- Copenhagen Lupus and Vasculitis Clinic, Centre for Rheumatology and Spine Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Ole Østergaard
- Department of Autoimmunology and Biomarkers, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niclas S Rasmussen
- Copenhagen Lupus and Vasculitis Clinic, Centre for Rheumatology and Spine Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Søren Jacobsen
- Copenhagen Lupus and Vasculitis Clinic, Centre for Rheumatology and Spine Diseases, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Niels H H Heegaard
- Department of Autoimmunology and Biomarkers, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Søndre Boulevard 29, 5000 Odense, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
162
|
Pro-angiogenic capacities of microvesicles produced by skin wound myofibroblasts. Angiogenesis 2017; 20:385-398. [DOI: 10.1007/s10456-017-9554-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
163
|
Levy E. Exosomes in the Diseased Brain: First Insights from In vivo Studies. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:142. [PMID: 28386213 PMCID: PMC5362612 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale size vesicles secreted by cells and are important mediators of intercellular communication and genetic exchange. Exosomes, EVs generated in endosomal multivesicular bodies, have been the focus of numerous publications as they have emerged as clinically valuable markers of disease states. Exosomes have been mostly studied from conditioned culture media and body fluids, with the difficulty of isolating exosomes from tissues having delayed their study in vivo. The implementation of a method designed to isolate exosomes from tissues, however, has yielded the first insights into characteristics of exosomes in the brain. It has been observed that brain exosomes from murine models of neurodegenerative diseases and human postmortem brains tend to mirror the protein content of the cells of origin, and interestingly, they are enriched with toxic proteins. Whether this enrichment with neurotoxic proteins is beneficial by relieving neurons of accumulated toxic material or detrimental to the brain by propagating pathogenicity throughout the brain remains to be answered. Here is summarized the first group of studies describing exosomes isolated from brain, results that demonstrate that exosomes in vivo reflect complex multicellular pathogenic processes in neurodegenerative disorders and the brain's response to injury and damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Efrat Levy
- Departments of Psychiatry, Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University Langone Medical CenterNew York, NY, USA; Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric ResearchOrangeburg, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
164
|
Siles-Lucas M, Sánchez-Ovejero C, González-Sánchez M, González E, Falcón-Pérez JM, Boufana B, Fratini F, Casulli A, Manzano-Román R. Isolation and characterization of exosomes derived from fertile sheep hydatid cysts. Vet Parasitol 2017; 236:22-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
165
|
Fernandez-Trillo F, Grover LM, Stephenson-Brown A, Harrison P, Mendes PM. Vesicles in Nature and the Laboratory: Elucidation of Their Biological Properties and Synthesis of Increasingly Complex Synthetic Vesicles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:3142-3160. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201607825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam M. Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| | - Alex Stephenson-Brown
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| | - Paul Harrison
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing (IIA); University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| | - Paula M. Mendes
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| |
Collapse
|
166
|
Fernandez-Trillo F, Grover LM, Stephenson-Brown A, Harrison P, Mendes PM. Vesikel in der Natur und im Labor: die Aufklärung der biologischen Eigenschaften und die Synthese zunehmend komplexer synthetischer Vesikel. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201607825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam M. Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT Großbritannien
| | - Alex Stephenson-Brown
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT Großbritannien
| | - Paul Harrison
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing (IIA); University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT Großbritannien
| | - Paula M. Mendes
- School of Chemical Engineering; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT Großbritannien
| |
Collapse
|
167
|
Kuo WP, Tigges JC, Toxavidis V, Ghiran I. Red Blood Cells: A Source of Extracellular Vesicles. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1660:15-22. [PMID: 28828644 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7253-1_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
During their lifetime, like all other cell types, red blood cells (RBCs) release both exosomes and plasma membrane derived EVs (ectosomes). RBC exosomes are formed only during the development of RBCs in bone marrow, and are released following the fusion of microvesicular bodies (MVB) with the plasma membrane. On the other hand, RBC EVs are generated during normal aging of RBCs in circulation by budding of the plasma membrane due to complement -mediated calcium influx, followed by vesicle shedding. This makes red blood cells and stored red cells a reliable source of EVs for basic and clinical research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Winston Patrick Kuo
- CloudHealth Genomics, Ltd, Shanghai, China. .,Weschester Biotech Project, Asbury Park, NJ, USA.
| | - John C Tigges
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vasilis Toxavidis
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ionita Ghiran
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
168
|
Abstract
A microcapillary chip-based particle electrophoresis system developed for characterizing extracellular vesicles (EVs) is described. So far, it is technologically difficult to analyze or identify a heterogeneous population of particles ranging from several tens to one hundred nanometers, and hence, there is a growing demand for a new analytical method of nanoparticles among researchers working on extracellular vesicles. The analytical platform presented in this chapter allows detection of individual nanoparticles or nanovesicles of less than 50 nm in diameter and enables the characterization of nanoparticles based on multiple indexes such as concentration, diameter, zeta potential, and surface antigenicity. This platform will provide a useful and easy-to-use solution for obtaining both quantitative and qualitative information on EV samples used in research and development of exosome biology and medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takanori Akagi
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Takanori Ichiki
- Department of Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
169
|
Kreimer S, Ivanov AR. Rapid Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Blood Plasma with Size-Exclusion Chromatography Followed by Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomic Profiling. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1660:295-302. [PMID: 28828666 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7253-1_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The presented procedure allows rapid isolation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from plasma using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Additionally, an approach for reducing the lipid and salt content of the EV isolate in preparation for mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic analysis is presented. An example setup for proteomic profiling of the processed samples by nanoflow liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-MS/MS) is also presented. Approximately 1000 protein groups in blood plasma-derived EVs can be identified and quantitated following this procedure and using the described instrumentation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simion Kreimer
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Alexander R Ivanov
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
170
|
Greening DW, Xu R, Gopal SK, Rai A, Simpson RJ. Proteomic insights into extracellular vesicle biology - defining exosomes and shed microvesicles. Expert Rev Proteomics 2016; 14:69-95. [PMID: 27838931 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2017.1260450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are critical mediators of intercellular communication, capable of regulating the transcriptional landscape of target cells through horizontal transmission of biological information, such as proteins, lipids, and RNA species. This capability highlights their potential as novel targets for disease intervention. Areas covered: This review focuses on the emerging importance of discovery proteomics (high-throughput, unbiased quantitative protein identification) and targeted proteomics (hypothesis-driven quantitative protein subset analysis) mass spectrometry (MS)-based strategies in EV biology, especially exosomes and shed microvesicles. Expert commentary: Recent advances in MS hardware, workflows, and informatics provide comprehensive, quantitative protein profiling of EVs and EV-treated target cells. This information is seminal to understanding the role of EV subtypes in cellular crosstalk, especially when integrated with other 'omics disciplines, such as RNA analysis (e.g., mRNA, ncRNA). Moreover, high-throughput MS-based proteomics promises to provide new avenues in identifying novel markers for detection, monitoring, and therapeutic intervention of disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David W Greening
- a Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Rong Xu
- a Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Shashi K Gopal
- a Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Alin Rai
- a Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Richard J Simpson
- a Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science , La Trobe University , Melbourne , Australia
| |
Collapse
|
171
|
Haraszti RA, Didiot MC, Sapp E, Leszyk J, Shaffer SA, Rockwell HE, Gao F, Narain NR, DiFiglia M, Kiebish MA, Aronin N, Khvorova A. High-resolution proteomic and lipidomic analysis of exosomes and microvesicles from different cell sources. J Extracell Vesicles 2016; 5:32570. [PMID: 27863537 PMCID: PMC5116062 DOI: 10.3402/jev.v5.32570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 458] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes and microvesicles (MVs), are explored for use in diagnostics, therapeutics and drug delivery. However, little is known about the relationship of protein and lipid composition of EVs and their source cells. Here, we report high-resolution lipidomic and proteomic analyses of exosomes and MVs derived by differential ultracentrifugation from 3 different cell types: U87 glioblastoma cells, Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells and human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). We identified 3,532 proteins and 1,961 lipid species in the screen. Exosomes differed from MVs in several different areas: (a) The protein patterns of exosomes were more likely different from their cells of origin than were the protein patterns of MVs; (b) The proteomes of U87 and Huh7 exosomes were similar to each other but different from the proteomes of MSC exosomes, whereas the lipidomes of Huh7 and MSC exosomes were similar to each other but different from the lipidomes of U87 exosomes; (c) exosomes exhibited proteins of extracellular matrix, heparin-binding, receptors, immune response and cell adhesion functions, whereas MVs were enriched in endoplasmic reticulum, proteasome and mitochondrial proteins. Exosomes and MVs also differed in their types of lipid contents. Enrichment in glycolipids and free fatty acids characterized exosomes, whereas enrichment in ceramides and sphingomyelins characterized MVs. Furthermore, Huh7 and MSC exosomes were specifically enriched in cardiolipins; U87 exosomes were enriched in sphingomyelins. This study comprehensively analyses the protein and lipid composition of exosomes, MVs and source cells in 3 different cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reka A Haraszti
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.,Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Marie-Cecile Didiot
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.,Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ellen Sapp
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - John Leszyk
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Scott A Shaffer
- Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | | | - Fei Gao
- Berg LLC, Framingham, MA, USA
| | | | - Marian DiFiglia
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | | | - Neil Aronin
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA;
| | - Anastasia Khvorova
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.,Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
172
|
Skočaj M, Yu Y, Grundner M, Resnik N, Bedina Zavec A, Leonardi A, Križaj I, Guella G, Maček P, Kreft ME, Frangež R, Veranič P, Sepčić K. Characterisation of plasmalemmal shedding of vesicles induced by the cholesterol/sphingomyelin binding protein, ostreolysin A-mCherry. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2016; 1858:2882-2893. [PMID: 27591807 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ostreolysin A (OlyA) is a 15-kDa protein that binds selectively to cholesterol/sphingomyelin membrane nanodomains. This binding induces the production of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that comprise both microvesicles with diameters between 100nm and 1μm, and larger vesicles of around 10-μm diameter in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. In this study, we show that vesiculation of these cells by the fluorescent fusion protein OlyA-mCherry is not affected by temperature, is not mediated via intracellular Ca2+ signalling, and does not compromise cell viability and ultrastructure. Seventy-one proteins that are mostly of cytosolic and nuclear origin were detected in these shed EVs using mass spectroscopy. In the cells and EVs, 218 and 84 lipid species were identified, respectively, and the EVs were significantly enriched in lysophosphatidylcholines and cholesterol. Our collected data suggest that OlyA-mCherry binding to cholesterol/sphingomyelin membrane nanodomains induces specific lipid sorting into discrete patches, which promotes plasmalemmal blebbing and EV shedding from the cells. We hypothesize that these effects are accounted for by changes of local membrane curvature upon the OlyA-mCherry-plasmalemma interaction. We suggest that the shed EVs are a potentially interesting model for biophysical and biochemical studies of cell membranes, and larger vesicles could represent tools for non-invasive sampling of cytosolic proteins from cells and thus metabolic fingerprinting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matej Skočaj
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Yang Yu
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, Via Sommarive 14, University of Trento, Povo (TN), Italy.
| | - Maja Grundner
- Institute of Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, Vrazov trg 2, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Nataša Resnik
- Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Apolonija Bedina Zavec
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Adrijana Leonardi
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Igor Križaj
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Večna pot 113, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Graziano Guella
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, Via Sommarive 14, University of Trento, Povo (TN), Italy.
| | - Peter Maček
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Mateja Erdani Kreft
- Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Robert Frangež
- Institute of Physiology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Veterinary Faculty, Gerbičeva 60, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Peter Veranič
- Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Kristina Sepčić
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| |
Collapse
|
173
|
Nguyen HPT, Simpson RJ, Salamonsen LA, Greening DW. Extracellular Vesicles in the Intrauterine Environment: Challenges and Potential Functions. Biol Reprod 2016; 95:109. [PMID: 27655784 PMCID: PMC5333933 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.116.143503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes (30–150 nm) and microvesicles (100–1500 nm), play important roles in mediating cell-cell communication. Such particles package distinct cargo elements, including lipids, proteins, mRNAs, microRNAs, and DNA, that vary depending on the cell of origin and its phenotype. This cargo can be horizontally transferred to target cells where its components can reprogram the recipient cell to modify its function. EVs have been identified within the uterine cavity of women, sheep, and mice, where they contribute to the microenvironment of sperm transport, and of blastocyst and endometrial preparation for implantation. It is likely that exosomes and microvesicles carry different cargo and coordinate different roles in this intrauterine environment. Understanding and defining these subtypes of EVs is important for future functional studies and clinical translation. Here we critically review the various purification and validation procedures for extracellular vesicle analysis and discuss what is known of endometrial-derived exosome cargo and of their hormonal regulation. The current knowledge of the functions of uterine exosomes, with respect to sperm transport and function, and of their actions on trophectodermal cells to promote implantation are summarized and evaluated in their physiological context. Given the potential importance of this form of cell-cell interactions within the reproductive tract, the critical issues discussed will guide new insights in this rapidly expanding field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong P T Nguyen
- Hudson Institute of Medical Research (previously Prince Henry's Institute), Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Richard J Simpson
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lois A Salamonsen
- Hudson Institute of Medical Research (previously Prince Henry's Institute), Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - David W Greening
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
174
|
Rezeli M, Gidlöf O, Evander M, Bryl-Górecka P, Sathanoori R, Gilje P, Pawłowski K, Horvatovich P, Erlinge D, Marko-Varga G, Laurell T. Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles Isolated by Acoustic Trapping or Differential Centrifugation. Anal Chem 2016; 88:8577-86. [PMID: 27487081 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (ECVs), including microparticles and exosomes, are submicrometer membrane vesicles released by diverse cell types upon activation or stress. Circulating ECVs are potential reservoirs of disease biomarkers, and the complexity of these vesicles is significantly lower compared to their source, blood plasma, which makes ECV-based biomarker studies more promising. Proteomic profiling of ECVs is important not only to discover new diagnostic or prognostic markers but also to understand their roles in biological function. In the current study, we investigated the protein composition of plasma-derived ECVs isolated by acoustic seed trapping. Additionally, the protein composition of ECVs isolated with acoustic trapping was compared to that isolated with a conventional differential centrifugation protocol. Finally, the proteome of ECVs originating from ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients was compared with that of healthy controls using label-free LC-MS quantification. The acoustic trapping platform allows rapid and automated preparation of ECVs from small sample volumes, which are therefore well-suited for biobank repositories. We found that the protein composition of trapped ECVs is very similar to that isolated by the conventional differential centrifugation method.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Krzysztof Pawłowski
- Department of Experimental Design and Bioinformatics, Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences , Warsaw, Poland
| | - Péter Horvatovich
- Analytical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen , Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Thomas Laurell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University , Seoul, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
175
|
Hall J, Prabhakar S, Balaj L, Lai CP, Cerione RA, Breakefield XO. Delivery of Therapeutic Proteins via Extracellular Vesicles: Review and Potential Treatments for Parkinson's Disease, Glioma, and Schwannoma. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2016; 36:417-27. [PMID: 27017608 PMCID: PMC4860146 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-015-0309-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles present an attractive delivery vehicle for therapeutic proteins. They intrinsically contain many proteins which can provide information to other cells. Advantages include reduced immune reactivity, especially if derived from the same host, stability in biologic fluids, and ability to target uptake. Those from mesenchymal stem cells appear to be intrinsically therapeutic, while those from cancer cells promote tumor progression. Therapeutic proteins can be loaded into vesicles by overexpression in the donor cell, with oligomerization and membrane sequences increasing their loading. Examples of protein delivery for therapeutic benefit in pre-clinical models include delivery of: catalase for Parkinson's disease to reduce oxidative stress and thus help neurons to survive; prodrug activating enzymes which can convert a prodrug which crosses the blood-brain barrier into a toxic chemotherapeutic drug for schwannomas and gliomas; and the apoptosis-inducing enzyme, caspase-1 under a Schwann cell specific promoter for schwannoma. This therapeutic delivery strategy is novel and being explored for a number of diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Hall
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Molecular Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
- Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Shilpa Prabhakar
- Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Leonora Balaj
- Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Charles P Lai
- Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan
| | - Richard A Cerione
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Molecular Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Xandra O Breakefield
- Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital-East, 13th Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
176
|
Extracellular Vesicles: A New Frontier in Biomarker Discovery for Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:376. [PMID: 26985892 PMCID: PMC4813235 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17030376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the global burden of obesity and diabetes has seen a parallel rise in other metabolic complications, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). This condition, once thought to be a benign accumulation of hepatic fat, is now recognized as a serious and prevalent disorder that is conducive to inflammation and fibrosis. Despite the rising incidence of NAFLD, there is currently no reliable method for its diagnosis or staging besides the highly invasive tissue biopsy. This limitation has resulted in the study of novel circulating markers as potential candidates, one of the most popular being extracellular vesicles (EVs). These submicron membrane-bound structures are secreted from stressed and activated cells, or are formed during apoptosis, and are known to be involved in intercellular communication. The cargo of EVs depends upon the parent cell and has been shown to be changed in disease, as is their abundance in the circulation. The role of EVs in immunity and epigenetic regulation is widely attested, and studies showing a correlation with disease severity have made these structures a favorable target for diagnostic as well as therapeutic purposes. This review will highlight the research that is available on EVs in the context of NAFLD, the current limitations, and projections for their future utility in a clinical setting.
Collapse
|
177
|
Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes from different sources selectively promote neuritic outgrowth. Neuroscience 2016; 320:129-39. [PMID: 26851773 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) obtained from bone marrow (BM) have been shown to promote neuronal growth and survival. However, the comparative effects of MSCs of different sources, including menstrual MSCs (MenSCs), BM, umbilical cord and chorion stem cells on neurite outgrowth have not yet been explored. Moreover, the modulatory effects of MSCs may be mediated by paracrine mechanisms, i.e. by molecules contained in the MSC secretome that includes soluble factors and extracellular vesicles such as microvesicles and/or exosomes. The biogenesis of microvesicles, characterized by a vesicle diameter of 50 to 1000 nm, involves membrane shedding while exosomes, of 30 to 100 nm in diameter, originate in the multivesicular bodies within cells. Both vesicle types, which can be harvested from the conditioned media of cell cultures by differential centrifugation steps, regulate the function of target cells due to their molecular content of microRNA, mRNA, proteins and lipids. Here, we compared the effect of human menstrual MSCs (MenSCs) mediated by cell-cell contact, by their total secretome or by secretome-derived extracellular vesicles on neuritic outgrowth in primary neuronal cultures. The contact of MenSCs with cortical neurons inhibited neurite outgrowth while their total secretome enhanced it. The extracellular vesicle fractions showed a distinctive effect: while the exosome-enriched fraction enhanced neurite outgrowth, the microvesicle-enriched fraction displayed an inhibitory effect. When we compared exosome fractions of different human MSC sources, MenSC exosomes showed superior effects on the growth of the longest neurite in cortical neurons and had a comparable effect to BM-SC exosomes on neurite outgrowth in dorsal root ganglia neurons. Thus, the growth-stimulating effects of exosomes derived from MenSCs as well as the opposing effects of both extracellular vesicle fractions provide important information regarding the potential use of MenSCs as therapeutic conveyors in neurodegenerative pathologies.
Collapse
|
178
|
Pocsfalvi G, Stanly C, Fiume I, Vékey K. Chromatography and its hyphenation to mass spectrometry for extracellular vesicle analysis. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1439:26-41. [PMID: 26830636 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies are released by cells, both under physiological and pathological conditions. EVs can participate in a novel type of intercellular communication and deliver cargo of nucleic acids, proteins and lipids near or to distant host cells. EV research is proceeding at a fast pace; now they start to appear as promising therapeutic targets, diagnostic tools and drug delivery systems. Isolation and analysis of EVs are prerequisites for understanding their biological roles and for their clinical exploitation. In this process chromatography and mass spectrometry (MS)-based strategies are rapidly gaining importance; and are reviewed in the present communication. Isolation and purification of EVs is mostly performed by ultracentrifugation at present. Chromatography-based strategies are gaining ground, among which affinity and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) are particularly strong contenders. Their major advantages are the relative simplicity, robustness and throughput. Affinity chromatography has the added advantage of separating EV subtypes based on molecular recognition of EV surface motifs. SEC has the advantage that isolated EVs may retain their biological activity. EVs are typically isolated in small amounts, therefore high sensitivity is required for their analysis. Study of the molecular content of EVs (all compounds beside nucleic acids) is predominantly based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. The chromatographic separation is mostly performed by reverse phase, nanoscale, ultra high performance LC technique. The MS analysis relying typically on nano-electrospray ionization MS/MS provides high sensitivity, selectivity and resolution, so that thousand(s) of proteins can be detected/identified/quantified in a EV sample. Beside protein identification, quantitation and characterization of protein post-translational modifications (PTMs), like glycosylation and phosphorylation are becoming feasible and increasingly important. Along with conventional LC-MS/MS, other chromatographic approaches hyphenated to MS are gaining importance for EV characterization. Hydrophilic interaction LC is used to characterize PTMs; LC-inductively coupled plasma/MS to identify metal containing molecules; while gas chromatography-MS to analyze some lipids and metabolites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Pocsfalvi
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy.
| | - Christopher Stanly
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Immacolata Fiume
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Institute of Biosciences and BioResources, National Research Council of Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Károly Vékey
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
179
|
Turpin D, Truchetet ME, Faustin B, Augusto JF, Contin-Bordes C, Brisson A, Blanco P, Duffau P. Role of extracellular vesicles in autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun Rev 2015; 15:174-83. [PMID: 26554931 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) consist of exosomes released upon fusion of multivesicular bodies with the cell plasma membrane and microparticles shed directly from the cell membrane of many cell types. EVs can mediate cell-cell communication and are involved in many processes including inflammation, immune signaling, angiogenesis, stress response, senescence, proliferation, and cell differentiation. Accumulating evidence reveals that EVs act in the establishment, maintenance and modulation of autoimmune processes among several others involved in cancer and cardiovascular complications. EVs could also present biomedical applications, as disease biomarkers and therapeutic targets or agents for drug delivery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Turpin
- Immunology and Immunogenetic Department, Bordeaux Hospital, place Amélie Raba Léon, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Marie-Elise Truchetet
- Rheumatology Department, Bordeaux Hospital, place Amélie Raba Léon, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Benjamin Faustin
- UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Jean-François Augusto
- UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Cécile Contin-Bordes
- Immunology and Immunogenetic Department, Bordeaux Hospital, place Amélie Raba Léon, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Alain Brisson
- UMR-5248-CBMN CNRS University of Bordeaux-IBP, allée Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 33600 Pessac, France.
| | - Patrick Blanco
- Immunology and Immunogenetic Department, Bordeaux Hospital, place Amélie Raba Léon, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| | - Pierre Duffau
- UMR-5164 CNRS, CIRID, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France; Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology Department, Bordeaux Hospital, 1 rue Jean Burguet, 33075 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
| |
Collapse
|
180
|
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-bound, intercellular communication shuttles that are defined by their endocytic origin and size range of 30–140 nm. Secreted by nearly all mammalian cell types and present in myriad bodily fluids, exosomes confer messages between cells, proximal and distal, by transporting biofunctional cargo in the form of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. They play a vital role in cellular signaling in both normal physiology and disease states, particularly cancer. Exosomes are powerful progenitors in altering target cell phenotypes, particularly in tumorigenesis and cancer progression, with the ability to alter tumor microenvironments and to assist in establishing the pre-metastatic niche. Many aspects of exosomes present them as novel means to identify cancer biomarkers for early detection and therapeutic targets, and using intrinsic and engineered characteristics of exosomes as therapeutic devices to ameliorate the progression of the disease. This review outlines some of the recent and major findings with regard to exosomes in cancer, and their utilization as therapeutic tools.
Collapse
|