151
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Tan S, Wang Y, Liu P, Ge Y, Li A, Xing Y, Hunter DM, Shi W. Increase of Albinistic Hosts Caused by Gut Parasites Promotes Self-Transmission. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1525. [PMID: 30042753 PMCID: PMC6048391 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Paranosema locustae is a gut parasite that has been applied widely in the control of grasshoppers in many parts of the world. Usually, P. locustae is transmitted horizontally via passive modes under natural conditions but in the current study, a positive transmission strategy of P. locustae was demonstrated. First, infection by P. locustae resulted in the cuticula of infected Locusta migratoria nymphs to become lighter in color: normally only a small proportion of locusts are pale with most either being partly or mostly black; but locusts infected with P. locustae became pale. And it was found that the change to pale occurred even among uninfected black and partly black nymphs reared with infected locusts. The eumelanin of the thorax and abdomen of infected individuals decreased significantly, as did the level of dopamine. In addition, there was a decrease in phenol oxidase activity and the expression of henna and pale, which are involved in the synthesis of cuticle melanin, decreased. What is the ecological significance of this increase in light-colored hosts caused by P. locustae? We discovered that light-colored locusts were more susceptible to the microsporidian pathogen than dark-colored individuals were, because of their weaker melanization. Phenol oxidase activity in pale locusts was lower than that of black locusts, but the serpin expression level of pale locusts was higher than that of black individuals. When examined for infection, it was found that initially uninfected nymphs had picked up P. locustae infections indicating that infections are readily passed from one pale locust to another. The infection rate of healthy locusts reared with light-colored locusts infected with P. locustae was 100% which was more than with black-colored ones. The increase in albinistic locusts clearly promoted the prevalence of P. locustae in the total population. In conclusion, these results elucidated a new strategy of positive self-transmission in P. locustae. Importance: Mother Nature always grants wisdom to her creatures and feeds them carefully. This wisdom is particularly apparent in the relationships between two interacting species. In this study, our team focused on the interaction between L. migratoria and P. locustae. In a previous study, it was found that L. migratoria isolate infected individuals, reducing avoiding the spread of P. locustae, in a previous study. The solitary, pale individuals infected by P. locustae were left behind as locust groups marched ahead, leading to a kind of behavioral immunity in the insects. Here, we reported that P. locustae promotes pigmentation loss in L. migratoria, causing a larger proportion of light-colored individuals, and these lighter individuals which possessed weaker immunity against pathogens. This strategy is advantageous to P. locustae, as it promotes its propagation and spread. These extraordinary abilities of L. migratoria and P. locustae have accumulated over millennia of years of interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuqian Tan
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Pingping Liu
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Ge
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Aomei Li
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yongjie Xing
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Wangpeng Shi
- Department of Entomology and MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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152
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Cooper GA, Levin SR, Wild G, West SA. Modeling relatedness and demography in social evolution. Evol Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/evl3.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guy A. Cooper
- Department of Zoology; University of Oxford; Oxford OX1 3PS United Kingdom
| | - Samuel R. Levin
- Department of Zoology; University of Oxford; Oxford OX1 3PS United Kingdom
| | - Geoff Wild
- Department of Applied Mathematics; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 3K7 Canada
| | - Stuart A. West
- Department of Zoology; University of Oxford; Oxford OX1 3PS United Kingdom
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153
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Minter EJA, Lowe CD, Sørensen MES, Wood AJ, Cameron DD, Brockhurst MA. Variation and asymmetry in host-symbiont dependence in a microbial symbiosis. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:108. [PMID: 29986646 PMCID: PMC6038246 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1227-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Symbiosis is a major source of evolutionary innovation and, by allowing species to exploit new ecological niches, underpins the functioning of ecosystems. The transition from free-living to obligate symbiosis requires the alignment of the partners' fitness interests and the evolution of mutual dependence. While symbiotic taxa are known to vary widely in the extent of host-symbiont dependence, rather less is known about variation within symbiotic associations. RESULTS Using experiments with the microbial symbiosis between the protist Paramecium bursaria and the alga Chlorella, we show variation between pairings in host-symbiont dependence, encompassing facultative associations, mutual dependence and host dependence upon the symbiont. Facultative associations, that is where both the host and the symbiont were capable of free-living growth, displayed higher symbiotic growth rates and higher per host symbiont loads than those with greater degrees of dependence. CONCLUSIONS These data show that the Paramecium-Chlorella interaction exists at the boundary between facultative and obligate symbiosis, and further suggest that the host is more likely to evolve dependence than the algal symbiont.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan J A Minter
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Chris D Lowe
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Megan E S Sørensen
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - A Jamie Wood
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK.,Department of Mathematics, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Duncan D Cameron
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Michael A Brockhurst
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
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154
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Bacterial Adaptation to the Host's Diet Is a Key Evolutionary Force Shaping Drosophila-Lactobacillus Symbiosis. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:109-119.e6. [PMID: 30008290 PMCID: PMC6054917 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Animal-microbe facultative symbioses play a fundamental role in ecosystem and organismal health. Yet, due to the flexible nature of their association, the selection pressures that act on animals and their facultative symbionts remain elusive. Here we apply experimental evolution to Drosophila melanogaster associated with its growth-promoting symbiont Lactobacillus plantarum, representing a well-established model of facultative symbiosis. We find that the diet of the host, rather than the host itself, is a predominant driving force in the evolution of this symbiosis. Furthermore, we identify a mechanism resulting from the bacterium's adaptation to the diet, which confers growth benefits to the colonized host. Our study reveals that bacterial adaptation to the host's diet may be the foremost step in determining the evolutionary course of a facultative animal-microbe symbiosis. L. plantarum experimental evolution leads to the improvement of its symbiotic benefit L. plantarum increases its growth-promotion ability by adapting to Drosophila diet Mutation of ackA gene enhances both L. plantarum fitness and benefit to the host N-acetyl-glutamine production is sufficient to improve L. plantarum growth promotion
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155
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Ongoing Transposon-Mediated Genome Reduction in the Luminous Bacterial Symbionts of Deep-Sea Ceratioid Anglerfishes. mBio 2018; 9:mBio.01033-18. [PMID: 29946051 PMCID: PMC6020299 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01033-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse marine fish and squid form symbiotic associations with extracellular bioluminescent bacteria. These symbionts are typically free-living bacteria with large genomes, but one known lineage of symbionts has undergone genomic reduction and evolution of host dependence. It is not known why distinct evolutionary trajectories have occurred among different luminous symbionts, and not all known lineages previously had genome sequences available. In order to better understand patterns of evolution across diverse bioluminescent symbionts, we de novo sequenced the genomes of bacteria from a poorly studied interaction, the extracellular symbionts from the "lures" of deep-sea ceratioid anglerfishes. Deep-sea anglerfish symbiont genomes are reduced in size by about 50% compared to free-living relatives. They show a striking convergence of genome reduction and loss of metabolic capabilities with a distinct lineage of obligately host-dependent luminous symbionts. These losses include reductions in amino acid synthesis pathways and abilities to utilize diverse sugars. However, the symbiont genomes have retained a number of categories of genes predicted to be useful only outside the host, such as those involved in chemotaxis and motility, suggesting that they may persist in the environment. These genomes contain very high numbers of pseudogenes and show massive expansions of transposable elements, with transposases accounting for 28 and 31% of coding sequences in the symbiont genomes. Transposon expansions appear to have occurred at different times in each symbiont lineage, indicating either independent evolutions of reduction or symbiont replacement. These results suggest ongoing genomic reduction in extracellular luminous symbionts that is facilitated by transposon proliferations.IMPORTANCE Many female deep-sea anglerfishes possess a "lure" containing luminous bacterial symbionts. Here we show that unlike most luminous symbionts, these bacteria are undergoing an evolutionary transition toward small genomes with limited metabolic capabilities. Comparative analyses of the symbiont genomes indicate that this transition is ongoing and facilitated by transposon expansions. This transition may have occurred independently in different symbiont lineages, although it is unclear why. Genomic reduction is common in bacteria that only live within host cells but less common in bacteria that, like anglerfish symbionts, live outside host cells. Since multiple evolutions of genomic reduction have occurred convergently in luminous bacteria, they make a useful system with which to understand patterns of genome evolution in extracellular symbionts. This work demonstrates that ecological factors other than an intracellular lifestyle can lead to dramatic gene loss and evolutionary changes and that transposon expansions may play important roles in this process.
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156
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Münger E, Montiel-Castro AJ, Langhans W, Pacheco-López G. Reciprocal Interactions Between Gut Microbiota and Host Social Behavior. Front Integr Neurosci 2018; 12:21. [PMID: 29946243 PMCID: PMC6006525 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2018.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals harbor an extensive, dynamic microbial ecosystem in their gut. Gut microbiota (GM) supposedly modulate various host functions including fecundity, metabolism, immunity, cognition and behavior. Starting by analyzing the concept of the holobiont as a unit of selection, we highlight recent findings suggesting an intimate link between GM and animal social behavior. We consider two reciprocal emerging themes: (i) that GM influence host social behavior; and (ii) that social behavior and social structure shape the composition of the GM across individuals. We propose that, throughout a long history of coevolution, GM may have become involved in the modulation of their host’s sociality to foster their own transmission, while in turn social organization may have fine-tuned the transmission of beneficial endosymbionts and prevented pathogen infection. We suggest that investigating these reciprocal interactions can advance our understanding of sociality, from healthy and impaired social cognition to the evolution of specific social behaviors and societal structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Münger
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang Langhans
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gustavo Pacheco-López
- Health Sciences Department, Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), Lerma, Mexico.,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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157
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Abstract
Cicadas are dependent on the essential bacterial symbionts Sulcia and Hodgkinia. The symbiont genomes are extremely streamlined for provisioning of essential amino acids and other nutrients. In some cicada lineages, Hodgkinia genomes are fragmented into numerous minicircles, which may represent a critical stage of genomic erosion close to collapse. What would happen subsequently? Our survey of the Japanese cicada diversity revealed that while Sulcia is conserved among all species, the majority of them have lost Hodgkinia and instead harbor yeast-like fungal associates. The fungal symbionts are phylogenetically intermingled with cicada-parasitizing Ophiocordyceps fungi, indicating recurrent symbiont replacements by entomopathogens in cicadas and providing insights into the mechanisms underlying the parasitism-symbiosis evolutionary continuum, compensation of symbiont genome erosion, and diversification of host-symbiont associations. Diverse insects are associated with ancient bacterial symbionts, whose genomes have often suffered drastic reduction and degeneration. In extreme cases, such symbiont genomes seem almost unable to sustain the basic cellular functioning, which comprises an open question in the evolution of symbiosis. Here, we report an insect group wherein an ancient symbiont lineage suffering massive genome erosion has experienced recurrent extinction and replacement by host-associated pathogenic microbes. Cicadas are associated with the ancient bacterial co-obligate symbionts Sulcia and Hodgkinia, whose streamlined genomes are specialized for synthesizing essential amino acids, thereby enabling the host to live on plant sap. However, our inspection of 24 Japanese cicada species revealed that while all species possessed Sulcia, only nine species retained Hodgkinia, and their genomes exhibited substantial structural instability. The remaining 15 species lacked Hodgkinia and instead harbored yeast-like fungal symbionts. Detailed phylogenetic analyses uncovered repeated Hodgkinia-fungus and fungus-fungus replacements in cicadas. The fungal symbionts were phylogenetically intermingled with cicada-parasitizing Ophiocordyceps fungi, identifying entomopathogenic origins of the fungal symbionts. Most fungal symbionts of cicadas were uncultivable, but the fungal symbiont of Meimuna opalifera was cultivable, possibly because it is at an early stage of fungal symbiont replacement. Genome sequencing of the fungal symbiont revealed its metabolic versatility, presumably capable of synthesizing almost all amino acids, vitamins, and other metabolites, which is more than sufficient to compensate for the Hodgkinia loss. These findings highlight a straightforward ecological and evolutionary connection between parasitism and symbiosis, which may provide an evolutionary trajectory to renovate deteriorated ancient symbiosis via pathogen domestication.
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158
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Symbiont switching and alternative resource acquisition strategies drive mutualism breakdown. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:5229-5234. [PMID: 29712857 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1721629115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperative interactions among species, termed mutualisms, have played a crucial role in the evolution of life on Earth. However, despite key potential benefits to partners, there are many cases in which two species cease to cooperate and mutualisms break down. What factors drive the evolutionary breakdown of mutualism? We examined the pathways toward breakdowns of the mutualism between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. By using a comparative approach, we identify ∼25 independent cases of complete mutualism breakdown across global seed plants. We found that breakdown of cooperation was only stable when host plants (i) partner with other root symbionts or (ii) evolve alternative resource acquisition strategies. Our results suggest that key mutualistic services are only permanently lost if hosts evolve alternative symbioses or adaptations.
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159
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de Fraga FBFF. Towards an Evolutionary Perspective in Teaching and Popularizing Microbiology. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY & BIOLOGY EDUCATION 2018; 19:jmbe-19-45. [PMID: 29904541 PMCID: PMC5969427 DOI: 10.1128/jmbe.v19i1.1531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms are extremely abundant on our planet, and, as a result, they interact with many others forms of life. Today, science recognizes the essential role of these organisms in the emergence and maintenance of life on Earth. Nonetheless, misconceptions about microorganisms in the imaginations of students and the lay audience persist. A major challenge in teaching and popularizing microbiology is to provide students and the general public with a varied understanding of microbes in nature to reinforce their importance in a multitude of processes. In this perspective article, I discuss the persistence of the association between microbes and disease in laypersons' views. Moreover, I advocate for the adoption of a perspective anchored in evolutionary biology for teaching and popularizing microbiology to minimize this problem. To do so, I present several topics that interconnect evolution and microbiology and discuss how these topics could increase the general public's understanding of the microbial world.
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160
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Ivens ABF, Gadau A, Kiers ET, Kronauer DJC. Can social partnerships influence the microbiome? Insights from ant farmers and their trophobiont mutualists. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:1898-1914. [PMID: 29411455 PMCID: PMC5935579 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Mutualistic interactions with microbes have played a crucial role in the evolution and ecology of animal hosts. However, it is unclear what factors are most important in influencing particular host–microbe associations. While closely related animal species may have more similar microbiota than distantly related species due to phylogenetic contingencies, social partnerships with other organisms, such as those in which one animal farms another, may also influence an organism's symbiotic microbiome. We studied a mutualistic network of Brachymyrmex and Lasius ants farming several honeydew‐producing Prociphilus aphids and Rhizoecus mealybugs to test whether the mutualistic microbiomes of these interacting insects are primarily correlated with their phylogeny or with their shared social partnerships. Our results confirm a phylogenetic signal in the microbiomes of aphid and mealybug trophobionts, with each species harbouring species‐specific endosymbiont strains of Buchnera (aphids), Tremblaya and Sodalis (mealybugs), and Serratia (both mealybugs and aphids) despite being farmed by the same ants. This is likely explained by strict vertical transmission of trophobiont endosymbionts between generations. In contrast, our results show the ants’ microbiome is possibly shaped by their social partnerships, with ants that farm the same trophobionts also sharing strains of sugar‐processing Acetobacteraceae bacteria, known from other honeydew‐feeding ants and which likely reside extracellularly in the ants’ guts. These ant–microbe associations are arguably more “open” and subject to horizontal transmission or social transmission within ant colonies. These findings suggest that the role of social partnerships in shaping a host's symbiotic microbiome can be variable and is likely dependent on how the microbes are transmitted across generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniek B F Ivens
- Animal Ecology Section, Department of Ecological Science, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alice Gadau
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - E Toby Kiers
- Animal Ecology Section, Department of Ecological Science, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel J C Kronauer
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
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161
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Medina I, Cooke GM, Ord TJ. Walk, swim or fly? Locomotor mode predicts genetic differentiation in vertebrates. Ecol Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Iliana Medina
- Division of Ecology and Evolution Australian National University Building 44 Act on 2601 ACT Australia
- School of BioSciences The University of Melbourne Parkville Vic. Australia
| | - Georgina M. Cooke
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Kensington2052 NSWAustralia
- Australian Museum Research Institute IchthyologyAustralian Museum, 6 College St Sydney NSW2010 Australia
| | - Terry J. Ord
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Kensington2052 NSWAustralia
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162
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Zhukova M, Sapountzis P, Schiøtt M, Boomsma JJ. Diversity and Transmission of Gut Bacteria in Atta and Acromyrmex Leaf-Cutting Ants during Development. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1942. [PMID: 29067008 PMCID: PMC5641371 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The social Hymenoptera have distinct larval and adult stages separated by metamorphosis, which implies striking remodeling of external and internal body structures during the pupal stage. This imposes challenges to gut symbionts as existing cultures are lost and may or may not need to be replaced. To elucidate the extent to which metamorphosis interrupts associations between bacteria and hosts, we analyzed changes in gut microbiota during development and traced the transmission routes of dominant symbionts from the egg to adult stage in the leaf-cutting ants Acromyrmex echinatior and Atta cephalotes, which are both important functional herbivores in the New World tropics. Bacterial density remained similar across the developmental stages of Acromyrmex, but Atta brood had very low bacterial prevalences suggesting that bacterial gut symbionts are not actively maintained. We found that Wolbachia was the absolute dominant bacterial species across developmental stages in Acromyrmex and we confirmed that Atta lacks Wolbachia also in the immature stages, and had mostly Mollicutes bacteria in the adult worker guts. Wolbachia in Acromyrmex appeared to be transovarially transmitted similar to transmission in solitary insects. In contrast, Mollicutes were socially transmitted from old workers to newly emerged callows. We found that larval and pupal guts of both ant species contained Pseudomonas and Enterobacter bacteria that are also found in fungus gardens, but hardly or not in adult workers, suggesting they are beneficial only for larval growth and development. Our results reveal that transmission pathways for bacterial symbionts may be very different both between developmental stages and between sister genera and that identifying the mechanisms of bacterial acquisition and loss will be important to clarify their putative mutualistic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya Zhukova
- Centre for Social Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Panagiotis Sapountzis
- Centre for Social Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Schiøtt
- Centre for Social Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jacobus J Boomsma
- Centre for Social Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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