Point mutations in the c-Myc transactivation domain are common in Burkitt's lymphoma and mouse plasmacytomas

Molecular and clinical features of non-Burkitt's, diffuse large-cell lymphoma of B-cell type associated with the c-MYC/immunoglobulin heavy-chain fusion gene

PURPOSE

t(8;14)(q24;q32) and/or c-MYC/immunoglobulin heavy-chain (IGH) fusion gene have been observed not only in Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) but also in a proportion of non-BL, diffuse large-cell lymphoma of B-cell type (DLCL). We explored molecular features of DLCL with c-MYC/IGH fusion and the impact of this genetic abnormality on clinical outcome of DLCL.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 203 cases of non-BL DLCL were studied. Genomic DNA extracted from tumor tissues was subjected to long-distance polymerase chain reaction (LD-PCR) using oligonucleotide primers for exon 2 of c-MYC and for the four constant region genes of IGH.

RESULTS

Twelve cases (5.9%) showed positive amplification; one had a c-MYC/Cmicro, nine had a c-MYC/Cgamma, and two had a c-MYC/Calpha fusion sequence. Restriction and sequence analysis of the LD-PCR products, ranging from 2.3 to 9.4 kb in size, showed that breakage in the 12 cases occurred within a 1.5-kb region that included exon 1 of c-MYC in combination with breakpoints at the switch regions of IGH (10 of 12). In 10 cases, Myc protein encoded by the fusion genes demonstrated mutations and/or deletions. Six cases had additional molecular lesions in BCL-2 or BCL-6 and/or p53 genes. The age range of the 12 patients was 44 to 86 years, with a median age of 65.5 years. Five patients had stage I/II disease, and seven had stage III/IV disease. Lactate dehydrogenase was elevated in nine of 11 subjects. Seven showed involvement of the gastrointestinal tract. All patients were treated by surgery and/or chemoradiotherapy; six died of the disease within 1 year, resulting in the poorest 1- and 2-year survival rates among DLCL subgroups.

CONCLUSION

The c-MYC/IGH fusion gene of DLCL is identical to that of the sporadic type of BL (sBL). DLCL with c-MYC/IGH shares clinical features with sBL but is characterized further by an older age distribution.

Function of the c-Myc oncogenic transcription factor

The c-myc gene and the expression of the c-Myc protein are frequently altered in human cancers. The c-myc gene encodes the transcription factor c-Myc, which heterodimerizes with a partner protein, termed Max, to regulate gene expression. Max also heterodimerizes with the Mad family of proteins to repress transcription, antagonize c-Myc, and promote cellular differentiation. The constitutive activation of c-myc expression is key to the genesis of many cancers, and hence the understanding of c-Myc function depends on our understanding of its target genes. In this review, we attempt to place the putative target genes of c-Myc in the context of c-Myc-mediated phenotypes. From this perspective, c-Myc emerges as an oncogenic transcription factor that integrates the cell cycle machinery with cell adhesion, cellular metabolism, and the apoptotic pathways.

Regulation of c-Myc through phosphorylation at Ser-62 and Ser-71 by c-Jun N-terminal kinase

The expression of c-myc promotes cell proliferation and also sensitizes cells to various extracellular apoptotic stimuli. However, signal pathways regulating the function of Myc proteins during apoptosis are unknown. c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is activated by various apoptotic stimuli, but neither the target molecule(s) or the action of JNK has been identified in Myc-mediated apoptosis. Here, we found that JNK selectively interacted with, and phosphorylated, c-Myc at Ser-62 and Ser-71 as confirmed with phospho-c-Myc-specific antibodies. Interestingly, dominant negative mutant JNK(APF) impaired the c-Myc-dependent apoptosis, but not mutated c-Myc (S62A/S71A)-dependent apoptosis triggered by UV irradiation. Furthermore, c-Myc (S62A/S71A)-expressing NIH3T3 cells were not sensitized like wild type c-Myc-expressing NIH3T3 cells to JNK-activating apoptotic stimuli, such as UV and Taxol. These results indicate that the JNK pathway is selectively involved in the c-Myc-mediated apoptosis and that the apoptotic function of c-Myc is directly regulated by JNK pathway through phosphorylation at Ser-62 and Ser-71.

MYC oncogenes and human neoplastic disease

c-myc, N-myc and L-myc are the three members of the myc oncoprotein family whose role in the pathogenesis of many human neoplastic diseases has received wide empirical support. In this review, we first summarize data, derived mainly from non-clinical studies, indicating that these oncoproteins actually serve quite different roles in vivo. This concept necessarily lies at the heart of the basis for the observation that the deregulated expression of each MYC gene is reproducibly associated with only certain naturally occurring malignancies in humans and that these genes are not interchangeable with respect to their aberrant functional consequences. We also review evidence implicating each of the above MYC genes in specific neoplastic diseases and have attempted to identify unresolved questions which deserve further basic or clinical investigation. We have made every attempt to review those diseases for which significant and confirmatory evidence, based on studies with primary tumor material, exists to implicate MYC members in their causation and/or progression.

New Myc-interacting proteins: a second Myc network emerges

Despite its intensive investigation for almost two decades, c-Myc remains a fascinating and enigmatic subject. A large and compelling body of evidence indicates that c-Myc is a transcription factor with central roles in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, but its exact function has remained elusive. In this review we survey recent advances in the identification and analysis of c-Myc-binding proteins, which suggest insights into the transcriptional roles of c-Myc but which also extend the existing functional paradigms. The C-terminal domain (CTD) of c-Myc mediates interaction with Max and physiological recognition of DNA target sequences, events needed for all biological actions. Recently described interactions between the CTD and other cellular proteins, including YY-1, AP-2, BRCA-1, TFII-I, and Miz-1, suggest levels of regulatory complexity beyond Max in controlling DNA recognition by c-Myc. The N-terminal domain (NTD), which includes the evolutionarily conserved and functionally crucial Myc Box sequences (MB1 and MB2), contains the transcription activation domain (TAD) of c-Myc as well as regions required for transcriptional repression, cell cycle regulation, transformation, and apoptosis. In addition to interaction with the retinoblastoma family protein p107, the NTD has been shown to interact with alpha-tubulin and the novel adaptor proteins Binl, MM-1, Pam, TRRAP, and AMY-1. The structure of these proteins and their effects on c-Myc actions suggest links to the transcriptional regulatory machinery as well as to cell cycle regulation, chromatin modeling, and apoptosis. Investigations of this emerging NTD-based network may reveal how c-Myc is regulated and how it affects cell fate, as well as providing tools to distinguish the physiological roles of various Myc target genes.

c-Myc transactivation domain-associated kinases: questionable role for map kinases in c-Myc phosphorylation

We have isolated and characterized cellular kinases which associate with the transactivation domain of c-Myc and phosphorylate Ser-62. We demonstrate that cellular Map kinases associate with c-Myc under stringent conditions and phosphorylate Ser-62. We also find that TPA stimulates the activity of the Myc-associated Map kinase to phosphorylate Ser-62. However, we do not observe an increase in Ser-62 phosphorylation in endogenous c-Myc after TPA treatment of cells. Since the regulation of the c-Myc-associated Map kinases does not correlate with the in vivo regulation of Ser-62 phosphorylation in c-Myc, we conclude that Map kinases are not the in vivo kinases for Ser-62. Although Ser-62 phosphorylation was not affected by TPA, phosphorylation at a different serine residue was significantly upregulated by TPA.

Ras enhances Myc protein stability

Various experiments have demonstrated a collaborative action of Myc and Ras, both in normal cell growth control as well as during oncogenesis. We now show that Ras enhances the accumulation of Myc activity by stabilizing the Myc protein. Whereas Myc has a very short half-life when produced in the absence of mitogenic signals, due to degradation by the 26S proteasome, the half-life of Myc increases markedly in growth-stimulated cells. This stabilization is dependent on the Ras/Raf/MAPK pathway and is not augmented by proteasome inhibition, suggesting that Ras inhibits the proteasome-dependent degradation of Myc. We propose that one aspect of Myc-Ras collaboration is an ability of Ras to enhance the accumulation of transcriptionally active Myc protein.

Destruction of Myc by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis: cancer-associated and transforming mutations stabilize Myc

The human proto-oncogene c-myc encodes a highly unstable transcription factor that promotes cell proliferation. Although the extreme instability of Myc plays an important role in preventing its accumulation in normal cells, little is known about how Myc is targeted for rapid destruction. Here, we have investigated mechanisms regulating the stability of Myc. We show that Myc is destroyed by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and define two elements in Myc that oppositely regulate its stability: a transcriptional activation domain that promotes Myc destruction, and a region required for association with the POZ domain protein Miz-1 that stabilizes Myc. We also show that Myc is stabilized by cancer-associated and transforming mutations within its transcriptional activation domain. Our data reveal a complex network of interactions regulating Myc destruction, and imply that enhanced protein stability contributes to oncogenic transformation by mutant Myc proteins.

Perspective: chromosomal translocations can affect genes controlling gene expression and differentiation--why are these functions targeted?

Chromosomal translocations are important aetiological factors in many human cancers. These aberrant chromosomes cause enforced expression of oncogenes located near the breakpoints or results in tumour-specific fusion proteins. Among the characteristics which influence the tumourigenic effect, it is observed that the genes at translocation junctions are often transcription factors and often normally involved in developmental processes. Furthermore, protein-protein interactions are key elements in the mechanism by which the translocation gene products exert their pathogenic effects. In this review some of these salient features are discussed and generalizations are suggested which may be applicable to the influence of chromosomal translocations on acute forms of cancer.

myc boxes, which are conserved in myc family proteins, are signals for protein degradation via the proteasome

Cellular levels of the rapidly degraded c-myc protein play an important role in determining the proliferation status of cells. Increased levels of c-myc are frequently associated with rapidly proliferating tumor cells. We show here that myc boxes I and II, found in the N termini of all members of the myc protein family, function to direct the degradation of the c-myc protein. Both myc boxes I and II contain sufficient information to independently direct the degradation of otherwise stably expressed proteins to which they are fused. At least part of the myc box-directed degradation occurs via the proteasome. The mechanism of myc box-directed degradation appears to be conserved between yeast and mammalian cells. Our results suggest that the myc boxes may play an important role in regulating the level and activity of the c-myc protein.

Control of cell proliferation by Myc proteins

Taken together, the available data appear to be consistent with a model in which Myc proteins function downstream of D-type cyclins and synergize with E2F proteins in the activation of the cyclin E/cdk2 kinase. This view of Myc proteins appears strikingly similar to established models for the E2F/DP family of proteins. However, it should be noted that there are clear differences and several predictions of such a model that have been critically tested for E2F proteins are still untested for Myc in this model. First, it appears that at least some target genes of Myc implicated in this process are still unknown; second, clear data from knockout cells that link p107 to Myc function are missing; and third, we are not aware of studies of tumour samples that clarify whether mutations in myc genes relieve the requirement for mutations in the cyclin D/p16 pathway.

Insight into Burkitt's lymphoma from immunoglobulin variable region gene analysis

Analysis of usage of V(H) and V(L) genes, and the degree and pattern of somatic mutation, has been used to investigate the cell of origin and clonal history in cases of Burkitt's lymphoma (BL). Tumor cell lines and biopsy material from patients with endemic, sporadic and AIDS-associated BL have been compared. V(H) genes were most commonly derived from the V(H)3 (52%) and V(H)4 (39%) families. This shows a similar gene usage of the V(H)3 family to that seen in the normal peripheral blood repertoire (55%), but a biased usage of the V(H)4 family (22% in normal). There was no restriction in V(L) gene usage. This overall distribution was similar in all subsets of BL. In all categories, there was significant somatic mutation in both V(H) and V(L) sequences. There was no evidence for accumulation of mutations in cell lines cultured in vitro indicating that all mutations in BL-derived cell lines have accumulated in vivo. The mean percentage level of mutation +/- standard deviation was greater in endemic BL (V(H) = 7.7 +/- 4.0, V(L) = 5.3 +/- 2.2) and AIDS-associated BL (V(H) = 7.5 +/- 3.6, V(L) = 3.9 +/- 1.9) than in sporadic BL (V(H) = 4.0 +/- 2.5, V(L) = 2.2 +/- 1.2). The pattern of somatic hypermutation was similar in V(H) and V(L) sequences of the different types of BL although the light chain genes were less mutated. Mutational patterns in the V(H) genes did not reveal a conventional role for antigen in selection of tumor cell sequences in 23/25 V(H) genes analysed. In contrast, patterns in V(L) sequences were consistent with a role for antigen in 8/13 sBL +/- eBL cases and 8/17 cases overall. The presence of EBV did not seem to influence the quantity or pattern of somatic mutations. Evidence for intraclonal variation was seen in uncloned cell lines from cases of eBL and AIDS-associated BL and confirmed in biopsy material in some, but not all cases of eBL, sBL and AIDS-associated BL examined. These common features indicate that the B-cells involved in all types of BL are derived from cells that have traversed the germinal centre, and that the somatic mutation mechanism may still be operative following neoplastic transformation. Overall, in 10/30 cases, there was evidence of significant clustering of replacement amino acids, in CDRs, particularly in V(L), indicating that the B-cell of origin is likely to have been selected by antigen.

Epstein-Barr virus infections and their association with human malignancies: some key questions

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) expresses genes that stimulate cells to divide in culture. This property, coupled with the close association of the virus with numerous malignancies, has prompted its designation as a human DNA tumour virus. Before human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8, alternatively KS virus) was discovered, EBV was unique in this property among the human herpesviruses. EBV infection has been best characterised in terms of gene expression in B lymphocytes and epithelium, which represent cells found in the best known of the associated malignancies, Burkitt's lymphoma and poorly differentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The bulk of evidence supports B cells as the primary EBV reservoir with the viral route into other cell types remaining ill-defined. Molecular studies on gene expression in the associated tumours suggest that EBV encodes a number of functions associated with cell growth; whether they are expressed or silent may largely be under control of the host cell. Many questions partly addressed here remain with regard to this virus, two critical ones relating to the mechanisms by which viral gene products escape T-cell recognition - relevant from the fact that gene expression is not tightly restricted to nonimmunogenic functions in tumours - and whether EBV can invoke cell growth in a manner not requiring its continued presence. The latter seems a plausible hypothesis and is of particular importance with regard to identifying and understanding pathologies associated with EBV, as viral transcriptional transactivators may on initial infection permanently perturb cell regulation.

p53 mutation in a case of blastic transformation of follicular lymphoma with double bcl-2 rearrangement (MBR and VCR)

The bcl-2 gene is rearranged in most cases of follicular lymphoma and the breakpoint clusters are found in two specific regions: mbr and mcr. Rearrangements of the immunoglobulin heavy chain genes (IgH) result in a deregulation of the gene and increased transcription of mRNA for the bcl-2 protein. In cases of rearrangement of the light chains (variant translocations), a third breakpoint has been described at the 5' part of the bcl-2 locus (vcr). In the present case, we report the molecular analysis of an FL transformed into a blastic phase unresponsive to chemotherapy. Molecular studies revealed a typical bcl-2 rearrangement at the major locus (mbr). Vcr rearrangements was also observed with only a single restriction enzyme. At the same time, SSCP analysis of exon 5 of the p53 locus disclosed an abnormal conformer. Direct sequencing revealed a point mutation at codon 163 (A --> G). Immunohistochemical analysis of the affected sites disclosed overexpression of p53 and bcl-2. It is concluded that p53 mutation can contribute to blastic transformation in cases of follicular lymphomas with double rearrangement at the bcl-2 locus (mbr/vcr).

Role of Oncogenic Transcription Factor c-Myc in Cell Cycle Regulation, Apoptosis and Metabolism

The myc gene was initially discovered as a prototypical retrovirally transduced oncogene. Over the decades, abundant evidence has emerged to support a causal role for the activated cellular gene, c-myc, in animal and human tumors. The gene encodes an oncogenic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription factor that acts as a heterodimer with its partner protein, Max, to activate genes regulating the cell cycle machinery as well as critical metabolic enzymes. The additional ability of c-Myc to repress transcription of differentiation-related genes suggest that c-Myc is a central and key molecular integrator of cell proliferation, differentiation and metabolism.

Intraclonal molecular heterogeneity suggests a hierarchy of pathogenetic events in Burkitt's lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Burkitt's lymphoma is a B-cell neoplasm characterized by a chromosomal translocation involving the c-myc gene. BL may carry, besides the c-myc translocation, several other lesions including a) mutations in c-myc, b) mutations in bcl-6, c) mutations in p53 and d) EBV genomes. In this report we describe a unique study of the timing of these genetic lesions during the evolution and progression of Burkitt's lymphoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From each of two patients with Burkitt's lymphoma, we established three different cell lines from different sites or at different times in the clinical course of the disease (diagnosis and relapse). Chromosomal aberrations were analyzed by karyotyping and the presence of molecular lesions determined by Southern blot, PCR, SSCP and sequence analyses.

RESULTS

In each patient all the clones carry identical c-myc translocations, identical bcl-6 status (wild type or mutant) and the same productive VDJ rearrangement. However, within each individual patient, we could demonstrate the presence of intraclonal variation with respect to EBV, p53 mutations and c-myc mutations.

CONCLUSIONS

c-myc translocation and bcl-6 mutations appear to be early events, mutations in the coding region of c-myc occur early but are an ongoing event, while mutations in the p53 gene seem to occur later. Discrete clonal bands reflecting independent EBV infection were observed in the cell lines from one HIV-associated Burkitt's lymphoma, suggesting the possibility that EBV infection may occur as a late event, at least in some HIV associated lymphomas.

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

Pediatric lymphomas are the third most common group of malignancies in children and adolescents. Unlike lymphomas in adults, pediatric lymphomas are diffuse, aggressive neoplasms with a propensity for widespread dissemination. Intensification of conventional treatment approaches along with improvements in supportive care have resulted in dramatic improvement in event-free survival rates of close to 90% in patients with B-cell lymphomas and only slightly lower in patients with T-cell lymphomas. Lymphoid neoplasms arise because of genetic changes that result in altered growth and differential patterns of lymphoid cells. The characterization of these molecular abnormalities and an understanding of their consequences has led to new approaches to diagnosis and the detection of minimal residual disease and also provides the basis for the future development of novel treatment approaches targeted specifically to the neoplastic cells.

BIN1 is a novel MYC-interacting protein with features of a tumour suppressor

BIN1 is a novel protein that interacts with the functionally critical Myc box regions at the N terminus of the MYC oncoprotein. BIN1 is structurally related to amphiphysin, a breast cancer-associated autoimmune antigen, and RVS167, a negative regulator of the yeast cell cycle, suggesting roles in malignancy and cell cycle control. Consistent with this likelihood, BIN1 inhibited malignant cell transformation by MYC. Although BIN1 is expressed in many normal cells, its levels were greatly reduced or undetectable in 14/27 carcinoma cell lines and 3/6 primary breast tumours. Deficits were functionally significant because ectopic expression of BIN1 inhibited the growth of tumour cells lacking endogenous message. We conclude that BIN1 is an MYC-interacting protein with features of a tumour suppressor.

Multiple phenotypes associated with Myc-induced transformation of chick embryo fibroblasts can be dissociated by a basic region mutation

Chimaeric alleles were constructed to assay the biological functions of an N-terminal deletion and C-terminal mutations which were found in a naturally occurring mutant of feline vMyc, T17. The mutant alleles were assayed for their ability to transform chick embryo fibroblasts in vitro by a number of criteria, namely the ability to induce morphological transformation, an accelerated growth rate and growth in soft agar. Feline cMyc could transform the avian cells, whilst T17 vMyc could not, and the N-terminal deletion was responsible for conferring the primary transformation defect on the mutant protein. The C-terminal mutations which consist of a point mutation adjacent to the nuclear localisation signal and a point mutation/amino acid insertion within the basic region (BR) could, however, dissociate the Myc-induced parameters of transformation. This effect was a specific function of the BR mutation alone, and the mutation could be transferred into avian cMyc with comparable biological consequences. The BR mutation did not disrupt the sequence specific DNA binding activity of the protein in vivo, despite exerting a biological effect. These data suggest a novel phenotype where the mutation may affect a subset of Myc-regulated genes through altered DNA binding specificity or protein-protein interactions.

Functional interaction of the c-Myc transactivation domain with the TATA binding protein: evidence for an induced fit model of transactivation domain folding

c-Myc is a member of a family of sequence specific-DNA binding proteins that are thought to regulate the transcription of genes involved in normal cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. In order to understand how human c-myc functions as a transcription factor, we have studied the mechanism of action and structure of the N-terminal transactivation domain, amino acids 1-143. In a protein interaction assay, c-myc1-143 bound selectively to two basal transcription factors, the TATA binding protein (TBP) and the RAP74 subunit of TFIIF. Furthermore, the isolated c-myc transactivation domain competed for limiting factors required for the assembly of a functional preinitiation complex. This squelching of basal transcription was reversed in a dose-dependent manner by recombinant TBP. Taken together, these results identify TBP as an important target for the c-myc transactivation domain, during transcriptional initiation. Similar to other transactivation domains, the c-myc1-143 polypeptide showed little or no evidence of secondary structure, when measured by circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) in aqueous solution. However, significant alpha-helical conformation was observed in the presence of the hydrophobic solvent trifluoroethanol. Strikingly, addition of TBP caused changes in the CD spectra consistent with induction of protein conformation in c-myc1-143 during interaction with the target factor. This change was specific for TBP as a similar effect was not observed in the presence of TFIIB. These data support a model in which target factors induce or stabilize a structural conformation in activator proteins during transcriptional transactivation.

The transactivation potential of a c-Myc N-terminal region (residues 92-143) is regulated by growth factor/Ras signaling

The colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) affects mitogenic growth and gene expression in NIH 3T3 cells through signaling pathways that require the products of the c-ras and c-myc proto-oncogenes. In this work we tested the hypothesis that there is direct communication between the Ras and Myc pathways. In transient transfection assays Ras increased by 5-fold transcriptional transactivation by chimeric c-Myc-Gal4 proteins. A constitutive active form of the CSF-1R also stimulated this activity and co-expression of a dominant negative ras gene ablated receptor stimulation. Deletion analysis of the c-Myc N-terminal region demonstrated that amino acid residues between positions 92 and 143 are the targets for Ras action. Transactivation by chimeric Myc proteins that were stably expressed could be transiently enhanced by either CSF-1 or serum, with peak activity occurring 2 h after mitogen stimulation. The steady-state levels of the chimeric c-Myc transactivators were increased following stimulation with CSF-1 or serum, but this increase in steady-state protein level did not strictly correlate with the increase in transactivation activity. Thus, Ras signaling may directly affect the activity of the c-Myc N-terminal region.

Molecular cloning, chromosomal mapping, and expression of the mouse p107 gene

Progression through the G1 phase of the cell cycle is regulated, in part, by the pRB-family proteins, pRB and p107. The basis for this regulation is due to a network of interactions between the pRB-family proteins, pRB, p107, and p130; the E2F-family of transcription factors; and cyclins D, E, and A. One of the pRB-family proteins, p107, has also been found to bind to the transactivation domain of the c-Myc proto-oncogene. This region in c-Myc is frequently mutated in tumors such as Burkitt's lymphoma, HIV-associated lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. The binding of p107 and regulation of c-Myc may conceivably be disrupted not only by mutations in c-Myc, but possibly by mutations in p107. In order to determine if mutations in p107 are indeed present in mouse B-cell tumors which exhibit a lower frequency of c-Myc mutation, we have cloned the mouse p107 cDNA and compared this sequence with its human counterpart. We find that the extreme N-terminal and C-terminal regions are the most conserved between human and mouse p107 sequences. Chromosomal positioning of the locus for p107 (designated Rbl1) as well as E2f1 to the distal end of mouse Chromosome (Chr) 2 also suggests a close but unlinked genetic relationship between these cell cycle regulatory transcription factors.

A link between c-Myc-mediated transcriptional repression and neoplastic transformation

Recent studies indicate that the transcription factor c-Myc contributes to oncogenesis by altering the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, but its precise function in neoplasia remains ambiguous. The ability of c-Myc to bind the sequence CAC(G/A)TG and transactivate appears to be linked to its transforming activity; however, c-Myc also represses transcription in vitro through a pyrimidine-rich cis element termed the initiator (Inr). In transfection experiments using the adenoviral major late (adML) promoter, which contains two Myc binding sites and an Inr, we determined that c-Myc represses transcription through the initiator in vivo. This activity requires the dimerization domain and amino acids 106 to 143, which are located within the transactivation domain and are necessary for neoplastic transformation. We studied a lymphoma-derived c-Myc substitution mutation at 115-Phe, which is within the region required for transcriptional suppression, and found the mutant more effective than wild-type c-Myc in transforming rodent fibroblasts and in suppressing the adML promoter. Our studies of both loss-of-function and gain-of-function c-Myc mutations suggest a link between c-Myc-mediated neoplastic transformation and transcriptional repression through the Inr.

Functional analysis of Burkitt's lymphoma mutant c-Myc proteins

The c-myc gene encodes a sequence-specific DNA binding protein that activates transcription of cellular genes. Transcription activation by Myc proteins is regulated by phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues within the transactivation domain and by complex formation with the retinoblastoma-related protein p107. In Burkitt's lymphoma, missense mutations within the c-Myc transactivation domain have been found with high frequency. It has been reported that mutant c-Myc proteins derived from Burkitt's lymphoma cell lines are resistant to inhibition by p107, thus providing a rationale for the increased oncogenic activity of these mutant c-Myc proteins. It has been suggested that these mutant c-Myc proteins resist down-modulation by p107 because they lack cyclin A-cdk2-dependent phosphorylation. Here, we have examined three different Burkitt's lymphoma mutant c-Myc proteins found in primary Burkitt's lymphomas and one mutant c-Myc protein detected in a Burkitt's lymphoma cell line. All four have an unaltered ability to activate transcription and are sensitive to inhibition of transactivation by p107. Furthermore, we provide evidence that down-modulation of c-Myc transactivation by p107 does not require phosphorylation of the c-Myc transactivation domain by cyclin A-cdk2. Our data indicate that escape from p107-induced suppression is not a general consequence of all Burkitt's lymphoma-associated c-Myc mutations, suggesting that other mechanisms exist to deregulate c-Myc function.

Apparent uncoupling of oncogenicity from fibroblast transformation and apoptosis in a mutant myc gene transduced by feline leukemia virus

The T17 v-myc oncogene was transduced by feline leukemia virus in a spontaneous feline T-cell lymphosarcoma. Molecular cloning and sequencing of the v-myc gene revealed several unique mutations, including a large deletion affecting amino acids 49 to 124 and a 3-bp insertion within the basic DNA binding domain which converts Leu-362 to Phe-Arg. The T17 lymphoma cell line was found to express a truncated 50-kDa Myc protein at exceptionally high levels, while the endogenous c-myc gene was not detectably expressed. These observations suggest that the mutant Myc product expresses an oncogenic function in T cells. Further evidence that the T17 mutant gene retains oncogenic potential was provided by its detection in clonally integrated proviruses in secondary tumors induced by feline leukemia virus T17, where no reversion mutations were found in any of three tumors examined. However, the mutant T17 v-myc gene did not induce transformation in a chicken embryo fibroblast assay, in contrast to wild-type feline c-myc, which conferred higher growth rates on the chicken fibroblasts, along with altered morphology and the ability to form foci in soft agar. Chicken cells over-expressing feline c-myc died by apoptosis when cultured with low serum concentrations, while the T17 mutant had no discernible effect. These results suggest that the leukemogenic potential of Myc can be uncoupled from its ability to cause transformation in fibroblasts. A possible explanation for this apparent paradox is that developing T cells are acutely sensitive to a subset of Myc functions which are insufficient for fibroblast transformation.

The amino-terminal phosphorylation sites of C-MYC are frequently mutated in Burkitt's lymphoma lines but not in mouse plasmacytomas and rat immunocytomas

We sequenced the region encoding the amino-terminal phosphorylation sites of C-MYC in the Ig/MYC translocation-carrying Burkitt lymphomas (BL), mouse plasmacytomas (MPC) and rat immunocytomas (RIC). Mutations affecting the Thr-58 codon or the immediate flanking region were found in seven of the 10 in vitro propagated BL lines. No mutations were found in any of the eight BL biopsies analysed. Germ-line sequences were also found in six in vivo and five in vitro passaged MPCs and in four in vivo transplanted RICs. These findings indicate that mutations in this region do not represent a general phenomena in Ig/MYC translocation-carrying tumours, but may confer growth advantage on BL cells under continuous in vitro propagation.

The N-terminal domain of c-Myc associates with alpha-tubulin and microtubules in vivo and in vitro

The polymerization of alpha- and beta-tubulin into microtubules results in a complex network of microfibrils that have important structural and functional roles in all eukaryotic cells. In addition, microtubules can interact with a diverse family of polypeptides which are believed to directly promote the assembly of microtubules and to modulate their functional activity. We have demonstrated that the c-Myc oncoprotein interacts in vivo and in vitro with alpha-tubulin and with polymerized microtubules and have defined the binding site to the N-terminal region within the transactivation domain of c-Myc. In addition, we have shown that c-Myc colocalizes with microtubules and remains tightly bound to the microtubule network after detergent extraction of intact cells. These findings suggest a potential role for Myc-tubulin interaction in vivo.

c-Myc is glycosylated at threonine 58, a known phosphorylation site and a mutational hot spot in lymphomas

c-Myc is a helix-loop leucine zipper phosphoprotein that heterodimerizes with Max and regulates gene transcription in cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and programmed cell death. Previously, we demonstrated that c-Myc is modified by O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) within or nearby the N-terminal transcriptional activation domain (Chou, T.-Y., Dang, C.V., and Hart, G.W. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 4417-4421). In this paper, we identified the O-GlcNAc attachment site(s) on c-Myc. c-Myc purified from sf9 insect cells was trypsinized, and its GlcNAc moieties were enzymically labeled with [3H]galactose. The [3H]galactose-labeled glycopeptides were isolated by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography and then subjected to gas-phase sequencing, manual Edman degradation, and laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. These analyses show that threonine 58, an in vivo phosphorylation site in the transactivation domain, is the major O-GlcNAc glycosylation site of c-Myc. Mutation of threonine 58, frequently found in retroviral v-Myc proteins and in human Burkitt and AIDS-related lymphomas, is associated with enhanced transforming activity and tumorigenicity. The reciprocal glycosylation and phosphorylation at this biologically significant amino acid residue may play an important role in the regulation of the functions of c-Myc.

A link between increased transforming activity of lymphoma-derived MYC mutant alleles, their defective regulation by p107, and altered phosphorylation of the c-Myc transactivation domain

The c-Myc protein is a transcription factor with an N-terminal transcriptional regulatory domain and C-terminal oligomerization and DNA-binding motifs. Previous studies have demonstrated that p107, a protein related to the retinoblastoma protein, binds to the c-Myc transcriptional activation domain and suppresses its activity. We sought to characterize the transforming activity and transcriptional properties of lymphoma-derived mutant MYC alleles. Alleles encoding c-Myc proteins with missense mutations in the transcriptional regulatory domain were more potent than wild-type c-Myc in transforming rodent fibroblasts. Although the mutant c-Myc proteins retained their binding to p107 in in vitro and in vivo assays, p107 failed to suppress their transcriptional activation activities. Many of the lymphoma-derived MYC alleles contain missense mutations that result in substitution for the threonine at codon 58 or affect sequences flanking this amino acid. We observed that in vivo phosphorylation of Thr-58 was absent in a lymphoma cell line with a mutant MYC allele containing a missense mutation flanking codon 58. Our in vitro studies suggest that phosphorylation of Thr-58 in wild-type c-Myc was dependent on cyclin A and required prior phosphorylation of Ser-62 by a p107-cyclin A-CDK complex. In contrast, Thr-58 remained unphosphorylated in two representative mutant c-Myc transactivation domains in vitro. Our studies suggest that missense mutations in MYC may be selected for during lymphomagenesis, because the mutant MYC proteins have altered functional interactions with p107 protein complexes and fail to be phosphorylated at Thr-58.

Transactivation of the human p53 tumor suppressor gene by c-Myc/Max contributes to elevated mutant p53 expression in some tumors

Elevated levels of mutant forms of the p53 tumor suppressor are a hallmark of many transformed cells. Multiple mechanisms such as increased stability of the protein and increased transcription of the gene can account for elevated p53 expression. Recent findings indicate that c-Myc/Max heterodimers can bind to an essential CA(C/T)GTG-containing site in the p53 promoter and elevate its expression. We have addressed the possibility that elevated mutant p53 expression is due to deregulated c-Myc expression. Here we demonstrate that the human p53 promoter is transactivated by high c-Myc expression and repressed by high Max expression. In examining the relative levels of c-Myc and p53 in human Burkitt's lymphomas and other B-lymphoid lines, we found that there is a correlation between the levels of c-Myc protein and p53 mRNA expression. In particular, cells that express very low levels of c-Myc protein also express low levels of p53 mRNA, while cells that express high levels of c-Myc tend to express high levels of p53 mRNA. To determine whether the p53 gene can be a target for c-Myc in vivo, we assayed the effects of antisense c-myc RNA on the levels of endogenous p53 mRNA. The results indicate that the presence of antisense c-myc RNA leads to a reduction in the levels of c-Myc protein, p53 mRNA, and expression from the p53 promoter. Taken together, our findings support a direct role for c-Myc in elevating expression of the mutant p53 gene in some tumors.

Transactivation of the human p53 tumor suppressor gene by c-Myc/Max contributes to elevated mutant p53 expression in some tumors

Elevated levels of mutant forms of the p53 tumor suppressor are a hallmark of many transformed cells. Multiple mechanisms such as increased stability of the protein and increased transcription of the gene can account for elevated p53 expression. Recent findings indicate that c-Myc/Max heterodimers can bind to an essential CA(C/T)GTG-containing site in the p53 promoter and elevate its expression. We have addressed the possibility that elevated mutant p53 expression is due to deregulated c-Myc expression. Here we demonstrate that the human p53 promoter is transactivated by high c-Myc expression and repressed by high Max expression. In examining the relative levels of c-Myc and p53 in human Burkitt's lymphomas and other B-lymphoid lines, we found that there is a correlation between the levels of c-Myc protein and p53 mRNA expression. In particular, cells that express very low levels of c-Myc protein also express low levels of p53 mRNA, while cells that express high levels of c-Myc tend to express high levels of p53 mRNA. To determine whether the p53 gene can be a target for c-Myc in vivo, we assayed the effects of antisense c-myc RNA on the levels of endogenous p53 mRNA. The results indicate that the presence of antisense c-myc RNA leads to a reduction in the levels of c-Myc protein, p53 mRNA, and expression from the p53 promoter. Taken together, our findings support a direct role for c-Myc in elevating expression of the mutant p53 gene in some tumors.

c-Myc cooperates with activated Ras to induce the cdc2 promoter

Expression of c-myc with constitutively active mutants of the ras gene results in the cooperative transformation of primary fibroblasts, although the precise mechanism by which these genes cooperate is unknown. Since c-Myc has been shown to function as a transcriptional activator, we have examined the ability of c-Myc and activated Ras (H-RasV-12) to cooperatively induce the promoter activity of cdc2, a gene which is critical for cell cycle progression. Microinjection of expression constructs encoding H-RasV-12 and c-Myc along with a cdc2 promoter-luciferase reporter plasmid into quiescent cells led to an increase in cdc2 promoter activity approximately 30 h after injection, a period which coincides with the S-to-G2/M transition in these cells. Expression of H-RasV-12 alone weakly activated the cdc2 promoter, while expression of c-Myc alone had no effect. Mutants of c-Myc lacking either the leucine zipper dimerization domain or the phosphoacceptor site Ser-62 could not cooperate with H-RasV-12 to induce the cdc2 promoter. These mutants also lacked the ability to cooperate with H-RasV-12 to stimulate DNA synthesis. Deletion analysis identified a distinct region of the cdc2 promoter which was required for c-Myc responsiveness. Taken together, these observations suggest a mechanistic link between the molecular activities of c-Myc and Ras and induction of the cell cycle regulator Cdc2.

c-Myc cooperates with activated Ras to induce the cdc2 promoter

Expression of c-myc with constitutively active mutants of the ras gene results in the cooperative transformation of primary fibroblasts, although the precise mechanism by which these genes cooperate is unknown. Since c-Myc has been shown to function as a transcriptional activator, we have examined the ability of c-Myc and activated Ras (H-RasV-12) to cooperatively induce the promoter activity of cdc2, a gene which is critical for cell cycle progression. Microinjection of expression constructs encoding H-RasV-12 and c-Myc along with a cdc2 promoter-luciferase reporter plasmid into quiescent cells led to an increase in cdc2 promoter activity approximately 30 h after injection, a period which coincides with the S-to-G2/M transition in these cells. Expression of H-RasV-12 alone weakly activated the cdc2 promoter, while expression of c-Myc alone had no effect. Mutants of c-Myc lacking either the leucine zipper dimerization domain or the phosphoacceptor site Ser-62 could not cooperate with H-RasV-12 to induce the cdc2 promoter. These mutants also lacked the ability to cooperate with H-RasV-12 to stimulate DNA synthesis. Deletion analysis identified a distinct region of the cdc2 promoter which was required for c-Myc responsiveness. Taken together, these observations suggest a mechanistic link between the molecular activities of c-Myc and Ras and induction of the cell cycle regulator Cdc2.

Hierarchical phosphorylation at N-terminal transformation-sensitive sites in c-Myc protein is regulated by mitogens and in mitosis

The N-terminal domain of the c-Myc protein has been reported to be critical for both the transactivation and biological functions of the c-Myc proteins. Through detailed phosphopeptide mapping analyses, we demonstrate that there is a cluster of four regulated and complex phosphorylation events on the N-terminal domain of Myc proteins, including Thr-58, Ser-62, and Ser-71. An apparent enhancement of Ser-62 phosphorylation occurs on v-Myc proteins having a mutation at Thr-58 which has previously been correlated with increased transforming ability. In contrast, phosphorylation of Thr-58 in cells is dependent on a prior phosphorylation of Ser-62. Hierarchical phosphorylation of c-Myc is also observed in vitro with a specific glycogen synthase kinase 3 alpha, unlike the promiscuous phosphorylation observed with other glycogen synthase kinase 3 alpha and 3 beta preparations. Although both p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase and cdc2 kinase specifically phosphorylate Ser-62 in vitro and cellular phosphorylation of Thr-58/Ser-62 is stimulated by mitogens, other in vivo experiments do not support a role for these kinases in the phosphorylation of Myc proteins. Unexpectedly, both the Thr-58 and Ser-62 phosphorylation events, but not other N-terminal phosphorylation events, can occur in the cytoplasm, suggesting that translocation of the c-Myc proteins to the nucleus is not required for phosphorylation at these sites. In addition, there appears to be an unusual block to the phosphorylation of Ser-62 during mitosis. Finally, although the enhanced transforming properties of Myc proteins correlates with the loss of phosphorylation at Thr-58 and an enhancement of Ser-62 phosphorylation, these phosphorylation events do not alter the ability of c-Myc to transactivate through the CACGTG Myc/Max binding site.

Hierarchical phosphorylation at N-terminal transformation-sensitive sites in c-Myc protein is regulated by mitogens and in mitosis

The N-terminal domain of the c-Myc protein has been reported to be critical for both the transactivation and biological functions of the c-Myc proteins. Through detailed phosphopeptide mapping analyses, we demonstrate that there is a cluster of four regulated and complex phosphorylation events on the N-terminal domain of Myc proteins, including Thr-58, Ser-62, and Ser-71. An apparent enhancement of Ser-62 phosphorylation occurs on v-Myc proteins having a mutation at Thr-58 which has previously been correlated with increased transforming ability. In contrast, phosphorylation of Thr-58 in cells is dependent on a prior phosphorylation of Ser-62. Hierarchical phosphorylation of c-Myc is also observed in vitro with a specific glycogen synthase kinase 3 alpha, unlike the promiscuous phosphorylation observed with other glycogen synthase kinase 3 alpha and 3 beta preparations. Although both p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase and cdc2 kinase specifically phosphorylate Ser-62 in vitro and cellular phosphorylation of Thr-58/Ser-62 is stimulated by mitogens, other in vivo experiments do not support a role for these kinases in the phosphorylation of Myc proteins. Unexpectedly, both the Thr-58 and Ser-62 phosphorylation events, but not other N-terminal phosphorylation events, can occur in the cytoplasm, suggesting that translocation of the c-Myc proteins to the nucleus is not required for phosphorylation at these sites. In addition, there appears to be an unusual block to the phosphorylation of Ser-62 during mitosis. Finally, although the enhanced transforming properties of Myc proteins correlates with the loss of phosphorylation at Thr-58 and an enhancement of Ser-62 phosphorylation, these phosphorylation events do not alter the ability of c-Myc to transactivate through the CACGTG Myc/Max binding site.