BK channel beta4 subunit reduces dentate gyrus excitability and protects against temporal lobe seizures

BK channel β1 and β4 auxiliary subunits exert opposite influences on escalated ethanol drinking in dependent mice

Large conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels play a key role in the control of neuronal activity. Ethanol is a potent activator of BK channel gating, but how this action may impact ethanol drinking still remains poorly understood. Auxiliary β subunits are known to modulate ethanol-induced potentiation of BK currents. In the present study, we investigated whether BK β1 and β4 subunits influence voluntary ethanol consumption using knockout (KO) mice. In a first experiment, mice were first subjected to continuous two-bottle choice (2BC) and were then switched to intermittent 2BC, which progressively increased ethanol intake as previously described in wildtype mice. BK β1 or β4 subunit deficiency did not affect ethanol self-administration under either schedule of access. In a second experiment, mice were first trained to drink ethanol in a limited-access 2BC paradigm. BK β1 or β4 deletion did not affect baseline consumption. Weeks of 2BC were then alternated with weeks of chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) or air inhalation. As expected, a gradual escalation of ethanol drinking was observed in dependent wildtype mice, while intake remained stable in non-dependent wildtype mice. However, CIE exposure only produced a mild augmentation of ethanol consumption in BK β4 KO mice. Conversely, ethanol drinking increased after fewer CIE cycles in BK β1 KO mice than in wildtype mice. In conclusion, BK β1 or β4 did not influence voluntary ethanol drinking in non-dependent mice, regardless of the pattern of access to ethanol. However, deletion of BK β4 attenuated, while deletion of BK β1 accelerated, the escalation of ethanol drinking during withdrawal from CIE. Our data suggest that BK β1 and β4 subunits have an opposite influence on the negative reinforcing properties of ethanol withdrawal. Modulating the expression, distribution or interactions of BK channel auxiliary subunits may therefore represent a novel avenue for the treatment of alcoholism.

BK channel opening involves side-chain reorientation of multiple deep-pore residues

Three deep-pore locations, L312, A313, and A316, were identified in a scanning mutagenesis study of the BK (Ca(2+)-activated, large-conductance K(+)) channel S6 pore, where single aspartate substitutions led to constitutively open mutant channels (L312D, A313D, and A316D). To understand the mechanisms of the constitutive openness of these mutant channels, we individually mutated these three sites into the other 18 amino acids. We found that charged or polar side-chain substitutions at each of the sites resulted in constitutively open mutant BK channels, with high open probability at negative voltages, as well as a loss of voltage and Ca(2+) dependence. Given the fact that multiple pore residues in BK displayed side-chain hydrophilicity-dependent constitutive openness, we propose that BK channel opening involves structural rearrangement of the deep-pore region, where multiple residues undergo conformational changes that may increase the exposure of their side chains to the polar environment of the pore.

K(+) channels: function-structural overview

Potassium channels are particularly important in determining the shape and duration of the action potential, controlling the membrane potential, modulating hormone secretion, epithelial function and, in the case of those K(+) channels activated by Ca(2+), damping excitatory signals. The multiplicity of roles played by K(+) channels is only possible to their mammoth diversity that includes at present 70 K(+) channels encoding genes in mammals. Today, thanks to the use of cloning, mutagenesis, and the more recent structural studies using x-ray crystallography, we are in a unique position to understand the origins of the enormous diversity of this superfamily of ion channels, the roles they play in different cell types, and the relations that exist between structure and function. With the exception of two-pore K(+) channels that are dimers, voltage-dependent K(+) channels are tetrameric assemblies and share an extremely well conserved pore region, in which the ion-selectivity filter resides. In the present overview, we discuss in the function, localization, and the relations between function and structure of the five different subfamilies of K(+) channels: (a) inward rectifiers, Kir; (b) four transmembrane segments-2 pores, K2P; (c) voltage-gated, Kv; (d) the Slo family; and (e) Ca(2+)-activated SK family, SKCa.

Alcohol-induced histone acetylation reveals a gene network involved in alcohol tolerance

Sustained or repeated exposure to sedating drugs, such as alcohol, triggers homeostatic adaptations in the brain that lead to the development of drug tolerance and dependence. These adaptations involve long-term changes in the transcription of drug-responsive genes as well as an epigenetic restructuring of chromosomal regions that is thought to signal and maintain the altered transcriptional state. Alcohol-induced epigenetic changes have been shown to be important in the long-term adaptation that leads to alcohol tolerance and dependence endophenotypes. A major constraint impeding progress is that alcohol produces a surfeit of changes in gene expression, most of which may not make any meaningful contribution to the ethanol response under study. Here we used a novel genomic epigenetic approach to find genes relevant for functional alcohol tolerance by exploiting the commonalities of two chemically distinct alcohols. In Drosophila melanogaster, ethanol and benzyl alcohol induce mutual cross-tolerance, indicating that they share a common mechanism for producing tolerance. We surveyed the genome-wide changes in histone acetylation that occur in response to these drugs. Each drug induces modifications in a large number of genes. The genes that respond similarly to either treatment, however, represent a subgroup enriched for genes important for the common tolerance response. Genes were functionally tested for behavioral tolerance to the sedative effects of ethanol and benzyl alcohol using mutant and inducible RNAi stocks. We identified a network of genes that are essential for the development of tolerance to sedation by alcohol.

Mice with deficient BK channel function show impaired prepulse inhibition and spatial learning, but normal working and spatial reference memory

Genetic variations in the large-conductance, voltage- and calcium activated potassium channels (BK channels) have been recently implicated in mental retardation, autism and schizophrenia which all come along with severe cognitive impairments. In the present study we investigate the effects of functional BK channel deletion on cognition using a genetic mouse model with a knock-out of the gene for the pore forming α-subunit of the channel. We tested the F1 generation of a hybrid SV129/C57BL6 mouse line in which the slo1 gene was deleted in both parent strains. We first evaluated hearing and motor function to establish the suitability of this model for cognitive testing. Auditory brain stem responses to click stimuli showed no threshold differences between knockout mice and their wild-type littermates. Despite of muscular tremor, reduced grip force, and impaired gait, knockout mice exhibited normal locomotion. These findings allowed for testing of sensorimotor gating using the acoustic startle reflex, as well as of working memory, spatial learning and memory in the Y-maze and the Morris water maze, respectively. Prepulse inhibition on the first day of testing was normal, but the knockout mice did not improve over the days of testing as their wild-type littermates did. Spontaneous alternation in the y-maze was normal as well, suggesting that the BK channel knock-out does not impair working memory. In the Morris water maze knock-out mice showed significantly slower acquisition of the task, but normal memory once the task was learned. Thus, we propose a crucial role of the BK channels in learning, but not in memory storage or recollection.

Transduction of voltage and Ca2+ signals by Slo1 BK channels

Large-conductance Ca2+ -and voltage-gated K+ channels are activated by an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration and/or depolarization. The channel activation mechanism is well described by an allosteric model encompassing the gate, voltage sensors, and Ca2+ sensors, and the model is an excellent framework to understand the influences of auxiliary β and γ subunits and regulatory factors such as Mg2+. Recent advances permit elucidation of structural correlates of the biophysical mechanism.

Characteristics of single large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels and their regulation of action potentials and excitability in parasympathetic cardiac motoneurons in the nucleus ambiguus

Large-conductance Ca2(+)-activated K+ channels (BK) regulate action potential (AP) properties and excitability in many central neurons. However, the properties and functional roles of BK channels in parasympathetic cardiac motoneurons (PCMNs) in the nucleus ambiguus (NA) have not yet been well characterized. In this study, the tracer X-rhodamine-5 (and 6)-isothiocyanate (XRITC) was injected into the pericardial sac to retrogradely label PCMNs in FVB mice at postnatal 7-9 days. Two days later, XRITC-labeled PCMNs in brain stem slices were identified. Using excised patch single-channel recordings, we identified voltage-gated and Ca(2+)-dependent BK channels in PCMNs. The majority of BK channels exhibited persistent channel opening during voltage holding. These BK channels had a conductance of 237 pS and a 50% opening probability at +27.9 mV, the channel open time constant was 3.37 ms at +20 mV, and dwell time increased exponentially as the membrane potential depolarized. At the +20-mV holding potential, the [Ca2+]50 was 15.2 μM with a P0.5 of 0.4. Occasionally, some BK channels showed a transient channel opening and fast inactivation. Using whole cell voltage clamp, we found that BK channel mediated outward currents and afterhyperpolarization currents (IAHP). Using whole cell current clamp, we found that application of BK channel blocker iberiotoxin (IBTX) increased spike half-width and suppressed fast afterhyperpolarization (fAHP) amplitude following single APs. In addition, IBTX application increased spike half-width and reduced the spike frequency-dependent AP broadening in trains and spike frequency adaption (SFA). Furthermore, BK channel blockade decreased spike frequency. Collectively, these results demonstrate that PCMNs have BK channels that significantly regulate AP repolarization, fAHP, SFA, and spike frequency. We conclude that activation of BK channels underlies one of the mechanisms for facilitation of PCMN excitability.

A DNA element regulates drug tolerance and withdrawal in Drosophila

Drug tolerance and withdrawal are insidious responses to drugs of abuse; the first increases drug consumption while the second punishes abstention. Drosophila generate functional tolerance to benzyl alcohol sedation by increasing neural expression of the slo BK-type Ca(2+) activated K(+) channel gene. After drug clearance this change produces a withdrawal phenotype-increased seizure susceptibility. The drug-induced histone modification profile identified the 6b element (60 nt) as a drug responsive element. Genomic deletion of 6b produces the allele, slo (Δ6b), that reacts more strongly to the drug with increased induction, a massive increase in the duration of tolerance, and an increase in the withdrawal phenotype yet does not alter other slo-dependent behaviors. The 6b element is a homeostatic regulator of BK channel gene expression and is the first cis-acting DNA element shown to specifically affect the duration of a drug action.

K(+) channelepsy: progress in the neurobiology of potassium channels and epilepsy

K(+) channels are important determinants of seizure susceptibility. These membrane proteins, encoded by more than 70 genes, make the largest group of ion channels that fine-tune the electrical activity of neuronal and non-neuronal cells in the brain. Their ubiquity and extremely high genetic and functional diversity, unmatched by any other ion channel type, place K(+) channels as primary targets of genetic variations or perturbations in K(+)-dependent homeostasis, even in the absence of a primary channel defect. It is therefore not surprising that numerous inherited or acquired K(+) channels dysfunctions have been associated with several neurologic syndromes, including epilepsy, which often generate confusion in the classification of the associated diseases. Therefore, we propose to name the K(+) channels defects underlying distinct epilepsies as "K(+) channelepsies," and introduce a new nomenclature (e.g., Kx.y-channelepsy), following the widely used K(+) channel classification, which could be also adopted to easily identify other channelopathies involving Na(+) (e.g., Nav x.y-phenotype), Ca(2+) (e.g., Cav x.y-phenotype), and Cl(-) channels. Furthermore, we discuss novel genetic defects in K(+) channels and associated proteins that underlie distinct epileptic phenotypes in humans, and analyze critically the recent progress in the neurobiology of this disease that has also been provided by investigations on valuable animal models of epilepsy. The abundant and varied lines of evidence discussed here strongly foster assessments for variations in genes encoding for K(+) channels and associated proteins in patients with idiopathic epilepsy, provide new avenues for future investigations, and highlight these proteins as critical pharmacological targets.

A BK (Slo1) channel journey from molecule to physiology

Calcium and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels are key actors in cell physiology, both in neuronal and non-neuronal cells and tissues. Through negative feedback between intracellular Ca (2+) and membrane voltage, BK channels provide a damping mechanism for excitatory signals. Molecular modulation of these channels by alternative splicing, auxiliary subunits and post-translational modifications showed that these channels are subjected to many mechanisms that add diversity to the BK channel α subunit gene. This complexity of interactions modulates BK channel gating, modifying the energetic barrier of voltage sensor domain activation and channel opening. Regions for voltage as well as Ca (2+) sensitivity have been identified, and the crystal structure generated by the 2 RCK domains contained in the C-terminal of the channel has been described. The linkage of these channels to many intracellular metabolites and pathways, as well as their modulation by extracellular natural agents, has been found to be relevant in many physiological processes. This review includes the hallmarks of BK channel biophysics and its physiological impact on specific cells and tissues, highlighting its relationship with auxiliary subunit expression.

Regulation of large conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels by S-palmitoylation

BK (large conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium) channels are important determinants of physiological control in the nervous, endocrine and vascular systems with channel dysfunction associated with major disorders ranging from epilepsy to hypertension and obesity. Thus the mechanisms that control channel surface expression and/or activity are important determinants of their (patho)physiological function. BK channels are S-acylated (palmitoylated) at two distinct sites within the N- and C-terminus of the pore-forming α-subunit. Palmitoylation of the N-terminus controls channel trafficking and surface expression whereas palmitoylation of the C-terminal domain determines regulation of channel activity by AGC-family protein kinases. Recent studies are beginning to reveal mechanistic insights into how palmitoylation controls channel trafficking and cross-talk with phosphorylation-dependent signalling pathways. Intriguingly, each site of palmitoylation is regulated by distinct zDHHCs (palmitoyl acyltransferases) and APTs (acyl thioesterases). This supports that different mechanisms may control substrate specificity by zDHHCs and APTs even within the same target protein. As palmitoylation is dynamically regulated, this fundamental post-translational modification represents an important determinant of BK channel physiology in health and disease.

The role of potassium BK channels in anticonvulsant effect of cannabidiol in pentylenetetrazole and maximal electroshock models of seizure in mice

Cannabidiol is a nonpsychoactive member of phytocannabinoids that produces various pharmacological effects that are not mediated through putative CB1/CB2 cannabinoid receptors and their related effectors. In this study, we examined the effect of the i.c.v. administration of potassium BK channel blocker paxilline alone and in combination with cannabidiol in protection against pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)- and maximal electroshock (MES)-induced seizure in mice. In the PTZ-induced seizure model, i.c.v. administration of cannabidiol caused a significant increase in seizure threshold compared with the control group. Moreover, while i.c.v. administration of various doses of paxilline did not produce significant change in the PTZ-induced seizure threshold in mice, coadministration of cannabidiol and paxilline attenuated the antiseizure effect of cannabidiol in PTZ-induced tonic seizures. In the MES model of seizure, both cannabidiol and paxilline per se produced significant increase in percent protection against electroshock-induced seizure. However, coadministration of cannabidiol and paxilline did not produce significant interaction in their antiseizure effect in the MES test. The results of the present study showed a protective effect of cannabidiol in both PTZ and MES models of seizure. These results suggested a BK channel-mediated antiseizure action of cannabidiol in PTZ model of seizure. However, such an interaction might not exist in MES-induced convulsion.

Hyperpolarization induces a long-term increase in the spontaneous firing rate of cerebellar Golgi cells

Golgi cells (GoCs) are inhibitory interneurons that influence the cerebellar cortical response to sensory input by regulating the excitability of the granule cell layer. While GoC inhibition is essential for normal motor coordination, little is known about the circuit dynamics that govern the activity of these cells. In particular, although GoC spontaneous spiking influences the extent of inhibition and gain throughout the granule cell layer, it is not known whether this spontaneous activity can be modulated in a long-term manner. Here we describe a form of long-term plasticity that regulates the spontaneous firing rate of GoCs in the rat cerebellar cortex. We find that membrane hyperpolarization, either by mGluR2 activation of potassium channels, or by somatic current injection, induces a long-lasting increase in GoC spontaneous firing. This spike rate plasticity appears to result from a strong reduction in the spike after hyperpolarization. Pharmacological manipulations suggest the involvement of calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinase II and calcium-activated potassium channels in mediating these firing rate increases. As a consequence of this plasticity, GoC spontaneous spiking is selectively enhanced, but the gain of evoked spiking is unaffected. Hence, this plasticity is well suited for selectively regulating the tonic output of GoCs rather than their sensory-evoked responses.

Palmitoylation of the β4-subunit regulates surface expression of large conductance calcium-activated potassium channel splice variants

Regulatory β-subunits of large conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels play an important role in generating functional diversity and control of cell surface expression of the pore forming α-subunits. However, in contrast to α-subunits, the role of reversible post-translational modification of intracellular residues on β-subunit function is largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that the human β4-subunit is S-acylated (palmitoylated) on a juxtamembrane cysteine residue (Cys-193) in the intracellular C terminus of the regulatory β-subunit. β4-Subunit palmitoylation is important for cell surface expression and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit of the β4-subunit alone. Importantly, palmitoylated β4-subunits promote the ER exit and surface expression of the pore-forming α-subunit, whereas β4-subunits that cannot be palmitoylated do not increase ER exit or surface expression of α-subunits. Strikingly, however, this palmitoylation- and β4-dependent enhancement of α-subunit surface expression was only observed in α-subunits that contain a putative trafficking motif (… REVEDEC) at the very C terminus of the α-subunit. Engineering this trafficking motif to other C-terminal α-subunit splice variants results in α-subunits with reduced surface expression that can be rescued by palmitoylated, but not depalmitoylated, β4-subunits. Our data reveal a novel mechanism by which palmitoylated β4-subunit controls surface expression of BK channels through masking of a trafficking motif in the C terminus of the α-subunit. As palmitoylation is dynamic, this mechanism would allow precise control of specific splice variants to the cell surface. Our data provide new insights into how complex interplay between the repertoire of post-transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms controls cell surface expression of BK channels.

Mechanism of the modulation of BK potassium channel complexes with different auxiliary subunit compositions by the omega-3 fatty acid DHA

Large-conductance Ca(2+)- and voltage-activated K(+) (BK) channels are well known for their functional versatility, which is bestowed in part by their rich modulatory repertoire. We recently showed that long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) found in oily fish lower blood pressure by activating vascular BK channels made of Slo1+β1 subunits. Here we examined the action of DHA on BK channels with different auxiliary subunit compositions. Neuronal Slo1+β4 channels were just as well activated by DHA as vascular Slo1+β1 channels. In contrast, the stimulatory effect of DHA was much smaller in Slo1+β2, Slo1+LRRC26 (γ1), and Slo1 channels without auxiliary subunits. Mutagenesis of β1, β2, and β4 showed that the large effect of DHA in Slo1+β1 and Slo1+β4 is conferred by the presence of two residues, one in the N terminus and the other in the first transmembrane segment of the β1 and β4 subunits. Transfer of this amino acid pair from β1 or β4 to β2 introduces a large response to DHA in Slo1+β2. The presence of a pair of oppositely charged residues at the aforementioned positions in β subunits is associated with a large response to DHA. The Slo1 auxiliary subunits are expressed in a highly tissue-dependent fashion. Thus, the subunit composition-dependent stimulation by DHA demonstrates that BK channels are effectors of omega-3 fatty acids with marked tissue specificity.

Functional mapping of the neuronal substrates for drug tolerance in Drosophila

Physical dependence on alcohol and anesthetics stems from neuroadaptive changes that act to counter the effects of sedation in the brain. In Drosophila, exposure to either alcohol or solvent anesthetics have been shown to induce changes in expression of the BK-type Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel gene slo. An increase in slo expression produces an adaptive modulation of neural activity that generates resistance to sedation and promotes drug tolerance and dependence. Increased BK channel activity counteracts the sedative effects of these drugs by reducing the neuronal refractory period and enhancing the capacity of neurons for repetitive firing. However, the brain regions or neuronal populations capable of producing inducible resistance or tolerance remain unknown. Here we map the neuronal substrates relevant for the slo-dependent modulation of drug sensitivity. Using spatially-controlled induction of slo expression we identify the mushroom bodies, the ellipsoid body and a subset of the circadian clock neurons as pivotal regions for the control of recovery from sedation.

Ventricular tachyarrhythmias in rats with acute myocardial infarction involves activation of small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels

In vitro experiments have shown that the upregulation of small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels in ventricular epicardial myocytes is responsible for spontaneous ventricular fibrillation (VF) in failing ventricles. However, the role of SK channels in regulating VF has not yet been described in in vivo acute myocardial infarction (AMI) animals. The present study determined the role of SK channels in regulating spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia (SVT) and VF, the inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias, and the effect of inhibition of SK channels on spontaneous SVT/VF and electrical ventricular instability in AMI rats. AMI was induced by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery in anesthetized rats. Spontaneous SVT/VF was analyzed, and programmed electrical stimulation was performed to evaluate the inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias, ventricular effective refractory period (VERP), and VF threshold (VFT). In AMI, the duration and episodes of spontaneous SVT/VF were increased, and the inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias was elevated. Pretreatment in the AMI group with the SK channel blocker apamin or UCL-1684 significantly reduced SVT/VF and inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias ( P < 0.05). Various doses of apamin (7.5, 22.5, 37.5, and 75.0 μg/kg iv) inhibited SVT/VF and the inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in a dose-dependent manner. Notably, no effects were observed in sham-operated controls. Additionally, VERP was shortened in AMI animals. Pretreatment in AMI animals with the SK channel blocker significantly prolonged VERP ( P < 0.05). No effects were observed in sham-operated controls. Furthermore, VFT was reduced in AMI animals, and block of SK channels increased VFT in AMI animals, but, again, this was without effect in sham-operated controls. Finally, the monophasic action potential duration at 90% repolarization (MAPD90) was examined in the myocardial infarcted (MI) and nonmyocardial infarcted areas (NMI) of the left ventricular epicardium. Electrophysiology recordings showed that MAPD90 in the MI area was shortened in AMI animals, and pretreatment with SK channel blocker apamin or UCL-1684 significantly prolonged MAPD90 ( P < 0.05) in the MI area but was without effect in the NMI area or in sham-operated controls. We conclude that the activation of SK channels may underlie the mechanisms of spontaneous SVT/VF and suseptibility to ventricular tachyarrhythmias in AMI. Inhibition of SK channels normalized the shortening of MAPD90 in the MI area, which may contribute to the inhibitory effect on spontaneous SVT/VF and inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in AMI.

The ketogenic diet: metabolic influences on brain excitability and epilepsy

A dietary therapy for pediatric epilepsy known as the ketogenic diet has seen a revival in its clinical use during the past decade. Although the underlying mechanism of the diet remains unknown, modern scientific approaches, such as the genetic disruption of glucose metabolism, are allowing for more detailed questions to be addressed. Recent work indicates that several mechanisms may exist for the ketogenic diet, including disruption of glutamatergic synaptic transmission, inhibition of glycolysis, and activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. Here, we describe on-going work in these areas that is providing a better understanding of metabolic influences on brain excitability and epilepsy.

The BK channel: a vital link between cellular calcium and electrical signaling

Large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels (BK channels) constitute an key physiological link between cellular Ca²⁺ signaling and electrical signaling at the plasma membrane. Thus these channels are critical to the control of action potential firing and neurotransmitter release in several types of neurons, as well as the dynamic control of smooth muscle tone in resistance arteries, airway, and bladder. Recent advances in our understanding of K⁺ channel structure and function have led to new insight toward the molecular mechanisms of opening and closing (gating) of these channels. Here we will focus on mechanisms of BK channel gating by Ca²⁺, transmembrane voltage, and auxiliary subunit proteins.

Large-conductance calcium-activated potassium current modulates excitability in isolated canine intracardiac neurons

We studied principal neurons from canine intracardiac (IC) ganglia to determine whether large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels play a role in their excitability. We performed whole cell recordings in voltage- and current-clamp modes to measure ion currents and changes in membrane potential from isolated canine IC neurons. Whole cell currents from these neurons showed fast- and slow-activated outward components. Both current components decreased in the absence of calcium and following 1-2 mM tetraethylammonium (TEA) or paxilline. These results suggest that BK channels underlie these current components. Single-channel analysis showed that BK channels from IC neurons do not inactivate in a time-dependent manner, suggesting that the dynamic of the decay of the fast current component is akin to that of intracellular calcium. Immunohistochemical studies showed that BK channels and type 2 ryanodine receptors are coexpressed in IC principal neurons. We tested whether BK current activation in these neurons occurred via a calcium-induced calcium release mechanism. We found that the outward currents of these neurons were not affected by the calcium depletion of intracellular stores with 10 mM caffeine and 10 μM cyclopiazonic acid. Thus, in canine intracardiac neurons, BK currents are directly activated by calcium influx. Membrane potential changes elicited by long (400 ms) current injections showed a tonic firing response that was decreased by TEA or paxilline. These data strongly suggest that the BK current present in canine intracardiac neurons regulates action potential activity and could increase these neurons excitability.

Genetic activation of BK currents in vivo generates bidirectional effects on neuronal excitability

Large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (BK) are potent negative regulators of excitability in neurons and muscle, and increasing BK current is a novel therapeutic strategy for neuro- and cardioprotection, disorders of smooth muscle hyperactivity, and several psychiatric diseases. However, in some neurons, enhanced BK current is linked with seizures and paradoxical increases in excitability, potentially complicating the clinical use of agonists. The mechanisms that switch BK influence from inhibitory to excitatory are not well defined. Here we investigate this dichotomy using a gain-of-function subunit (BK(R207Q)) to enhance BK currents. Heterologous expression of BK(R207Q) generated currents that activated at physiologically relevant voltages in lower intracellular Ca(2+), activated faster, and deactivated slower than wild-type currents. We then used BK(R207Q) expression to broadly augment endogenous BK currents in vivo, generating a transgenic mouse from a circadian clock-controlled Period1 gene fragment (Tg-BK(R207Q)). The specific impact on excitability was assessed in neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, a cell type where BK currents regulate spontaneous firing under distinct day and night conditions that are defined by different complements of ionic currents. In the SCN, Tg-BK(R207Q) expression converted the endogenous BK current to fast-activating, while maintaining similar current-voltage properties between day and night. Alteration of BK currents in Tg-BK(R207Q) SCN neurons increased firing at night but decreased firing during the day, demonstrating that BK currents generate bidirectional effects on neuronal firing under distinct conditions.

Crystal structure of a Ba(2+)-bound gating ring reveals elementary steps in RCK domain activation

RCK domains control activity of a variety of K(+) channels and transporters through binding of cytoplasmic ligands. To gain insight toward mechanisms of RCK domain activation, we solved the structure of the RCK domain from the Ca(2+)-gated K(+) channel, MthK, bound with Ba(2+), at 3.1 Å resolution. The Ba(2+)-bound RCK domain was assembled as an octameric gating ring, as observed in structures of the full-length MthK channel, and shows Ba(2+) bound at several positions. One of the Ba(2+) sites, termed C1, overlaps with a known Ca(2+)-activation site, determined by residues D184 and E210. Functionally, Ba(2+) can activate reconstituted MthK channels as observed in electrophysiological recordings, whereas Mg(2+) (up to 100 mM) was ineffective. Ba(2+) activation was abolished by the mutation D184N, suggesting that Ba(2+) activates primarily through the C1 site. Our results suggest a working hypothesis for a sequence of ligand-dependent conformational changes that may underlie RCK domain activation and channel gating.

Acid sensing ion channels regulate neuronal excitability by inhibiting BK potassium channels

Acid sensing ion channels (ASICs), Ca(2+) and voltage-activated potassium channels (BK) are widely present throughout the central nervous system. Previous studies have shown that when expressed together in heterologous cells, ASICs inhibit BK channels, and this inhibition is relieved by acidic extracellular pH. We hypothesized that ASIC and BK channels might interact in neurons, and that ASICs may regulate BK channel activity. We found that ASICs inhibited BK currents in cultured wild-type cortical neurons, but not in ASIC1a/2/3 triple knockout neurons. The inhibition in the wild-type was partially relieved by a drop in extracellular pH to 6. To test the consequences of ASIC-BK interaction for neuronal excitability, we compared action potential firing in cultured cortical neurons from wild-type and ASIC1a/2/3 null mice. We found that in the knockout, action potentials were narrow and exhibited increased after-hyperpolarization. Moreover, the excitability of these neurons was significantly increased. These findings are consistent with increased BK channel activity in the neurons from ASIC1a/2/3 null mice. Our data suggest that ASICs can act as endogenous pH-dependent inhibitors of BK channels, and thereby can reduce neuronal excitability.

Multifaceted modulation of K+ channels by protein-tyrosine phosphatase ε tunes neuronal excitability

Non-receptor-tyrosine kinases (protein-tyrosine kinases) and non-receptor tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) have been implicated in the regulation of ion channels, neuronal excitability, and synaptic plasticity. We previously showed that protein-tyrosine kinases such as Src kinase and PTPs such as PTPα and PTPε modulate the activity of delayed-rectifier K(+) channels (I(K)). Here we show cultured cortical neurons from PTPε knock-out (EKO) mice to exhibit increased excitability when compared with wild type (WT) mice, with larger spike discharge frequency, enhanced fast after-hyperpolarization, increased after-depolarization, and reduced spike width. A decrease in I(K) and a rise in large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents (mBK) were observed in EKO cortical neurons compared with WT. Parallel studies in transfected CHO cells indicate that Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv7.2/7.3, and mBK are plausible molecular correlates of this multifaceted modulation of K(+) channels by PTPε. In CHO cells, Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv7.2/7.3 K(+) currents were up-regulated by PTPε, whereas mBK channel activity was reduced. The levels of tyrosine phosphorylation of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv7.3, and mBK potassium channels were increased in the brain cortices of neonatal and adult EKO mice compared with WT, suggesting that PTPε in the brain modulates these channel proteins. Our data indicate that in EKO mice, the lack of PTPε-mediated dephosphorylation of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv7.3 leads to decreased I(K) density and enhanced after-depolarization. In addition, the deficient PTPε-mediated dephosphorylation of mBK channels likely contributes to enhanced mBK and fast after-hyperpolarization, spike shortening, and consequent increase in neuronal excitability observed in cortical neurons from EKO mice.

BAD-dependent regulation of fuel metabolism and K(ATP) channel activity confers resistance to epileptic seizures

Neuronal excitation can be substantially modulated by alterations in metabolism, as evident from the anticonvulsant effect of diets that reduce glucose utilization and promote ketone body metabolism. We provide genetic evidence that BAD, a protein with dual functions in apoptosis and glucose metabolism, imparts reciprocal effects on metabolism of glucose and ketone bodies in brain cells. These effects involve phosphoregulation of BAD and are independent of its apoptotic function. BAD modifications that reduce glucose metabolism produce a marked increase in the activity of metabolically sensitive K(ATP) channels in neurons, as well as resistance to behavioral and electrographic seizures in vivo. Seizure resistance is reversed by genetic ablation of the K(ATP) channel, implicating the BAD-K(ATP) axis in metabolic control of neuronal excitation and seizure responses.

Large conductance, calcium- and voltage-gated potassium (BK) channels: regulation by cholesterol

Cholesterol (CLR) is an essential component of eukaryotic plasma membranes. CLR regulates the membrane physical state, microdomain formation and the activity of membrane-spanning proteins, including ion channels. Large conductance, voltage- and Ca²⁺-gated K⁺ (BK) channels link membrane potential to cell Ca²⁺ homeostasis. Thus, they control many physiological processes and participate in pathophysiological mechanisms leading to human disease. Because plasmalemma BK channels cluster in CLR-rich membrane microdomains, a major driving force for studying BK channel-CLR interactions is determining how membrane CLR controls the BK current phenotype, including its pharmacology, channel sorting, distribution, and role in cell physiology. Since both BK channels and CLR tissue levels play a pathophysiological role in human disease, identifying functional and structural aspects of the CLR-BK channel interaction may open new avenues for therapeutic intervention. Here, we review the studies documenting membrane CLR-BK channel interactions, dissecting out the many factors that determine the final BK current response to changes in membrane CLR content. We also summarize work in reductionist systems where recombinant BK protein is studied in artificial lipid bilayers, which documents a direct inhibition of BK channel activity by CLR and builds a strong case for a direct interaction between CLR and the BK channel-forming protein. Bilayer lipid-mediated mechanisms in CLR action are also discussed. Finally, we review studies of BK channel function during hypercholesterolemia, and underscore the many consequences that the CLR-BK channel interaction brings to cell physiology and human disease.

The brain-specific Beta4 subunit downregulates BK channel cell surface expression

The large-conductance K⁺ channel (BK channel) can control neural excitability, and enhanced channel currents facilitate high firing rates in cortical neurons. The brain-specific auxiliary subunit β4 alters channel Ca⁺⁺- and voltage-sensitivity, and β4 knock-out animals exhibit spontaneous seizures. Here we investigate β4's effect on BK channel trafficking to the plasma membrane. Using a novel genetic tag to track the cellular location of the pore-forming BKα subunit in living cells, we find that β4 expression profoundly reduces surface localization of BK channels via a C-terminal ER retention sequence. In hippocampal CA3 neurons from C57BL/6 mice with endogenously high β4 expression, whole-cell BK channel currents display none of the characteristic properties of BKα+β4 channels observed in heterologous cells. Finally, β4 knock-out animals exhibit a 2.5-fold increase in whole-cell BK channel current, indicating that β4 also regulates current magnitude in vivo. Thus, we propose that a major function of the brain-specific β4 subunit in CA3 neurons is control of surface trafficking.

Selective, direct activation of high-conductance, calcium-activated potassium channels causes smooth muscle relaxation

High-conductance calcium-activated potassium (Maxi-K) channels are present in smooth muscle where they regulate tone. Activation of Maxi-K channels causes smooth muscle hyperpolarization and shortening of action-potential duration, which would limit calcium entry through voltage-dependent calcium channels leading to relaxation. Although Maxi-K channels appear to indirectly mediate the relaxant effects of a number of agents, activators that bind directly to the channel with appropriate potency and pharmacological properties useful for proof-of-concept studies are not available. Most agents identified to date display significant polypharmacy that severely compromises interpretation of experimental data. In the present study, a high-throughput, functional, cell-based assay for identifying Maxi-K channel agonists was established and used to screen a large sample collection (>1.6 million compounds). On the basis of potency and selectivity, a family of tetrahydroquinolines was further characterized. Medicinal chemistry efforts afforded identification of compound X, from which its two enantiomers, Y and Z, were resolved. In in vitro assays, Z is more potent than Y as a channel activator. The same profile is observed in tissues where the ability of either agent to relax precontracted smooth muscles, via a potassium channel-dependent mechanism, is demonstrated. These data, taken together, suggest that direct activation of Maxi-K channels represents a mechanism to be explored for the potential treatment of a number of diseases associated with smooth muscle hyperexcitability.

Fast-activating voltage- and calcium-dependent potassium (BK) conductance promotes bursting in pituitary cells: a dynamic clamp study

The electrical activity pattern of endocrine pituitary cells regulates their basal secretion level. Rat somatotrophs and lactotrophs exhibit spontaneous bursting and have high basal levels of hormone secretion, while gonadotrophs exhibit spontaneous spiking and have low basal hormone secretion. It has been proposed that the difference in electrical activity between bursting somatotrophs and spiking gonadotrophs is due to the presence of large conductance potassium (BK) channels on somatotrophs but not on gonadotrophs. This is one example where the role of an ion channel type may be clearly established. We demonstrate here that BK channels indeed promote bursting activity in pituitary cells. Blocking BK channels in bursting lacto-somatotroph GH4C1 cells changes their firing activity to spiking, while further adding an artificial BK conductance via dynamic clamp restores bursting. Importantly, this burst-promoting effect requires a relatively fast BK activation/deactivation, as predicted by computational models. We also show that adding a fast-activating BK conductance to spiking gonadotrophs converts the activity of these cells to bursting. Together, our results suggest that differences in BK channel expression may underlie the differences in electrical activity and basal hormone secretion levels among pituitary cell types and that the rapid rate of BK channel activation is key to its role in burst promotion.

CO metabolism, sensing, and signaling

CO is a colorless and odorless gas produced by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, both of natural and anthropogenic origin. Several microorganisms, including aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and anaerobic archaea, use exogenous CO as a source of carbon and energy for growth. On the other hand, eukaryotic organisms use endogenous CO, produced during heme degradation, as a neurotransmitter and as a signal molecule. CO sensors act as signal transducers by coupling a "regulatory" heme-binding domain to a "functional" signal transmitter. Although high CO concentrations inhibit generally heme-protein actions, low CO levels can influence several signaling pathways, including those regulated by soluble guanylate cyclase and/or mitogen-activated protein kinases. This review summarizes recent insights into CO metabolism, sensing, and signaling.

AMIGO is an auxiliary subunit of the Kv2.1 potassium channel

Kv2.1 is a potassium channel α-subunit abundantly expressed throughout the brain. It is a main component of delayed rectifier current (I(K)) in several neuronal types and a regulator of excitability during high-frequency firing. Here we identify AMIGO (amphoterin-induced gene and ORF), a neuronal adhesion protein with leucine-rich repeat and immunoglobin domains, as an integral part of the Kv2.1 channel complex. AMIGO shows extensive spatial and temporal colocalization and association with Kv2.1 in the mouse brain. The colocalization of AMIGO and Kv2.1 is retained even during stimulus-induced changes in Kv2.1 localization. AMIGO increases Kv2.1 conductance in a voltage-dependent manner in HEK cells. Accordingly, inhibition of endogenous AMIGO suppresses neuronal I(K) at negative membrane voltages. In conclusion, our data indicate AMIGO as a function-modulating auxiliary subunit for Kv2.1 and thus provide new insights into regulation of neuronal excitability.

Targeting BK (big potassium) channels in epilepsy

INTRODUCTION

Epilepsies are disorders of neuronal excitability characterized by spontaneous and recurrent seizures. Ion channels are critical for regulating neuronal excitability and, therefore, can contribute significantly to epilepsy pathophysiology. In particular, large conductance, Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels play an important role in seizure etiology. These channels are activated by both membrane depolarization and increased intracellular Ca2+. This unique coupling of Ca2+ signaling to membrane depolarization is important in controlling neuronal hyperexcitability, as outward K+ current through BKCa channels hyperpolarizes neurons.

AREAS COVERED

BKCa channel structure-function and the role of these channels in epilepsy pathophysiology.

EXPERT OPINION

Loss-of-function BKCa channel mutations contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability that can lead to temporal lobe epilepsy, tonic-clonic seizures and alcohol withdrawal seizures. Similarly, BKCa channel blockade can trigger seizures and status epilepticus. Paradoxically, some mutations in BKCa channel subunit can give rise to channel gain-of-function that leads to development of idiopathic epilepsy (primarily absence epilepsy). Seizures themselves also enhance BKCa channel currents associated with neuronal hyperexcitability, and blocking BKCa channels suppresses generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Thus, both loss-of-function and gain-of-function BKCa channels might serve as molecular targets for drugs to suppress certain seizure phenotypes including temporal lobe seizures and absence seizures, respectively.

Modulation by the BK accessory β4 subunit of phosphorylation-dependent changes in excitability of dentate gyrus granule neurons

Large-conductance voltage- and calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels are large-conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium channels critical for neuronal excitability. Some neurons express so called fast-gated, type I BK channels. Other neurons express BK channels assembled with the accessory β4 subunit conferring slow gating of type II BK channels. However, it is not clear how protein phosphorylation modulates these two distinct BK channel types. Using β4-knockout mice, we compared fast- or slow-gated BK channels in response to changes in phosphorylation status of hippocampus dentate gyrus granule neurons. We utilized the selective PP2A/PP4 phosphatase inhibitor Fostriecin to study changes in action potential shape and firing properties of the neurons. In β4-knockout neurons, Fostriecin increases BK current, speeds up BK channel activation and reduces action potential amplitudes. Fostriecin increases spiking during early components of an action potential train. In contrast, inhibition of BK channels through β4 in wild-type neurons or by the BK channel inhibitor Paxilline opposes Fostriecin effects. Voltage clamp recordings of neurons reveal that Fostriecin increases both calcium and BK currents. However, Fostriecin does not activate BK α channels in transfected HEK293 cells lacking calcium channels. In summary, these results suggest that fast-gating, type I BK channels lacking β4 can increase neuronal excitability in response to reduced phosphatase activity and activation of calcium channels. By opposing BK channel activation, the β4 subunit plays an important role in moderating firing frequency regardless of changes in phosphorylation status.

Shaping of action potentials by type I and type II large-conductance Ca²+-activated K+ channels

The BK channel is a Ca(2+) and voltage-gated conductance responsible for shaping action potential waveforms in many types of neurons. Type II BK channels are differentiated from type I channels by their pharmacology and slow gating kinetics. The β4 accessory subunit confers type II properties on BK α subunits. Empirically derived properties of BK channels, with and without the β4 accessory subunit, were obtained using a heterologous expression system under physiological ionic conditions. These data were then used to study how BK channels alone (type I) and with the accessory β4 subunit (type II) modulate action potential properties in biophysical neuron models. Overall, the models support the hypothesis that it is the slower kinetics provided by the β4 subunit that endows the BK channel with type II properties, which leads to broadening of action potentials and, secondarily, to greater recruitment of SK channels reducing neuronal excitability. Two regions of parameter space distinguished type II and type I effects; one where the range of BK-activating Ca(2+) was high (>20 μM) and the other where BK-activating Ca(2+) was low (∼0.4-1.2 μM). The latter required an elevated BK channel density, possibly beyond a likely physiological range. BK-mediated sharpening of the spike waveform associated with the lack of the β4 subunit was sensitive to the properties of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels due to electrogenic effects on spike duration. We also found that depending on Ca(2+) dynamics, type II BK channels may have the ability to contribute to the medium AHP, a property not generally ascribed to BK channels, influencing the frequency-current relationship. Finally, we show how the broadening of action potentials conferred by type II BK channels can also indirectly increase the recruitment of SK-type channels decreasing the excitability of the neuron.

Large-conductance voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ channels regulate human detrusor smooth muscle function

The large-conductance voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channel is expressed in many smooth muscle types, but its role in human detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) is unclear. With a multidisciplinary approach spanning channel molecules, single-channel activity, freshly isolated human DSM cells, intact DSM preparations, and the BK channel specific inhibitor iberiotoxin, we elucidated human DSM BK channel function and regulation. Native human DSM tissues were obtained during open surgeries from patients with no preoperative history of overactive bladder. RT-PCR experiments on single human DSM cells showed mRNA expression of BK channel α-, β(1)-, and β(4)-subunits. Western blot and immunocytochemistry confirmed BK channel α, β(1), and β(4) protein expression. Native human BK channel properties were described using the perforated whole cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. In freshly isolated human DSM cells, BK channel blockade with iberiotoxin inhibited a significant portion of the total voltage step-induced whole cell K(+) current. From single BK channel recordings, human BK channel conductance was calculated to be 136 pS. Voltage-dependent iberiotoxin- and ryanodine-sensitive transient BK currents were identified in human DSM cells. In current-clamp mode, iberiotoxin inhibited the hyperpolarizing membrane potential transients and depolarized the cell resting membrane potential. Isometric DSM tension recordings revealed that BK channels principally control the contractions of isolated human DSM strips. Collectively, our results indicate that BK channels are fundamental regulators of DSM excitability and contractility and may represent new targets for pharmacological or genetic control of urinary bladder function in humans.

Inhibition of SK and M channel-mediated currents by 5-HT enables parallel processing by bursts and isolated spikes

Although serotonergic innervation of sensory brain areas is ubiquitous, its effects on sensory information processing remain poorly understood. We investigated these effects in pyramidal neurons within the electrosensory lateral line lobe (ELL) of weakly electric fish. Surprisingly, we found that 5-HT is present at different levels across the different ELL maps; the presence of 5-HT fibers was highest in the map that processes intraspecies communication signals. Electrophysiological recordings revealed that 5-HT increased excitability and burst firing through a decreased medium afterhyperpolarization resulting from reduced small-conductance calcium-activated (SK) currents as well as currents mediated by an M-type potassium channel. We next investigated how 5-HT alters responses to sensory input. 5-HT application decreased the rheobase current, increased the gain, and decreased first spike latency. Moreover, it reduced discriminability between different stimuli, as quantified by the mutual information rate. We hypothesized that 5-HT shifts pyramidal neurons into a burst-firing mode where bursts, when considered as events, can detect the presence of particular stimulus features. We verified this hypothesis using signal detection theory. Our results indeed show that serotonin-induced bursts of action potentials, when considered as events, could detect specific stimulus features that were distinct from those detected by isolated spikes. Moreover, we show the novel result that isolated spikes transmit more information after 5-HT application. Our results suggest a novel function for 5-HT in that it enables differential processing by action potential patterns in response to current injection.

Maternal diabetes increases large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ outward currents that alter action potential properties but do not contribute to attenuated excitability of parasympathetic cardiac motoneurons in the nucleus ambiguus of neonatal mice

Previously, we demonstrated that maternal diabetes reduced the excitability and increased small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (SK) currents of parasympathetic cardiac motoneurons (PCMNs) in the nucleus ambiguus (NA). In addition, blockade of SK channels with apamin completely abolished this reduction. In the present study, we examined whether maternal diabetes affects large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels and whether BK channels contribute to the attenuation of PCMN excitability observed in neonates of diabetic mothers. Neonatal mice from OVE26 diabetic mothers (NMDM) and normal FVB mothers (control) were used. The pericardial sac of neonatal mice at postnatal days 7-9 was injected with the tracer X-rhodamine-5 (and 6)-isothiocyanate 2 days prior to the experiment to retrogradely label PCMNs in the NA. Whole cell current- and voltage-clamps were used to measure spike frequency, action potential (AP) repolarization (half-width), afterhyperpolarization potential (AHP), transient outward currents, and afterhyperpolarization currents (I(AHP)). In whole cell voltage clamp mode, we confirmed that maternal diabetes increased transient outward currents and I(AHP) compared with normal cells. Using BK channel blockers charybdotoxin (CTx) and paxilline, we found that maternal diabetes increased CTx- and paxilline-sensitive transient outward currents but did not change CTx- and paxilline-sensitive I(AHP). In whole cell current-clamp mode, we confirmed that maternal diabetes increased AP half-width and AHP, and reduced excitability of PCMNs. Furthermore, we found that after blockade of BK channels with CTx or paxilline, maternal diabetes induced a greater increase of AP half-width but similarly decreased fast AHP without affecting medium AHP. Finally, blockade of BK channels decreased spike frequency in response to current injection in both control and NMDM without reducing the difference of spike frequency between the two groups. Therefore, we conclude that although BK transient outward currents, which may alter AP repolarization, are increased in NMDM, BK channels do not directly contribute to maternal diabetes-induced attenuation of PCMN excitability. In contrast, based on evidence from our previous and present studies, reduction of PCMN excitability in neonates of diabetic mothers is largely dependent on altered SK current associated with maternal diabetes.

A novel auxiliary subunit critical to BK channel function in Caenorhabditis elegans

The BK channel is a Ca²+- and voltage-gated potassium channel with many important physiological functions. To identify proteins important to its function in vivo, we screened for Caenorhabditis elegans mutants that suppressed a lethargic phenotype caused by expressing a gain-of-function (gf) isoform of the BK channel α-subunit SLO-1. BKIP-1 (for BK channel interacting protein), a small peptide with no significant homology to any previously characterized molecules, was thus identified. BKIP-1 and SLO-1 showed similar expression and subcellular localization patterns and appeared to interact physically through discrete domains. bkip-1 loss-of-function (lf) mutants phenocopied slo-1(lf) mutants in behavior and synaptic transmission and suppressed the lethargy, egg-laying defect, and deficient neurotransmitter release caused by SLO-1(gf). In heterologous expression systems, BKIP-1 decreased the activation rate and shifted the conductance-voltage relationship of SLO-1 in a Ca²+-dependent manner and increased SLO-1 surface expression. Thus, BKIP-1 is a novel auxiliary subunit critical to SLO-1 function in vivo.

Homeostatic control of neural activity: a Drosophila model for drug tolerance and dependence

Drug addiction is a complex condition of compulsive drug use that results in devastating physical and social consequences. Drosophila melanogaster has recently emerged as a valuable genetic model for investigating the mechanisms of addiction. Drug tolerance is a measurable endophenotype of addiction that can be easily generated and detected in animal models. The counteradaptive theory for drug dependence postulates that the homeostatic adaptations that produce drug tolerance become counteradaptive after drug clearance, resulting in symptoms of dependence. In flies, a single sedation with ethanol or with an organic solvent anesthetic (benzyl alcohol) induces functional tolerance, an adaptation of the nervous system that reduces the effect of these neural depressants. Here we review the role of the BK channel gene (slo) and genes that encode other synaptic proteins in the process of producing functional tolerance. These proteins are predicted to be part of an orchestrated response that involves specific interactions across a highly complex synaptic protein network. The response of the slo gene to drug exposure and the consequence of induced slo expression fit nicely the tenets of the counteradaptive theory for drug tolerance and dependence. Induction of slo expression represents an adaptive process that generates tolerance because it enhances neuronal excitability, which counters the sedative effects of the drugs. After drug clearance, however, the increase in slo expression leads to an allostatic withdrawal state that is characterized by an increase in the susceptibility for seizure. Together, these results demonstrate a common origin for development of drug tolerance and withdrawal hyperexcitability in Drosophila.

The effect of single cerebroside compounds on activation of BKCa channels

We have previously shown that a mixture of cerebrosides obtained from dried tubers of herb Typhonium giganteum Engl. plays a neuroprotective role in the ischemic brain through its effect on activation of BK(Ca) channels. It is very curious to know whether a single pure cerebroside compound could activate the BK(Ca) channel as well. This study explored the possible effects of pure cerebroside compounds, termitomycesphins A and B, on the BK(Ca) channel activation. Both termitomycesphins A and B activated the BK(Ca) channels at micromole concentration without significant difference. Termitomycesphin A increased the single channel open probability of the BK(Ca) channels in a dose-dependent manner without modifying the single channel conductance. Termitomycesphin A activated BK(Ca) channel more efficiently when it was applied to the cytoplasmic face of the membrane, suggesting that binding site for termitomycesphin A is located at the cytoplasmic side. Termitomycesphin A shifted the voltage-dependent activation curve to less positive membrane potentials and the Ca(2+)-dependent activation curve of the channel upwards, suggesting that termitomycesphin A could activate the channels even without intracellular free Ca(2+). Furthermore, STREX-deleted BK(Ca) channels were completely insensitive to termitomycesphin A, indicating that STREX domain is required for the activation of the BK(Ca) channel. These data provide evidence that termitomycesphins are potent in stimulating the activity of the BK(Ca) channels. As BK(Ca) channels are associated with pathology of many diseases, termitomycesphins might be used as therapeutic agents for treating these diseases through its regulatory effect on the BK(Ca) channels.

Pregabalin modulation of neurotransmitter release is mediated by change in intrinsic activation/inactivation properties of ca(v)2.1 calcium channels

In this work, we studied the effects of the anticonvulsant and analgesic drug pregabalin (PGB) on excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) at principal neurons of the mouse medial nucleus of the trapezoid body and on presynaptic calcium currents at the calyx of Held. We found that the acute application of PGB reduced the amplitude of EPSCs in a dose-dependent manner with a maximal blocking effect of approximately 30%. A clinical high-concentration dose of PGB (e.g., 500 μM) blocked Ca(v)2.1 channel-mediated currents and decreased their facilitation during a 100-Hz train, without changing their voltage-dependent activation. Furthermore, PGB also removed the inactivation of Ca(v)2.1 channels at a clinically relevant low concentration of 100 μM. These results suggest novel modulatory mechanisms mediated by the acute administration of PGB on fast excitatory synaptic transmission and might contribute to better understanding PGB anticonvulsant/analgesic clinical effects.

BK channel activation: structural and functional insights

The voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels are involved in the regulation of neurotransmitter release and neuronal excitability. Structurally, BK channels are homologous to voltage- and ligand-gated K(+) channels, having a voltage sensor and pore as the membrane-spanning domain and a cytosolic domain containing metal binding sites. Recently published electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) and X-ray crystallographic structures of the BK channel provided the first glimpse into the assembly of these domains, corroborating the close interactions among these domains during channel gating that have been suggested by functional studies. This review discusses these latest findings and an emerging new understanding about BK channel gating and implications for diseases such as epilepsy, in which mutations in BK channel genes have been associated.

Intron retention facilitates splice variant diversity in calcium-activated big potassium channel populations

We report that the stress axis-regulated exon (STREX)-containing calcium-activated big potassium (BKCa) channel splice variant expression and physiology are regulated in part by cytoplasmic splicing and intron retention. NextGen sequencing of the mRNA complement of pooled hippocampal dendrite samples found intron 17a (i17a), the intron immediately preceding STREX, in the BKCa mRNA. Further molecular analyses of i17a revealed that the majority of i17a-containing BKCa channel mRNAs associate with STREX. i17a siRNA treatment followed by STREX protein immunocytochemistry demonstrated both reduced levels and altered subcellular distribution of STREX-containing BKCa channel protein. Selective reduction of i17a-BKCa or STREX-BKCa mRNAs induced similar changes in the burst firing properties of hippocampal neurons. Collectively, these data show that STREX splice variant regulation via cytoplasmic splicing and intron retention helps generate STREX-dependent BKCa current diversity in hippocampal neurons.

Ca2+-activated K+ channels: from protein complexes to function

Molecular research on ion channels has demonstrated that many of these integral membrane proteins associate with partner proteins, often versatile in their function, or even assemble into stable macromolecular complexes that ensure specificity and proper rate of the channel-mediated signal transduction. Calcium-activated potassium (K(Ca)) channels that link excitability and intracellular calcium concentration are responsible for a wide variety of cellular processes ranging from regulation of smooth muscle tone to modulation of neurotransmission and control of neuronal firing pattern. Most of these functions are brought about by interaction of the channels' pore-forming subunits with distinct partner proteins. In this review we summarize recent insights into protein complexes associated with K(Ca) channels as revealed by proteomic research and discuss the results available on structure and function of these complexes and on the underlying protein-protein interactions. Finally, the results are related to their significance for the function of K(Ca) channels under cellular conditions.

Palmitoylation of the S0-S1 linker regulates cell surface expression of voltage- and calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels

S-palmitoylation is rapidly emerging as an important post-translational mechanism to regulate ion channels. We have previously demonstrated that large conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels are palmitoylated within an alternatively spliced (STREX) insert. However, these studies also revealed that additional site(s) for palmitoylation must exist outside of the STREX insert, although the identity or the functional significance of these palmitoylated cysteine residues are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that BK channels are palmitoylated at a cluster of evolutionary conserved cysteine residues (Cys-53, Cys-54, and Cys-56) within the intracellular linker between the S0 and S1 transmembrane domains. Mutation of Cys-53, Cys-54, and Cys-56 completely abolished palmitoylation of BK channels lacking the STREX insert (ZERO variant). Palmitoylation allows the S0-S1 linker to associate with the plasma membrane but has no effect on single channel conductance or the calcium/voltage sensitivity. Rather, S0-S1 linker palmitoylation is a critical determinant of cell surface expression of BK channels, as steady state surface expression levels are reduced by ∼55% in the C53:54:56A mutant. STREX variant channels that could not be palmitoylated in the S0-S1 linker also displayed significantly reduced cell surface expression even though STREX insert palmitoylation was unaffected. Thus our work reveals the functional independence of two distinct palmitoylation-dependent membrane interaction domains within the same channel protein and demonstrates the critical role of S0-S1 linker palmitoylation in the control of BK channel cell surface expression.

Increased excitability of cortical neurons induced by associative learning: an ex vivo study

In adult mice, classical conditioning in which whisker stimulation is paired with an electric shock to the tail results in a decrease in the frequency of head movements, induces expansion of the cortical representation of stimulated vibrissae and enhances inhibitory synaptic interactions within the 'trained' barrels. We investigated whether such a simple associative learning paradigm also induced changes in neuronal excitability. Using whole-cell recordings from ex vivo slices of the barrel cortex we found that layer IV excitatory cells located in the cortical representation of the 'trained' row of vibrissae had a higher frequency of spikes recorded at threshold potential than neurons from the 'untrained' row and than cells from control animals. Additionally, excitatory cells within the 'trained' barrels were characterized by increased gain of the input-output function, lower amplitudes of fast after-hyperpolarization and decreased effect of blocking of BK channels by iberiotoxin. These findings provide new insight into the possible mechanism for enhanced intrinsic excitability of layer IV excitatory neurons. In contrast, the fast spiking inhibitory cells recorded in the same barrels did not change their intrinsic excitability after the conditioning procedure. The increased excitability of excitatory neurons within the 'trained' barrels may represent the counterpart of homeostatic plasticity, which parallels enhanced synaptic inhibition described previously. Together, the two mechanisms would contribute to increase the input selectivity within the conditioned cortical network.