A Clinical Framework to Facilitate Risk Stratification When Considering an Active Surveillance Alternative to Immediate Biopsy and Surgery in Papillary Microcarcinoma

Immediate Surgery Might Be a Better Option for Subcapsular Thyroid Microcarcinomas

For high-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinomas (PTMCs), immediate surgery is recommended. This study aimed to evaluate the location of PTMCs in the thyroid lobe and determine whether location is associated with an aggressive biology and the necessity of immediate surgery. This retrospective study included 288 patients who underwent initial surgery for PTMC. Clinical data were extracted. Subcapsular thyroid microcarcinomas (STMs) and nonsubcapsular thyroid microcarcinomas (NSTMs), distinguished by ultrasound, were compared in terms of tumour size, extrathyroidal extension, cervical lymph node metastasis, and multifocality. The preoperative ultrasound features predictive of recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) involvement were assessed. There were no statistical differences in tumour size (P = 0.985), multifocality (P = 0.866), lymph node metastases to the central compartment (P = 0.154), or lateral lymph node metastases (P = 0.929) between STM and NSTM groups. Macroscopic extrathyroidal extension was exclusively found in the STM group. For assessing RLN involvement, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value of the presence of an abnormal thyroid capsule margin between the STM and the presumed RLN course, assessed on preoperative ultrasonography images, were 100%, 43.3%, and 43.3%, respectively. Immediate surgery appears to be a better option than conservative treatment for these high-risk STM patients.

Can Active Surveillance be an Alternative to Surgery in Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma?: The Current Situation Worldwide

Papillary thyroid carcinoma is the most common endocrine malignancy. Papillary thyroid microcarcinomas (PTMCs) are tumors with a size of ≤1 cm. The biological behavior of these tumors differs due to the presence of their aggressive features. The prognosis of PTMCs with high-risk features, such as clinical node metastasis, distant metastasis, and significant extrathyroidal extension to the tracheal or recurrent laryngeal nerve invasion, is poor, even if a sufficient immediate surgery is performed at diagnosis. However, PTMCs without these aggressive features are low-risk tumors because of their indolent and slow growth behaviors. The increase in thyroid cancer incidence is mostly a result of overdiagnosis of small low-risk PTMCs with indolent clinical course. Despite the sudden increase in thyroid cancer incidence worldwide, cancer mortality did not increase. Although the traditional treatment strategy for PTMC is immediate surgery at diagnosis, because of the rather low disease-specific mortality rate, low recurrence rate, and potential risk for postoperative complications, active surveillance has been proposed recently as an alternative option for PTMCs without invasion, metastasis, or cytological or molecular characteristics. The recent data support that active surveillance of low-risk PTMC should be the initial treatment modality, because only a small percentage of low-risk PTMCs show signs of progression, and delayed surgery has not caused significant recurrence. However, recent management guidelines are shifting toward more conservative treatments, such as active surveillance. Although there is an increase in the number of studies related to active surveillance, prospective studies have been mostly from academic referral centers in Japan. The world still needs class 1 evidence extended prospective studies originating from different geographic regions. Active surveillance may be a good alternative to immediate surgery for appropriately selected patients with PTMC.

Active Surveillance of Low-Risk Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma: A Multi-Center Cohort Study in Korea

BACKGROUND

Active surveillance has been introduced as a management option for low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) due to its mostly indolent course.

METHODS

This was a multicenter study of 370 PTMC patients who underwent active surveillance more than one year. The changes in volume and maximum diameter between initial and last ultrasonography were evaluated to identify the natural course of PTMC during active surveillance.

RESULTS

Patients' age at diagnosis was 51 ± 12 years, and 110 (30%) patients were <45 years of age. The initial maximum diameter and volume of PTMCs were 5.9 ± 1.7 mm and 81.0 ± 77.7 mm³, respectively. During the median 32.5 months of follow-up, 86 (23.2%) patients were found to have an increase in tumor volume, and 13 (3.5%) patients showed an increase in the maximal diameter of the tumor. The cumulative incidence of volume increase gradually rose with time (6.9%, 17.3%, 28.2%, and 36.2% after two, three, four, and five years, respectively). The risk of volume increase in patients <45 years of age was twice as high as in older patients (p = 0.002). There was no significant difference in tumor size change according to sex, levothyroxine treatment, or presence of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. During the period, 58 (15.7%) patients underwent delayed thyroid surgery due to anxiety (37.9%), tumor size increase (32.8%), or appearance of cervical lymph node metastasis (8.6%). Lymph node metastasis was found in 29.3% of patients on pathological examination.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant number of PTMCs grow during active surveillance, and tumor volume change is a more sensitive means of evaluating tumor growth. Active surveillance can be carefully applied for selected patients. Although it is not contraindicated, it should be applied more cautiously for younger patients.

Thyroid Cancer Treatment Choice: A Pilot Study of a Tool to Facilitate Conversations with Patients with Papillary Microcarcinomas Considering Treatment Options

BACKGROUND

The 2015 American Thyroid Association guidelines recognize active surveillance as an alternative to immediate surgery in patients with papillary microcarcinomas (PMCs). As a way to incorporate active surveillance as one of the management options for patients with PMCs, we developed and tested a tool to support conversations between clinicians and patients with PMCs considering treatment options.

METHODS

Thyroid Cancer Treatment Choice was developed using an iterative process based on the principles of interaction, design, and participatory action research. To evaluate the impact of the tool on treatment choice, a prospective study was conducted in two thyroid cancer clinics in Seongnam-si and Seoul, South Korea. Both clinics had the expertise to offer active surveillance as well as immediate surgery. One clinic was trained in the use of the conversation aid, while the other clinic continued to care for patients without access to the conversation aid.

RESULTS

Between May 2016 and April 2017, 278 patients, mostly women (n = 220, 79%), were included in the study; 152 (53%) received care at the clinic using the conversation aid. Age, sex, and mean (±SD) tumor size (6.6 ± 1.6 mm and 6.5 ± 1.9 mm) distributions were similar across clinics. Overall, 233 (84%) patients opted for active surveillance and 53 (16%) for thyroid surgery. Patients in the conversation aid group were more likely to choose active surveillance than the patients seen in the usual care clinic (relative risk = 1.16 [confidence interval 1.04-1.29]). Of all patients opting for active surveillance, more patients in the conversation aid group had thyroid cancer nodules >5 mm than in the usual care group (81% vs. 67%; p = 0.013).

CONCLUSIONS

Thyroid Cancer Treatment Choice is an evidence-based tool that supports the presentation of treatment options for PMCs. Pilot testing suggests that this conversation tool increases acceptance of active surveillance, suggesting that this option is an acceptable and preferable alternative for informed patients. Further studies are warranted to confirm this finding.

Active Surveillance as First-Line Management of Papillary Microcarcinoma

Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PMC) is defined as papillary thyroid carcinoma ≤10 mm. Active surveillance of PMC without high-risk features, such as clinical node metastasis, distant metastasis, and clinical evidence of significant extrathyroid extension, was initiated in two Japanese hospitals in the mid-1990s. This strategy was incorporated into guidelines in Japan in 2010 and in the United States in 2015. In studies conducted by the two hospitals, most PMCs grew very slowly or did not grow, and none of the patients during active surveillance showed distant metastasis or died of thyroid carcinoma. Furthermore, none of the patients who underwent surgery after progression signs were detected showed significant recurrence. Therefore, we conclude that active surveillance should be the first line in management of low-risk PMC, because it is safer and less costly than immediate surgery. Active surveillance helps in avoiding adverse events of surgery and is an economical strategy.

Percutaneous laser ablation for benign and malignant thyroid diseases

Minimally invasive image-guided thermal ablation is becoming increasingly common as an alternative to surgery for the treatment of benign thyroid nodules. Among the various techniques for thermal ablation, laser ablation (LA) is the least invasive, using the smallest applicators available on the market and enabling extremely precise energy deposition. However, in some cases, multiple laser fibers must be used simultaneously for the treatment of large nodules. In this review, the LA technique is described, and its main clinical applications and results are discussed and illustrated.

Long-term oncologic outcomes of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma according to the presence of clinically apparent lymph node metastasis: a large retrospective analysis of 5,348 patients

Purpose

Active surveillance (AS) of low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) may reduce the risk of overtreatment of clinically insignificant cancer. However, the absence of predictor for the progression of PTMC resulted in treatment delay and potentially compromising cure of aggressive disease. Therefore, to anticipate potential damage of delayed surgery, we investigated the oncologic outcomes of patients with low-risk PTMC initially eligible for AS except clinically apparent lymph node metastasis (LNM), imitating delayed surgery with neck dissection.

Materials and methods

A total of 5,348 patients, enrolled between 1987 and 2016, with low-risk PTMC initially eligible for AS were included regardless of LNM. We classified our study patients into two groups: Group I, lobectomy with prophylactic central cervical node dissection; Group II, total thyroidectomy with modified radical neck dissection for LNM. In addition, we investigated the oncological outcomes of patients with second-wave surgery due to lateral lymph node recurrence (Group III, subgroup of Group I).

Results

Group I showed more favorable clinicopathological characteristics compared with Group II. In Group I, only 29 (0.58%) of 4,927 patients underwent second-wave surgery with neck dissection for lateral lymph node recurrences, whereas in Group II, all 22 (5.23%) of 421 patients underwent second-wave selective node dissection because of nodal recurrence. Disease-free survival rates were significantly different between Groups I and II (P<0.05). Of note, the recurrence rate of Group II was still significantly higher than that of Group III (5.2% vs 0%, respectively; P=0.021). In addition, Kaplan–Mayer survival analysis indicated poor disease-free survival rates in Group II compared with Group III (P<0.05).

Conclusion

The long-term treatment outcome of PTMC without LNM was favorable even if the recurrence occurs during follow-up period compared with that of PTMC with LNM. It should be noted that AS might be able to cause poor prognosis due to clinically apparent LNM.

How to handle borderline/precursor thyroid tumors in management of patients with thyroid nodules

Thyroid carcinomas originating from follicular cells have the prognosis of heterogeneous diseases, but pathologists classify them all as malignant disease. Epidemiologists have issued a stern warning regarding over-diagnosis and overtreatment of patients with indolent thyroid tumors that cause no harm to the patients. Review of the literature revealed that there were several proposals of borderline/precursor tumors to some indolent thyroid carcinomas. Thyroid tumor of uncertain malignant potential (UMP) was first proposed by Williams for encapsulated follicular pattern thyroid tumors to solve problems due to observer variation. Rosai et al. proposed to rename papillary microcarcinoma (PMC) to papillary micro-tumor as the overwhelming majority of them are of no clinical significance. Liu et al. proposed well-differentiated tumor with uncertain behavior (WDT-UB) which covered WDT of UMP (WDT-UMP) and non-invasive encapsulated follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (EFVPTC). The EFVPTC without invasion was renamed as non-invasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features (NIFTP) by an international panel of pathologists. A new prognostic classification of thyroid tumors was proposed by Kakudo et al., in which extremely low risk tumors were grouped in a borderline tumors category. The borderline/precursor thyroid tumors included encapsulated tumors [capsular invasion only follicular carcinoma, encapsulated papillary carcinoma without invasion, WDT-UMP and follicular tumor of UMP (FT-UMP)] and non-encapsulated tumors (PMC). The UMP and NIFTP were incorporated in the 4th edition WHO classification of thyroid tumors as a new tumor entity in chapter 2-2A: other encapsulated follicular patterned thyroid tumors. Their behavior codes were decided to be 1 (borderline or uncertain behavior), and not 0 (benign), 2 (in situ carcinoma) or 3 (malignant). These borderline/precursor thyroid tumors are indolent tumors biologically and should be treated more conservatively than as previously recommended for thyroid follicular cell carcinomas [total thyroidectomy (TTX) followed by radio-active iodine (RAI) treatment] by western clinical guidelines.

Study Protocol of Multicenter Prospective Cohort Study of Active Surveillance on Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma (MAeSTro)

BACKGROUND

The ongoing Multicenter Prospective Cohort Study of Active Surveillance on Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma (MAeSTro) aims to observe the natural course of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC), develop a protocol for active surveillance (AS), and compare the long-term prognosis, quality of life, and medical costs between the AS and immediate surgery groups.

METHODS

This multicenter prospective cohort study of PTMC started in June 2016. The inclusion criteria were suspicious of malignancy or malignancy based on fine needle aspiration or core needle biopsy, age of ≥18 years, and a maximum diameter of ≤1 cm. If there was no major organ involvement, no lymph node/distant metastasis, and no variants with poor prognosis, the patients were explained of the pros and cons of immediate surgery and AS before selecting AS or immediate surgery. Follow-up visits (physical examination, ultrasonography, thyroid function, and questionnaires) are scheduled every 6 months during the first 2 years, and then every 1 year thereafter. Progression was defined as a maximum diameter increase of ≥3, ≥2 mm in two dimensions, suspected organ involvement, or lymph node/distant metastasis.

RESULTS

Among 439 enrolled patients, 290 patients (66.1%) chose AS and 149 patients (33.9%) chose immediate surgery. The median follow-up was 6.7 months (range, 0.2 to 11.9). The immediate surgery group had a larger maximum tumor diameter, compared to the AS group (7.1±1.9 mm vs. 6.6±2.0 mm, respectively; P=0.014).

CONCLUSION

The results will be useful for developing an appropriate PTMC treatment policy based on its natural course and risk factors for progression.

Management of Low-Risk Papillary Thyroid Cancer

The incidence of thyroid cancer has increased, mainly due to the incidental finding of low-risk papillary thyroid cancers (PTC). These malignancies grow slowly, and are unlikely to cause morbidity and mortality. New understanding about the prognosis of tumor features has led to reclassification of many tumors within the low-risk thyroid category, and to the development of a new one "very low-risk tumors." Alternative less aggressive approaches to therapy are now available including active surveillance and minimally invasive interventions. In this narrative review, we have summarized the available evidence for the management of low-risk PTC.

Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: characteristics at presentation, and evaluation of clinical and histological features associated with a worse prognosis in a Latin American cohort

Objective We aimed to describe the presentation of papillary microcarcinoma (PTMC) and identify the clinical and histological features associated with persistence/recurrence in a Latin American cohort. Subjects and methods Retrospective study of PTMC patients who underwent total thyroidectomy, with or without radioactive iodine (RAI), and who were followed for at least 2 years. Risk of recurrence was estimated with ATA 2009 and 2015 classifications, and risk of mortality with 7th and 8th AJCC/TNM systems. Clinical data obtained during follow-up were used to detect structural and biochemical persistence/recurrence. Results We included 209 patients, predominantly female (90%), 44.5 ± 12.6 years old, 183 (88%) received RAI (90.4 ± 44.2 mCi), followed-up for a median of 4.4 years (range 2.0-7.8). The 7th and 8th AJCC/TNM system classified 89% and 95.2% of the patients as stage I, respectively. ATA 2009 and ATA 2015 classified 70.8% and 78.5% of the patients as low risk, respectively. Fifteen (7%) patients had persistence/recurrence during follow-up. In multivariate analysis, only lymph node metastasis was associated with persistence/recurrence (coefficient beta 4.0, p = 0.016; 95% CI 1.3-12.9). There were no PTMC related deaths. Conclusions Our series found no mortality and low rate of persistence/recurrence associated with PTMC. Lymph node metastasis was the only feature associated with recurrence in multivariate analysis. The updated ATA 2015 and 8th AJCC/TNM systems classified more PTMCs than previous classifications as low risk of recurrence and mortality, respectively.

Controversial Issues in Thyroid Cancer Management

The lack of prospective randomized clinical trials for most management topics in differentiated thyroid cancer forces us to make management recommendations based on retrospective observational data, which are often incomplete, subject to selection bias, and conflicting. Therefore, it is not surprising that many aspects of thyroid cancer management remain controversial and not well defined. This review will examine the controversies surrounding 3 important topics in thyroid cancer management: the option of thyroid lobectomy as initial therapy, the use of preoperative neck imaging to optimize the completeness of the initial surgery, and the selective use of radioactive iodine for remnant ablation, adjuvant treatment, or treatment for known persistent or recurrent disease. As thyroid cancer management moves toward a much more risk-adapted approach to personalized recommendations, clinicians and patients must balance the risks and benefits of the potential options to arrive at a plan that is optimized regarding both patient preferences/values and the philosophy/experience of the local disease management team.

Trends in the Implementation of Active Surveillance for Low-Risk Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinomas at Kuma Hospital: Gradual Increase and Heterogeneity in the Acceptance of This New Management Option

BACKGROUND

Active surveillance (AS) of low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PMC) was adopted as a management modality in both the Japanese guidelines in 2011 and the American Thyroid Association guidelines in 2015. AS was initiated at Kuma Hospital in 1993 but was not immediately accepted by all physicians. This study investigated the history of acceptance of AS at Kuma Hospital over time. The results should assist in the implementation of AS at other hospitals in Japan and other countries.

METHODS

This study included 4023 patients who were cytologically diagnosed with low-risk PMC at Kuma Hospital during the 24-year period between October 1993 and June 2016. The trend in the frequency of AS use over time was analyzed, dividing the 24-year study period into five parts based on the change in frequency of AS use: 1993-1997, 1998-2002, 2003-2006, 2007-2013, and 2014-2016.

RESULTS

The frequency of AS use in the present cohort was 65%. The frequency gradually increased from 30% in 1993-1997 to 88% in 2014-2016, with a slight decrease from 51% in 1998-2002 to 42% in 2003-2006. Until 2007, patients were mostly seen by surgeons, and the frequency of AS use varied remarkably among individual surgeons. Since 2007, the number of patients whose therapeutic strategies are determined by endocrinologists has increased, and the frequency of AS use for low-risk PMC by endocrinologists has been higher than that by surgeons.

CONCLUSIONS

At Kuma Hospital, acceptance of AS for low-risk PMC gradually increased over the 24-year study period, but AS was not equally accepted by all physicians. Such variations in the acceptance of AS among individual physicians are also expected to exist in other hospitals. However, due to increasing evidence of the safety and superiority of AS over immediate surgery for this indolent disease, it is expected that AS will gain faster acceptance in other hospitals in Japan and around the world.

Patients' experiences of diagnosis and management of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: a qualitative study

Background

In recent years management practices in relation to low-risk papillary microcarcinoma (PMC) have been evolving with increased awareness of the potential overdiagnosis and overtreatment of PMCs, and guidelines recommendations for non-surgical management options such as active surveillance. This study aimed to develop an in-depth understanding of patients’ experiences of the communication of their PMC diagnosis, their treatment preferences and decision making.

Methods

Semi-structured qualitative interviews with 25 patients diagnosed pre-operatively with PMC < 1 year since their diagnosis and treatment. Interviews were conducted between September 2015 and July 2016 and were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Framework analysis method was used to analyse the data.

Results

The diagnosis and treatment experience of PMC patients varied widely. The majority of patients were asymptomatic, and their PMC was initially detected via an imaging test requested for a reason unrelated to a thyroid disorder or symptom. Clinicians generally described PMC to patients as being a “small” or “slow-growing” cancer, and there was little evidence that clinicians had discussions about the possibility of overdiagnosis or overtreatment. Overall, surgery was the only option discussed and offered to patients. Patients preference for treatment was largely based on eliminating the possibility of the cancer spreading (thyroidectomy) or not wanting to be on thyroid replacement medication for the rest of their life (hemi-thyroidectomy). Many patients reported emotional and physical side-effects associated with their diagnosis and treatment, however patients generally indicated that active surveillance is not something they would have been interested in if it was offered to them.

Conclusions

Evidence continues to emerge that many patients with PMCs may be overdiagnosed, and management guidelines are recommending more conservative management options for these patients. As a result, shared decision making around treatment options is vital so that patients are fully aware of the meaning of their diagnosis and their management options including active surveillance. Importantly, interventions to reduce unnecessary diagnoses of PMC are critically needed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-018-4152-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The incidental thyroid nodule

Incidental thyroid nodules that are found on an imaging study performed for reasons other than thyroid pathology represent a common scenario encountered by health care providers. The initial workup for these nodules comprises a thorough history and physical examination, thyroid function tests, a dedicated thyroid ultrasound, and fine-needle aspiration of any suspicious lesions. Management ranges from observation and reassurance to surgical resection and depends on the cytologic diagnosis. In cases of cytologically indeterminate or discordant nodules, surgical excision (lobectomy) offers a definitive diagnosis, although molecular testing or a reasonable period of observation may be useful as less invasive adjuncts. CA Cancer J Clin 2018;68:97-105. © 2018 American Cancer Society.

Recent advances in managing differentiated thyroid cancer

The main clinical challenge in the management of thyroid cancer is to avoid over-treatment and over-diagnosis in patients with lower-risk disease while promptly identifying those patients with more advanced or high-risk disease requiring aggressive treatment. In recent years, novel clinical and molecular data have emerged, allowing the development of new staging systems, predictive and prognostic tools, and treatment approaches. There has been a notable shift toward more conservative management of low- and intermediate-risk patients, characterized by less extensive surgery, more selective use of radioisotopes (for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes), and less intensive follow-up. Furthermore, the histologic classification; tumor, node, and metastasis (TNM) staging; and American Thyroid Association risk stratification systems have been refined, and this has increased the number of patients in the low- and intermediate-risk categories. There is now a need for new, prospective data to clarify how these changing practices will impact long-term outcomes of patients with thyroid cancer, and new follow-up strategies and biomarkers are still under investigation. On the other hand, patients with more advanced or high-risk disease have a broader portfolio of options in terms of treatments and therapeutic agents, including multitarget tyrosine kinase inhibitors, more selective BRAF or MEK inhibitors, combination therapies, and immunotherapy.

Insights into the Management of Papillary Microcarcinoma of the Thyroid

BACKGROUND

Rapid increases in the incidence of thyroid carcinoma with stable mortality rates from thyroid carcinoma have been reported from many countries, and these increases are thought to be due mostly to the increased detection of small papillary thyroid carcinomas (PTCs), including papillary microcarcinomas (PMCs; i.e., PTCs ≤10 mm). Some researchers have suggested that small PTCs have been overdiagnosed and overtreated. In Japan, the active surveillance of patients with low-risk PMCs was initiated by Kuma Hospital (1993) and Tokyo's Cancer Institute Hospital (1995) based on the extremely higher incidences of both latent thyroid carcinomas in autopsy studies and small PTCs detected in mass screening studies using ultrasound examinations compared to the prevalence of clinical thyroid carcinomas.

METHODS

The above two institutions' data are summarized regarding the active surveillance of low-risk PMCs, and future prospects for their management are discussed.

RESULTS

At 10-year observations in the Kuma Hospital series of 1235 patients, only 8% and 3.8% of the PMC patients showed size enlargement by ≥3 mm and the novel appearance of node metastasis, respectively. In contrast to clinical PTC, PMCs are most unlikely to grow in older patients (≥60 years). In the Kuma Hospital series, the 974 patients who underwent immediate surgery had significantly higher incidences of unfavorable events than the 1179 patients who chose active surveillance. The total cost of immediate surgery, including the costs for salvage surgery and postoperative care for 10 years, was 4.1 times the total cost of 10-year management by active surveillance. Only 8% of the 51 PMC patients showed tumor enlargement during pregnancy, and the rescue surgeries after delivery were successful. In the Cancer Institute Hospital series of 230 patients with 300 lesions, only 7% and 1% of the patients showed size enlargement and novel node metastasis, respectively, and that institution's analysis also revealed that macroscopic or rim calcification and poor vascularity were correlated with non-progressing disease. In both series, none of the patients who underwent rescue surgery after progression signs were detected showed significant recurrence or died of PTC.

CONCLUSION

Active surveillance of low-risk PMC can be the first-line management. Interestingly, older patients with low-risk PMCs are the best candidates for active surveillance.

Validation of Three Scoring Risk-Stratification Models for Thyroid Nodules

BACKGROUND

To minimize potential harm from overuse of fine-needle aspiration, Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data Systems (TIRADSs) were developed for thyroid nodule risk stratification. The purpose of this study was to perform validation of three scoring risk-stratification models for thyroid nodules using ultrasonography features, a web-based malignancy risk-stratification system, and a model developed by the Korean Society of Thyroid Radiology and the American College of Radiology.

METHODS

Using ultrasonography images, radiologists assessed thyroid nodules according to the following criteria: internal content, echogenicity of the solid portion, shape, margin, and calcifications. A total of 954 patients (M_age = 50.8 years; range 13-86 years) with 1112 nodules were evaluated at the authors' institute from January 2013 to December 2014. The discrimination ability of the three models was assessed by estimating the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. Additionally, Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit statistics (calibration ability) were used to evaluate the agreement between the observed and expected number of nodules that were benign or malignant.

RESULTS

Thyroid malignancy was present in 37.2% (414/1112) of nodules. According to the 14-point web-based scoring risk-stratification system, malignancy risk ranged from 4.5% to 100.0% and was positively associated with an increase in risk scores. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the validation set were 0.884 in the web-based model, 0.891 in the Korean Society of Thyroid Radiology model, and 0.875 in the American College of Radiology model. The Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test indicated that the web-based scoring system showed the best-calibrated result, with a p-value of 0.078.

CONCLUSION

The three scoring risk-stratification models using the ultrasonography features of thyroid nodules to stratify malignancy risk showed acceptable predictive accuracy and similar areas under the curve. The web-based scoring system demonstrated the strongest agreement in calibration ability analysis. The easily accessible automated web-based scoring risk-stratification system may overcome the complexity of the various Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System guidelines and provide simplified guidance on personalized and optimal management in real practice.

Active Surveillance of Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma: A Mini-Review from Korea

In Korea, the incidence of thyroid cancer increased explosively in the early 2000s, and reached a plateau in the early 2010s. Most cases of newly diagnosed thyroid cancer are small indolent microcarcinoma and could be good candidates for active surveillance (AS) instead of immediate surgery. Many considerations must be taken into account for establishing selection criteria for candidates for AS of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC), including the characteristics of the tumor, the patient, and the medical team. If possible, AS of PTMC should be a part of a prospective clinical trial to ensure long-term safety and to identify clinical and/or molecular markers of the progression of PTMC. In this review, we discuss lessons regarding surgical interventions for PTMC, and then describe the concept, application, caveats, unanswered questions, and future perspectives of AS of PTMC. For appropriately selected patients with PTMC, AS can be a good alternative to immediate surgery.

Editorial: Risk of disease progression during active surveillance of papillary thyroid cancer

With the rapid rise in incidence of micropapillary carcinoma, there is considerable interest in active surveillance or deferred intervention in patients with incidental micropapillary carcinoma. The risk of disease progression is different based on the age of the patient. It is high in third and fourth decade, while very low in sixth and seventh decade. Appropriate selection and close surveillance is very critical, with active involvement of the multidisciplinary team.

Natural History and Tumor Volume Kinetics of Papillary Thyroid Cancers During Active Surveillance

Importance

Active surveillance of low-risk papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) is now an accepted alternative to immediate surgery, but experience with this approach outside of Japan is limited. The kinetics (probability, rate, and magnitude) of PTC tumor growth under active surveillance have not been well defined.

Objective

To describe the kinetics of PTC tumor growth during active surveillance.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Cohort study of 291 patients undergoing active surveillance for low-risk PTC (intrathyroidal tumors ≤1.5 cm) with serial tumor measurements via ultrasonography at a tertiary referral center in the United States.

Intervention

Active surveillance.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The cumulative incidence, rate, and magnitude of the change in tumor diameter or volume, as well as associations with patient and tumor characteristics.

Results

Of the 291 patients, 219 (75.3%) were women; mean (SD) age was 52 (15) years. During a median (range) active surveillance of 25 (6-166) months, growth in tumor diameter of 3 mm or more was observed in 11 of 291 (3.8%) patients, with a cumulative incidence of 2.5% (2 years) and 12.1% (5 years). No regional or distant metastases developed during active surveillance. In all cases, 3-dimensional measurements of tumor volume allowed for earlier identification of growth (median, 8.2 months; range, 3-46 months before increase in tumor diameter). In multivariable analysis, both younger age at diagnosis (hazard ratio per year, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.87-0.98; P = .006) and risk category at presentation (hazard ratio for inappropriate, 55.17; 95% CI, 9.4-323.19; P < .001) were independently associated with the likelihood of tumor growth. Of the tumors experiencing volume growth, kinetics demonstrated a classic exponential growth pattern, with a median doubling time of 2.2 years (range, 0.5-4.8 years; median r2 = 0.75; range, 0.42-0.99).

Conclusions and Relevance

The rates of tumor growth during active surveillance in a US cohort with PTCs measuring 1.5 cm or less were low. Serial measurement of tumor volumes may facilitate early identification of tumors that will continue to grow and thereby inform the timing of surveillance imaging and therapeutic interventions.

Thyroid Cytology: The Japanese System and Experience at Yamashita Thyroid Hospital

In Japan, fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology is the most important diagnostic modality for triaging patients with thyroid nodules. A clinician (endocrinologist, endocrine surgeon, or head and neck surgeon) generally performs FNA cytology at the outpatient clinic, and ultrasound (US)-guided FNA is widespread because US is extremely common and most clinicians are familiar with it. Although almost all FNA thyroid samples are examined by certified cytopathologists and pathologists, some clinicians assess cytological specimens themselves. In Japan, there are two clinical guidelines regarding the management of thyroid nodules. One is the General Rules for the Description of Thyroid Cancer (GRDTC) published by the Japanese Society of Thyroid Surgery (JSTS) in 2005, and the other is the national reporting system for thyroid FNA cytology published by the Japan Thyroid Association in 2013 (Japanese system). Although the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (Bethesda system) is rarely used in Japan, both the GRDTC and Japanese system tried to incorporate the Bethesda system so that the cytological diagnoses would be compatible with each other. The essential point of the Japanese system is stratification of follicular neoplasm (FN) into three subgroups based on cytological features in order to reduce unnecessary diagnostic thyroidectomy, and this system has been successful in stratifying the risk of malignancy in FN patients at several high-volume thyroid surgery centers. In Japan, the measurement of thyroglobulin and/or calcitonin in FNA needle washings is often used as an adjunct for diagnosis of possible cervical lymph node metastasis when FNA cytology is performed.

A new paradigm in low-risk papillary microcarcinoma: active surveillance

Classical papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) is a variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) known to have excellent prognosis. It has a mortality of 0.3%, even in the presence of distance metastasis. The latest American Thyroid Association guidelines state that although lobectomy is acceptable, active surveillance can be considered in the appropriate setting. We present the case of a 37-year-old female with a history of PTMC who underwent surgical management consisting of a total thyroidectomy. Although she has remained disease-free, her quality of life has been greatly affected by the sequelae of this procedure. This case serves as an excellent example of how first-line surgical treatment may result more harmful than the disease itself.

European Thyroid Association Guidelines for Ultrasound Malignancy Risk Stratification of Thyroid Nodules in Adults: The EU-TIRADS

Thyroid ultrasound (US) is a key examination for the management of thyroid nodules. Thyroid US is easily accessible, noninvasive, and cost-effective, and is a mandatory step in the workup of thyroid nodules. The main disadvantage of the method is that it is operator dependent. Thyroid US assessment of the risk of malignancy is crucial in patients with nodules, in order to select those who should have a fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy performed. Due to the pivotal role of thyroid US in the management of patients with nodules, the European Thyroid Association convened a panel of international experts to set up European guidelines on US risk stratification of thyroid nodules. Based on a review of the literature and on the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Thyroid Association, and Korean guidelines, the panel created the novel European Thyroid Imaging and Reporting Data System, called EU-TIRADS. This comprises a thyroid US lexicon; a standardized report; definitions of benign and low-, intermediate-, and high-risk nodules, with the estimated risks of malignancy in each category; and indications for FNA. Illustrated by numerous US images, the EU-TIRADS aims to serve physicians in their clinical practice, to enhance the interobserver reproducibility of descriptions, and to simplify communication of the results.

Current Advances in Thyroid Cancer Management. Are We Ready for the Epidemic Rise of Diagnoses?

A rising incidence of thyroid cancers (TCs) mainly small tumors, observed during recent years, lead to many controversies regarding treatment strategies. TCs represent a distinct molecular background and clinical outcome. Although in most cases TCs are characterized by a good prognosis, there are some aggressive forms, which do not respond to standard treatment. There are still some questions, which have to be resolved to avoid dangerous simplifications in the clinical management. In this article, we focused on the current advantages in preoperative molecular diagnostic tests and histopathological examination including noninvasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features (NIFTP). We discussed the controversies regarding the extent of thyroid surgery and adjuvant radioiodine therapy, as well as new treatment modalities for radioiodine-refractory differentiated thyroid cancer (RR-DTC). Considering medullary thyroid cancer (MTC), we analyzed a clinical management based on histopathology and RET (ret proto-oncogene) mutation genotype, disease follow-up with a special attention to serum calcitonin doubling time as an important prognostic marker, and targeted therapy applied in advanced MTC. In addition, we provided some data regarding anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC), a highly lethal neoplasm, which lead to death in nearly 100% of patients due to the lack of effective treatment options.

NONOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT OF DIFFERENTIATED THYROID CANCER IN CALIFORNIA: A POPULATION-LEVEL ANALYSIS OF 29,978 PATIENTS

OBJECTIVE

There has been increasing interest in active surveillance of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma. The objective of this study was to characterize the incidence and outcomes of nonoperatively managed differentiated thyroid cancers (DTCs) in California.

METHODS

Biopsy-proven DTCs from the California Cancer Registry were linked to data from the California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development (2004-2012). Low-risk tumors were defined as localized disease measuring <4 cm without extrathyroidal extension, nodal involvement, or distant metastasis.

RESULTS

Of 29,978 patients with DTC, 318 (1.1%) were managed nonoperatively. Compared to operatively managed patients, patients managed nonoperatively were older with more comorbidities, larger tumors (mean size, 2.9 cm vs. 2.0 cm), and an increased rate of distant metastasis (20.4% vs. 3.4%). Independent predictors of nonoperative management included increasing age, larger tumor size, papillary histology, and distant metastases. Of 10,795 patients with low-risk tumors, 161 (1.5%) were managed nonoperatively, with tumor size as follows: <1 cm (15.5%), 1 to 2 cm (50.3%), >2 to 3 cm (24.3%), and >3 to 4 cm (9.9%). There were no disease-specific deaths in the low-risk, nonoperative group (median follow-up [interquar-tile range], 21.3 [5.7 to 51.1] months). The proportion of patients managed nonoperatively remained relatively stable over the study period (mean increase 0.1% per year, P = .09). All P values were <.05 unless otherwise stated.

CONCLUSION

The vast majority of patients with DTCs are treated surgically, suggesting active surveillance is rarely practiced in California. Although follow-up was limited, no disease-specific mortality in nonoperatively managed, low-risk DTCs was observed.

ABBREVIATIONS

CCI = Charlson Comorbidity Index; CCR = California Cancer Registry; CI = confidence interval; DTC = differentiated thyroid cancer; FTC = follicular thyroid carcinoma; HCC = Hürthle cell carcinoma; IQR = interquartile range; mPTC = papillary thyroid micro-carcinoma; OR = odds ratio; OSPHD = Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development; PTC = papillary thyroid carcinoma.

Controversies in the Management of Low-Risk Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

Controversy exists over optimal management of low-risk differentiated thyroid cancer. This controversy occurs in all aspects of management, including surgery, use of radioactive iodine for remnant ablation, thyroid hormone supplementation, and long-term surveillance. Limited and conflicting data, treatment paradigm shifts, and differences in physician perceptions contribute to the controversy. This lack of physician consensus results in wide variation in patient care, with some patients at risk for over- or undertreatment. To reduce patient harm and unnecessary worry, there is a need to design and implement studies to address current knowledge gaps.

Contrastive study of two screening criteria for active surveillance in patients with low-risk papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: a retrospective analysis of 1001 patients

Screening out patients who do not require immediate surgery is a growing trend in the field of thyroid research. In this study, we retrospectively compared the application of two surveillance selection criteria in 1001 patients who had undergone surgical treatment of papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC): low-risk PTMC characteristics defined by Kuma Hospital and CATO consensus on PTMC management of active surveillance. Treatment outcomes were compared between groups. We then analyzed the prognostic indicators of patients who could be managed by surveillance. A total of 724 patients met Kuma screening criteria and 135 met CATO screening criteria. The Kuma low-risk group had a lower incidence of multifocal lesions and CLNM than Kuma high-risk group. We also found more obvious differences in multifocal lesions, CLNM and extrathyroidal extension when evaluating the CATO low-risk criteria in the same manner. On the other hand, patients in the CATO low-risk group had a lower disease progression rate and longer disease-free survival than those in CATO high-risk group. There was no significant difference in prognosis between the Kuma low-risk group and Kuma high-risk group. Our logistic regression analysis showed that a preoperative ultrasound size of >5 mm, male sex, younger age, and malignant lesions without concurrent benign nodules could be predictors of CLNM. In conclusion, patients classified in CATO low-risk criteria had lower proportion of clinicopathological risk factors than the ones in Kuma low-risk criteria. We also found more risk factors may not be suitable for surveillance, such as tumors without concurrent benign nodules.

Clinical outcomes after delayed thyroid surgery in patients with papillary thyroid microcarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Active surveillance is an option for patients with papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC). However, the long-term clinical outcomes after delayed surgery remain unclear. We compared the long-term clinical outcomes of PTMC patients according to the time interval between initial diagnosis and surgery.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In this individual risk factor-matched cohort study, PTMC patients were classified into three groups according to the delay period: ≤6 months, 6-12 months and >12 months. Patients were matched by age, sex, extent of surgery, initial tumor size as measured by ultrasonography (US), and by the presence of extrathyroidal extension, multifocal tumors and central cervical lymph node metastasis. We compared the dynamic risk stratification (DRS) and the development of structural persistent/recurrent disease of patients.

RESULTS

A total of 2863 patients were assigned to three groups. Their mean age was 50 years, 81% were female and 66% underwent lobectomy. The mean tumor size at the initial US was 0.63 cm. There were no significant differences in clinicopathological characteristics between groups after individual risk factor matching. Comparison of the DRS revealed no significant difference according to the delay period (P = 0.07). During the median 4.8 years of follow-up, there were no significant differences in the development of structural recurrent/persistent disease (P = 0.34) and disease-free survival (P = 0.25) between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In PTMC patients, delayed surgery was not associated with higher risk of structural recurrent/persistent disease compared to immediate surgery. These findings support the notion that surgical treatment can be safely delayed in patients with PTMC under close monitoring.

Surgical considerations for papillary thyroid microcarcinomas

We reevaluate current treatment recommendations of papillary thyroid microcarcinomas taking into account the indolent behavior of these tumors, and the potential morbidity that may result from an unnecessary surgery. The goals of this communication are to: 1) provide surgeons and endocrinologists with the most up-to-date evidence on management of microcarcinomas, 2) outline appropriate instances for active surveillance, and 3) describe the role of surgical interventions for microcarcinomas including lobectomy, total thyroidectomy, and central neck dissection.

The thyroid cancer policy model: A mathematical simulation model of papillary thyroid carcinoma in The U.S. population

Background

Thyroid cancer affects over ½ million people in the U.S. and the incidence of thyroid cancer has increased worldwide at a rate higher than any other cancer, while survival has remained largely unchanged. The aim of this research was to develop, calibrate and verify a mathematical disease model to simulate the natural history of papillary thyroid cancer, which will serve as a platform to assess the effectiveness of clinical and cancer control interventions.

Methods

Herein, we modeled the natural pre-clinical course of both benign and malignant thyroid nodules with biologically relevant health states from normal to detected nodule. Using established calibration techniques, optimal parameter sets for tumor growth characteristics, development rate, and detection rate were used to fit Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) incidence data and other calibration targets.

Results

Model outputs compared to calibration targets demonstrating sufficient calibration fit and model validation are presented including primary targets of SEER incidence data and size distribution at detection of malignancy. Additionally, we show the predicted underlying benign and malignant prevalence of nodules in the population, the probability of detection based on size of nodule, and estimates of growth over time in both benign and malignant nodules.

Conclusions

This comprehensive model provides a dynamic platform employable for future comparative effectiveness research. Future model analyses will test and assess various clinical management strategies to improve patient outcomes related to thyroid cancer and optimize resource utilization for patients with thyroid nodules.

Clinicians' Views on Management and Terminology for Papillary Thyroid Microcarcinoma: A Qualitative Study

BACKGROUND

There is growing acceptance that the increase in thyroid cancer incidence is in part a result of overdiagnosis of small low-risk papillary microcarcinomas (PMCs) with indolent clinical course. Although surgery is the cornerstone treatment for patients with PMCs, recent management guidelines are shifting toward inclusion of more conservative treatments such as active surveillance. There is little evidence on clinicians' experience in managing PMC patients and their attitudes toward treatment options, including their willingness to accept a nonsurgical option. The aim of this study was to understand how clinicians perceive a diagnosis of PMC, potential changes to terminology, and the treatment options available to patients.

METHODS

This was a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews conducted between November 2015 and May 2016 with 22 clinicians (seven endocrinologists and 15 thyroid surgeons). Transcribed audio-recordings were thematically coded, and a framework method was used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Across a sample of clinicians who manage thyroid cancer patients, awareness of overdiagnosis and overtreatment of PMC was common. However, there was little acceptance of active surveillance to manage these patients. Clinicians did not feel comfortable recommending this management approach, as they were worried about the risk of metastases, did not feel that evidence to support this approach was strong enough, and also believed that patients currently have a high preference for surgery. The majority of clinicians did not believe that changing the terminology of this diagnosis was a viable strategy to reduce patients' anxiety and their perceived preference for more aggressive treatments. However, most clinicians felt that thyroid nodules <1 cm should not be biopsied, which could help minimize the risk of overdiagnosis of PMC.

CONCLUSIONS

This study, based on a non-representative sample of 22 clinicians, which remains an important limitation, provides revealing insight into clinicians' management preferences and decision making for small low-risk thyroid cancers at a time when management guidelines and practices are evolving. It suggests that clinicians may not be ready to accept nonsurgical options, or changes in terminology, until evidence to support these options and changes is stronger.

Clinical features of recently diagnosed papillary thyroid carcinoma in elderly patients aged 65 and older based on 10 years of sonographic experience at a single institution in Korea

Purpose

The aim of this study was to assess the characteristics of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) in patients aged 65 and older in order to predict postoperative recurrence based on the results of ultrasonographic surveillance.

Methods

Among 1,494 patients (200 male and 1,294 female; mean age, 46.6±11.3 years) who underwent surgery for thyroid cancer at our institution between 2006 and 2015, we retrospectively enrolled 150 PTC patients (29 male and 121 female; mean age, 69.4±4.2 years). To identify the risk factors for recurrence, we analyzed age, gender, multiplicity, size, number, extrathyroidal extension (ETE) of the tumor, lymph node metastasis (LNM), type of surgery, and the dose of radioactive ablation using a Cox regression model to identify hazard ratios (HRs).

Results

Among the 115 asymptomatic patients with PTCs detected by screening ultrasonography (n=86), other cross-sectional imaging modalities (computed tomography or positron emission tomography-computed tomography, n=13), or incidentally through a surgical specimen (n=16), 78 patients were confirmed to have papillary thyroid microcarcinomas (PTMCs). The other 35 patients presented with palpable neck masses (n=25), vocal cord palsy (n=9) or blood-tinged sputum (n=1). During the follow-up period (mean, 43.6 months), 17 patients (12.5%) experienced recurrence in the neck. None of the patients died due to PTC-related recurrence or distant metastasis during the follow-up period. Cox regression analysis demonstrated that tumor size (HR, 2.12; P<0.001) and LNM (central LNM: HR, 9.08; P=0.004; lateral LNM: HR, 14.71; P=0.002; both central and lateral LNM: HR, 58.41; P<0.001) significantly increased the recurrence rate. ETE, LNM, and recurrence were significantly less frequent in PTMCs than in non-PTMC (all P<0.001).

Conclusion

PTCs of small size and absent LNM showed significantly better prognoses in patients 65 years and older.

ACR Thyroid Imaging, Reporting and Data System (TI-RADS): White Paper of the ACR TI-RADS Committee

classification that is widely used in breast imaging, their authors chose to apply the acronym TI-RADS, for Thyroid Imaging, Reporting and Data System. In 2012, the ACR convened committees to (1) provide recommendations for reporting incidental thyroid nodules, (2) develop a set of standard terms (lexicon) for ultrasound reporting, and (3) propose a TI-RADS on the basis of the lexicon. The committees published the results of the first two efforts in 2015. In this article, the authors present the ACR TI-RADS Committee's recommendations, which provide guidance regarding management of thyroid nodules on the basis of their ultrasound appearance. The authors also describe the committee's future directions.

Applying Criteria of Active Surveillance to Low-Risk Papillary Thyroid Cancer Over a Decade: How Many Surgeries and Complications Can Be Avoided?

BACKGROUND

The 2015 American Thyroid Association guidelines acknowledged that "an active surveillance management approach can be considered as an alternative to immediate surgery" in patients with low-risk papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC). The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of PTC that would meet the criteria for active surveillance and the surgeries and complications that could have been avoided.

METHODS

A total of 681 patients with thyroid cancer who underwent thyroid surgery from 2003 to 2012 were retrospectively reviewed. A decision-making framework for active surveillance was applied to patients with PTC in nodules measuring ≤1.5 cm on ultrasound. Patients were identified as suitable for active surveillance based on imaging and patient characteristics. These patients were reviewed for management and outcomes.

RESULTS

PTC was diagnosed based on fine-needle aspiration histology of Bethesda V or VI in thyroid nodules in 243 patients. Of these, 77 patients had nodules measuring ≤1.5 cm on ultrasound, and 56/77 (23%) patients met the criteria for surveillance: 15/243 (6%) patients met the criteria with a ≤1 cm size threshold, and 41/243 (17%) met the criteria with a 1.1-1.5 cm threshold. Of the 56 patients who met the criteria for active surveillance, 52 underwent total thyroidectomy, and four had a lobectomy. Forty-five (80%) patients had elective central nodal dissection, and 14 had nodal metastases on pathology (all <4 mm). Three patients had permanent complications from surgery, including vocal cord paralysis, hypoparathyroidism, and a chipped tooth from intubation. No patients died or had recurrent disease.

CONCLUSION

Future programs in the United States should consider increasing the size threshold for active surveillance of PTC to 1.5 cm, since this will allow up to one quarter of patients to be eligible instead of only 6% with a 1 cm size threshold. Without an active surveillance program, the majority of patients with low-risk cancers have thyroidectomy and carry a small risk of permanent complications.

Low-risk papillary microcarcinoma of the thyroid: A review of active surveillance trials

Papillary microcarcinoma (PMC) of the thyroid is defined as papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) measuring ≤1 cm. Many autopsy studies on subjects who died of non-thyroidal diseases reported latent small thyroid carcinoma in up to 5.2% of the subjects. A mass screening study for thyroid cancer in Japanese adult women detected small thyroid cancer in 3.5% of the examinees. This incidence was close to the incidence of latent thyroid cancer and more than 1000 times the prevalence of clinical thyroid cancer in Japanese women reported at that time. The question of whether it was correct to treat such PMCs surgically then arose. In 1993, according to Dr. Miyauchi's proposal, Kuma Hospital initiated an active surveillance trial for low-risk PMC as defined in the text. In 1995, Cancer Institute Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, started a similar observation trial. The accumulated data from the trials at these two institutions strongly suggest that active surveillance (i.e., observation without immediate surgery) can be the first-line management for low-risk PMC. Although our data showed that young age and pregnancy might be risk factors of disease progression, we think that these patients can also be candidates for active surveillance, because all of the patients who showed progression signs were treated successfully with a rescue surgery, and none of them died of PTC. In this review, we summarize the data regarding the active surveillance of low-risk PMC as support for physicians and institutions that are considering adopting this strategy.

Treatment decision making in early-stage papillary thyroid cancer

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to develop an in-depth understanding of papillary microcarcinoma (PMC) patients' decision-making process when offered options of surgery and active surveillance.

METHODS

Fifteen PMC patients and 6 caregivers participated in either a focus group or individual interview. Focus groups were segmented by patients' treatment choice. Primary themes were identified in transcripts using thematic text analysis.

RESULTS

Four themes emerged from the surgery subsample: (1) Decision to undergo thyroidectomy quickly and with a sense of urgency; (2) Perception of PMC as a potentially life-threatening disease; (3) Fear of disease progression and unremitting uncertainty with active surveillance; and (4) Surgery as a means of control and potential cure. Three themes emerged from the active surveillance subsample: (1) View of PMC as a common, indolent, and low-risk disease; (2) Concerns about adjusting to life without a thyroid and becoming reliant on hormone replacement medication; and (3) Openness to reconsidering surgery over the long run. Two themes were identified that were shared by participants from both subsamples: (1) Deep level of trust and confidence in physician and cancer center; and (2) Use of physician and internet as primary sources of disease and treatment-related information.

CONCLUSIONS

Several factors influenced participants' treatment choice, with similarities and differences noted between surgery and active surveillance subsamples. Many of the emergent themes are consistent with research on decision making among localized prostate cancer patients. Findings suggest that participants from both PMC treatment subsamples are motivated to reduce illness and treatment-related uncertainty.

Thyroid nodules and cancer management guidelines: comparisons and controversies

Thyroid cancer is an increasingly prevalent malignancy throughout the world. Management guidelines for both thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer have been published and updated by a number of societies internationally. All of these guidelines recognize this increasing incidence, particularly of small papillary thyroid cancers, due in part to improved technology enabling early or even 'over' diagnosis. Recent advances in molecular imaging and molecular methods have been developed to better characterize thyroid nodules, and a number of studies that have clarified risk stratification systems that can be modified over time allow for individualization of diagnosis, initial treatment, and subsequent follow-up strategies. Advances in surgical approaches and new treatments for patients with the most aggressive forms of thyroid cancer have all influenced management guidelines. Despite substantial similarities, there also are important differences between recent guidelines for some of the common clinical scenarios encountered by physicians in clinical practice. In the present manuscript, we will highlight similarities and differences between several of the most recently published guidelines focused on key areas of importance to clinical care and controversy. These are key areas for future research to strengthen the data to support future guideline recommendations.

Measurement and Variation in Estimation of Quality of Life Effects of Patients Undergoing Treatment for Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Thyroid cancer incidence is increasing. The effect of diagnosis and treatment on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is an essential variable in the absence of a change in life span for the majority of patients. HRQoL instruments, with data useful for between-disease comparisons, are being increasingly used for health policy and outcomes evaluation. Variation exits among the instruments based on the impact of a specific disease. We assessed which of four well-validated, preference-based surveys detect changes in health and clinical intervention in patients diagnosed with papillary thyroid cancer (PTC).

METHODS

Four commonly used HRQoL questionnaires (Short Form-12v2® [SF6D], EuroQol-5D [EQ5D], and Health Utilities Index Mark 2 and 3 [HUI2, HUI3]) were administered to patients with the diagnosis of PTC at three perioperative time points during the first year of treatment. Clinicopathological and treatment course data were assessed for HRQoL impact including complications from surgery, re-operation for persistence/early recurrence, and adjuvant radioactive iodine treatment. We compared standard metrics, including ceiling effect, intraclass correlation coefficient, effect sizes, and quality-adjusted life-years between the four instruments.

RESULTS

Of 117 patients, 27% had a preoperative diagnosis of anxiety or depression, 41% had regional lymph node metastases, three had distant metastases and 49% underwent adjuvant radioactive iodine treatment. The ceiling effect (i.e., proportion with a perfect score) was greatest with EQ5D and least with SF6D. Index scores ranged from 0.77 (SF6D) to 0.90 (EQ5D). All scores declined at two weeks postoperatively and returned to pretreatment levels at six months. The SF6D was the only instrument to exceed the conventional minimally important difference between all three time points. Quality-adjusted life-years were as follows: SF6D, 0.79; EQ5D, 0.90; HUI2, 0.88; and HUI3, 0.86.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reflect the general good health of PTC patients. The effect on quality of life is primarily related to emotional and social impacts of treatment. The results support the measurement of a similar underlying construct, although variation in detecting changes in health exists between the instruments. Of the instruments assessed, the SF6D is the most responsive to treatment effects and should be utilized in future economic analyses in this patient population.

Indolent thyroid cancer: knowns and unknowns

Thyroid cancer incidence is rapidly increasing due to increased detection and diagnosis of indolent thyroid cancer, i.e. cancer that is likely to be clinically insignificant. Clinical, radiologic, and pathologic features predicting indolent behavior of thyroid cancer are still largely unknown and unstudied. Existing clinicopathologic staging systems are useful for providing prognosis in the context of treated thyroid cancer but are not designed for and are inadequate for predicting indolent behavior. Ultrasound studies have primarily focused on discrimination between malignant and benign nodules; some studies show promising data on using sonographic features for predicting indolence but are still in their early stages. Similarly, molecular studies are being developed to better characterize thyroid cancer and improve the yield of fine needle aspiration biopsy, but definite markers of indolent thyroid cancer have yet to be identified. Nonetheless, active surveillance has been introduced as an alternative to surgery in the case of indolent thyroid microcarcinoma, and protocols for safe surveillance are in development. As increased detection of thyroid cancer is all but inevitable, increased research on predicting indolent behavior is needed to avoid an epidemic of overtreatment.

Indolent thyroid cancer: knowns and unknowns

Thyroid cancer incidence is rapidly increasing due to increased detection and diagnosis of indolent thyroid cancer, i.e. cancer that is likely to be clinically insignificant. Clinical, radiologic, and pathologic features predicting indolent behavior of thyroid cancer are still largely unknown and unstudied. Existing clinicopathologic staging systems are useful for providing prognosis in the context of treated thyroid cancer but are not designed for and are inadequate for predicting indolent behavior. Ultrasound studies have primarily focused on discrimination between malignant and benign nodules; some studies show promising data on using sonographic features for predicting indolence but are still in their early stages. Similarly, molecular studies are being developed to better characterize thyroid cancer and improve the yield of fine needle aspiration biopsy, but definite markers of indolent thyroid cancer have yet to be identified. Nonetheless, active surveillance has been introduced as an alternative to surgery in the case of indolent thyroid microcarcinoma, and protocols for safe surveillance are in development. As increased detection of thyroid cancer is all but inevitable, increased research on predicting indolent behavior is needed to avoid an epidemic of overtreatment.

Current Management of Low Risk Differentiated Thyroid Cancer and Papillary Microcarcinoma

Each year, the proportion of thyroid cancer patients presenting with low risk disease is increasing. Moreover, the definition of low risk thyroid cancer is expanding and several histological subtypes beyond papillary microcarcinomas are now classified as low risk disease. This shift in the landscape of thyroid cancer presentation is forcing clinicians to critically re-evaluate whether or not traditional management paradigms that were effective in treating intermediate and high risk disease are applicable to these low risk patients. Here we review the definition of low risk disease, examine the various histological subtypes that are considered low risk in the 2015 American Thyroid Association guidelines for the management of thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer, and review our current approach to the management of these low risk tumours.

Predictive Factors for Active Surveillance of Subcentimeter Thyroid Nodules with Highly Suspicious US Features

PURPOSE

This study was designed to assess the outcomes of subcentimeter thyroid nodules with highly suspicious ultrasonography (US) features and to investigate the predictive factors associated with malignancy and aggressive biological behavior to determine appropriate candidate factors for active surveillance.

METHODS

Between June 2011 and December 2013, 1866 subcentimeter thyroid nodules with highly suspicious US features that were subjected to US-guided fine needle aspiration and subsequent surgery or US follow-up of at least 2 years were evaluated. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify independent clinical characteristics and US features associated with the malignancy rate and aggressive biological behavior.

RESULTS

Of the 1866 subcentimeter thyroid nodules, 821 (44.0%) were benign and 1045 (56.0%) were malignant. Age younger than 45 years, presence of microcalcification, and a taller than wide shape on US were associated independently with malignancy in the subcentimeter thyroid nodules (P < 0.05). Of 1041 evaluated papillary microcarcinomas, a multivariate analysis revealed that male gender, presence of microcalcification, and a taller than wide on US were independently associated with lymph node metastasis and ATA intermediate risk (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Age younger than 45 years, male gender, and subcentimeter thyroid nodules exhibiting microcalcification, and a taller than wide shape on US might be not good candidate factors for active surveillance.