The immunological synapse: a molecular machine controlling T cell activation

WASP and Mst1 coregulate B-cell development and B-cell receptor signaling

Mst1 is a serine/threonine kinase involved in cell survival, proliferation, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis. In mice, Mst1 regulates actin dynamics required for T-cell adhesion and migration, which correlate with thymic egress and entry into lymphatic tissue. The role of Mst1 in B cells and how it may control actin-dependent processes has not been well characterized. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) deficiency only moderately affects development and B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling, suggesting WASP likely associates with other molecules. We investigated whether Mst1 associates with WASP to regulate B-cell development and activation. Experimenting on Mst1/WASP double knockout (DKO) mice, we found a severe defect in the bone marrow B-cell development, and BCR signaling in the DKO mice was severely reduced. Even though WASP or Mst1 could influence the early B-cell activation, we found that the early activation events such as B-cell spreading, BCR clustering, and BCR signaling were much more impaired in the B cells from DKO mice. Furthermore, reciprocal regulation between Mst1 and WASP was observed in WASP and Mst1 KO mice, whereby the localization and function of phosphorylated WASP were affected in Mst1 KO mice. Most importantly, Mst1 inhibits the expression of WASP by decreasing the expression of WASP-interacting protein. Interestingly, we also found that WASP deficiency in patients and mice interferes with phosphorylated Mst1 localization and therefore function in B cells. Overall, our study provides a partner for WASP to regulate B-cell development and BCR signaling, as well as the reciprocal regulating molecular mechanism of one another.

PD-L2 suppresses T cell signaling via coinhibitory microcluster formation and SHP2 phosphatase recruitment

The coinhibitory receptor, PD-1, is of major importance for the suppression of T cell activation in various types of immune responses. A high-resolution imaging study showed that PD-1 forms a coinhibitory signalosome, “PD-1 microcluster”, with the phosphatase, SHP2, to dephosphorylate the TCR/CD3 complex and its downstream signaling molecules. Such a consecutive reaction entirely depended on PD-1–PD-L1/2 binding. PD-L2 is expressed on professional antigen-presenting cells and also on some tumor cells, which possibly explains the discrepant efficacy of immune checkpoint therapy for PD-L1-negative tumors. Here, we performed precise imaging analysis of PD-L2 forming PD-1–PD-L2 clusters associating with SHP2. PD-L2 could compete with PD-L1 for binding to PD-1, occupying the same space at TCR microclusters. The PD-1 microcluster formation was inhibited by certain mAbs with functional consequences. Thus, PD-1 microcluster formation provides a visible index for the effectiveness of anti-PD-1- or anti-PD-L1/2-mediated T cell suppression. PD-L2 may exert immune suppressive responses cooperatively with PD-L1 on the microcluster scale.

Takehara et al performed imaging analysis of microcluster formation between the PD-L1 and PD-L2, which are known to play a role in T cell activation in response to tumour cell signaling. Their analysis showed that the cluster formation inhibited T cell receptor signaling and could serve as a visual index for PD-L1/2-targeted cancer therapies.

Temporal analysis of T-cell receptor-imposed forces via quantitative single molecule FRET measurements

Mechanical forces acting on ligand-engaged T-cell receptors (TCRs) have previously been implicated in T-cell antigen recognition, yet their magnitude, spread, and temporal behavior are still poorly defined. We here report a FRET-based sensor equipped either with a TCR-reactive single chain antibody fragment or peptide-loaded MHC, the physiological TCR-ligand. The sensor was tethered to planar glass-supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and informed most directly on the magnitude and kinetics of TCR-imposed forces at the single molecule level. When confronting T-cells with gel-phase SLBs we observed both prior and upon T-cell activation a single, well-resolvable force-peak of approximately 5 pN and force loading rates on the TCR of 1.5 pN per second. When facing fluid-phase SLBs instead, T-cells still exerted tensile forces yet of threefold reduced magnitude and only prior to but not upon activation.

Bispecific T cell engagers: an emerging therapy for management of hematologic malignancies

Harnessing the power of immune cells, especially T cells, to enhance anti-tumor activities has become a promising strategy in clinical management of hematologic malignancies. The emerging bispecific antibodies (BsAbs), which recruit T cells to tumor cells, exemplified by bispecific T cell engagers (BiTEs), have facilitated the development of tumor immunotherapy. Here we discussed the advances and challenges in BiTE therapy developed for the treatment of hematologic malignancies. Blinatumomab, the first BiTE approved for the treatment of acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), is appreciated for its high efficacy and safety. Recent studies have focused on improving the efficacy of BiTEs by optimizing treatment regimens and refining the molecular structures of BiTEs. A considerable number of bispecific T cell-recruiting antibodies which are potentially effective in hematologic malignancies have been derived from BiTEs. The elucidation of mechanisms of BiTE action and neonatal techniques used for the construction of BsAbs can improve the treatment of hematological malignancies. This review summarized the features of bispecific T cell-recruiting antibodies for the treatment of hematologic malignancies with special focus on preclinical experiments and clinical studies.

How the biomimetic assembly of membrane receptors into multivalent domains is regulated by a small ligand

In living cells, communication requires the action of membrane receptors that are activated following very small environmental changes. A binary all-or-nothing behavior follows, making the organism extremely efficient at responding to specific stimuli. Using a minimal system composed of lipid vesicles, chemical models of a membrane receptor and their ligands, we show that bio-mimetic ON/OFF assembly of high avidity, multivalent domains is triggered by small temperature changes. Moreover, the intensity of the ON signal at the onset of the switch is modulated by the presence of small, weakly binding divalent ligands, reminiscent of the action of primary messengers in biological systems. Based on the analysis of spectroscopic data, we develop a mathematical model that rigorously describes the temperature-dependent switching of the membrane receptor assembly and ligand binding. From this we derive an equation that predicts the intensity of the modulation of the ON signal by the ligand-messenger as a function of the pairwise binding parameters, the number of binding sites that it features and the concentration. The behavior of our system, and the model derived, highlight the usefulness of weakly binding ligands in the regulation of membrane receptors and the pitfalls inherent to their binding promiscuity, such as non-specific binding to the membrane. Our model, and the equations derived from it, offer a valuable tool for the study of membrane receptors in both biological and biomimetic settings. The latter can be exploited to program membrane receptor avidity on sensing vesicles, create hierarchical protocell tissues or develop highly specific drug delivery vehicles.

Impact of HIV-1 Infection and Antigen Class on T Follicular Helper Cell Responses to Pneumococcal Polysaccharide-Protein Conjugate Vaccine-13

Pneumococcal infections are common and serious complications of HIV-1 disease. Prevention has been compromised by the limited magnitude and quality of Ab responses to T cell-independent type 2 pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides (PPS). The pneumococcal polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine-13 (PCV-13) contains PPS conjugated to the T cell-dependent protein (diphtheria toxoid [DT] [CRM197]). We investigated the differential response to PPS and DT by human Ab-secreting B cells (ASC) after immunization with PCV-13 in newly diagnosed healthy HIV⁺ and control adults. The numbers of PPS-specific IgG ASC increased significantly and similarly in HIV⁺ and controls. However, DT-specific IgG ASC increased in controls but not HIV⁺ subjects. To determine the cellular basis of these disparate responses to DT and PPS, we characterized the frequency and activation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, the predominant T cell subset providing B cell help. Expression of inducible T cell costimulator (ICOS), which sustains Tfh function and phenotype, increased significantly among controls, when compared with the HIV⁺ group. Increases in ICOS⁺ Tfh correlated with changes in T-dependent, DT-specific IgG ASC in controls but not in HIV⁺ In contrast, ICOS expression did not correlate with T cell-independent type 2 PPS-specific ASC in either group. Of note, upon optimized ex vivo stimulation, CD4 T cells from HIV⁺ subjects differentiated into Tfh cells and formed synapses with Raji B cells at frequencies similar to that of controls. In summary, PCV-13-induced increase in ICOS expression on Tfh was associated with responses to DT, which was compromised in recently diagnosed healthy HIV⁺ adults and can be restored ex vivo by providing effective Tfh-differentiating signals.

Acquisition of optimal TFH cell function is defined by specific molecular, positional, and TCR dynamic signatures

The development of follicular helper CD4 T (TFH) cells is a dynamic process resulting in a heterogenous pool of TFH subsets. However, the cellular and molecular determinants of this heterogeneity and the possible mechanistic links between them is not clear. We found that human TFH differentiation is associated with significant changes in phenotypic, chemokine, functional, metabolic and transcriptional profile. Furthermore, this differentiation was associated with distinct positioning to follicular proliferating B cells. Single-cell T cell receptor (TCR) clonotype analysis indicated the transitioning toward PD-1^hiCD57^hi phenotype. Furthermore, the differentiation of TFH cells was associated with significant reduction in TCR level and drastic changes in immunological synapse formation. TFH synapse lacks a tight cSMAC (central supra molecular activation Cluster) but displays the TCR in peripheral microclusters, which are potentially advantageous in the ability of germinal center (GC) B cells to receive necessary help. Our data reveal significant aspects of human TFH heterogeneity and suggest that the PD-1^hiCD57^hi TFH cells, in particular, are endowed with distinctive programming and spatial positioning for optimal GC B cell help.

Optimization of T Cell Redirecting Strategies: Obtaining Inspirations From Natural Process of T Cell Activation

Chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) or bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) redirected T cell against tumors is one of the most promising immunotherapy approaches. However, insufficient clinical outcomes are still observed in treatments of both solid and non-solid tumors. Limited efficacy and poor persistence are two major challenges in redirected T cell therapies. The immunological synapse (IS) is a vital component during the T cell response, which largely determines the clinical outcomes of T cell-based therapies. Here, we review the structural and signaling characteristics of IS formed by natural T cells and redirected T cells. Furthermore, inspired by the elaborate natural T cell receptor-mediated IS, we provide potential strategies for higher efficacy and longer persistence of redirected T cells.

Cooperative Stabilization of Close-Contact Zones Leads to Sensitivity and Selectivity in T-Cell Recognition

T cells are sensitive to 1 to 10 foreign-peptide-MHC complexes among a vast majority of self-peptide-MHC complexes, and discriminate selectively between peptide-MHC complexes that differ not much in their binding affinity to T-cell receptors (TCRs). Quantitative models that aim to explain this sensitivity and selectivity largely focus on single TCR/peptide-MHC complexes, but T cell adhesion involves a multitude of different complexes. In this article, we demonstrate in a three-dimensional computational model of T-cell adhesion that the cooperative stabilization of close-contact zones is sensitive to one to three foreign-peptide-MHC complexes and occurs at a rather sharp threshold affinity of these complexes, which implies selectivity. In these close-contact zones with lateral extensions of hundred to several hundred nanometers, few TCR/foreign-peptide-MHC complexes and many TCR/self-peptide-MHC complexes are segregated from LFA-1/ICAM-1 complexes that form at larger membrane separations. Previous high-resolution microscopy experiments indicate that the sensitivity and selectivity in the formation of closed-contact zones reported here are relevant for T-cell recognition, because the stabilization of close-contact zones by foreign, agonist peptide-MHC complexes precedes T-cell signaling and activation in the experiments.

Pro- and anti-apoptotic fate decisions induced by di- and trimeric synthetic cytokine receptors

Synthetic strategies to activate cytokine receptors so far only address standard dimeric cytokine receptor assemblies. The 19 ligands of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF), however, form noncovalent trimers and receptor trimerization is considered to be essential for receptor activation. Synthetic TNFR1, TNFR2, and Fas/CD95 receptors were activated by synthetic trimeric ligands which induced NF-κB signaling or Caspase-induced apoptosis. Albeit dimeric receptor activation did not induce synthetic TNFR1 and TNFR2 signaling, dimeric FasL induced extenuated apoptosis. Simultaneous integration of dimeric Interleukin (IL-)6 receptor gp130 and trimeric Fas as synthetic cytokine receptors in one cell enabled binary cell fate decisions, gp130-mediated proliferation or Fas-mediated apoptosis. In summary, our modular fully synthetic cytokine signaling system allows precisely orchestrated cellular responses to selectively induce pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling via canonical dimeric receptors of the IL-6 family and non-canonical trimeric receptor complexes of the TNF superfamily.

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SyCyRs induce TNFR1 or TNFR2 mediated NF-κB activation as trimers or oligomers.

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Fas-SyCyR induces Caspase-induced apoptosis as trimer and as dimer.

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Synthetic loss of function Fas-SyCyR fails to induce Caspase mediated apoptosis.

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gp130-and Fas-SyCyR in one cell enable proliferation via gp130 or apoptosis via Fas.

Cytoskeleton Dynamics in Peripheral T Cell Lymphomas: An Intricate Network Sustaining Lymphomagenesis

Defects in cytoskeleton functions support tumorigenesis fostering an aberrant proliferation and promoting inappropriate migratory and invasive features. The link between cytoskeleton and tumor features has been extensively investigated in solid tumors. However, the emerging genetic and molecular landscape of peripheral T cell lymphomas (PTCL) has unveiled several alterations targeting structure and function of the cytoskeleton, highlighting its role in cell shape changes and the aberrant cell division of malignant T cells. In this review, we summarize the most recent evidence about the role of cytoskeleton in PTCLs development and progression. We also discuss how aberrant signaling pathways, like JAK/STAT3, NPM-ALK, RhoGTPase, and Aurora Kinase, can contribute to lymphomagenesis by modifying the structure and the signaling properties of cytoskeleton.

Rosetting T cells in Hodgkin lymphoma are activated by immunological synapse components HLA class II and CD58

A unique feature of Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is the presence of CD4+ T cells that surround, protect, and promote survival of tumor cells. The adhesion molecules involved in this so-called T-cell rosetting are important components of the immunological synapse (IS). However, it is unknown whether this synapse is fully assembled and leads to T-cell activation by enabling interaction between the T-cell receptor (TCR) and human leukocyte antigen class II (HLA-II). We established a novel rosetting model by coculturing HLA-II-matched peripheral blood mononuclear cells with HL cell lines and showed IS formation with activation of rosetting T cells. HLA-II downregulation by class II transactivator knockout did not affect the extent of rosetting, but almost completely abrogated T-cell activation. Intriguingly, the level of CD58 expression correlated with the extent of rosette formation, and CD58 knockout or CD2 blockade reduced both rosette formation and T-cell activation. The extension of our findings to primary HL tissue by immunohistochemistry and proximity ligation assays showed interaction of CD2 with CD58 and of TCR-associated CD4 with HLA-II. In conclusion, T-cell rosetting in HL is established by formation of the IS, and activation of rosetting T cells critically depends on the interaction of both TCR-HLA-II and CD2-CD58.

Adhering interacting cells to two opposing coverslips allows super-resolution imaging of cell-cell interfaces

Cell-cell interfaces convey mechanical and chemical information in multicellular systems. Microscopy has revealed intricate structure of such interfaces, yet typically with limited resolution due to diffraction and unfavourable orthogonal orientation of the interface to the coverslip. We present a simple and robust way to align cell-cell interfaces in parallel to the coverslip by adhering the interacting cells to two opposing coverslips. We demonstrate high-quality diffraction-limited and super-resolution imaging of interfaces (immune-synapses) between fixed and live CD8⁺ T-cells and either antigen presenting cells or melanoma cells. Imaging methods include bright-field, confocal, STED, dSTORM, SOFI, SRRF and large-scale tiled images. The low background, lack of aberrations and enhanced spatial stability of our method relative to existing cell-trapping techniques allow use of these methods. We expect that the simplicity and wide-compatibility of our approach will allow its wide dissemination for super-resolving the intricate structure and molecular organization in a variety of cell-cell interfaces.

Nanowire Based Guidance of the Morphology and Cytotoxic Activity of Natural Killer Cells

The cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells is regulated by many chemical and physical cues, whose integration mechanism is still obscure. Here, a multifunctional platform is engineered for NK cell stimulation, to study the effect of the signal integration and spatial heterogeneity on NK cell function. The platform is based on nanowires, whose mechanical compliance and site-selective tip functionalization with antigens produce the physical and chemical stimuli, respectively. The nanowires are confined to micron-sized islands, which induce a splitting of the NK cells into two subpopulations with distinct morphologies and immune responses: NK cells atop the nanowire islands display symmetrical spreading and enhanced activation, whereas cells lying in the straits between the islands develop elongated profiles and show lower activation levels. The demonstrated tunability of NK cell cytotoxicity provides an important insight into the mechanism of their immune function and introduces a novel technological route for the ex vivo shaping of cytotoxic lymphocytes in immunotherapy.

The Nanoscopic Organization of Synapse Structures: A Common Basis for Cell Communication

Synapse structures, including neuronal and immunological synapses, can be seen as the plasma membrane contact sites between two individual cells where information is transmitted from one cell to the other. The distance between the two plasma membranes is only a few tens of nanometers, but these areas are densely populated with functionally different proteins, including adhesion proteins, receptors, and transporters. The narrow space between the two plasma membranes has been a barrier for resolving the synaptic architecture due to the diffraction limit in conventional microscopy (~250 nm). Various advanced super-resolution microscopy techniques, such as stimulated emission depletion (STED), structured illumination microscopy (SIM), and single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM), bypass the diffraction limit and provide a sub-diffraction-limit resolving power, ranging from 10 to 100 nm. The studies using super-resolution microscopy have revealed unprecedented details of the nanoscopic organization and dynamics of synaptic molecules. In general, most synaptic proteins appear to be heterogeneously distributed and form nanodomains at the membranes. These nanodomains are dynamic functional units, playing important roles in mediating signal transmission through synapses. Herein, we discuss our current knowledge on the super-resolution nanoscopic architecture of synapses and their functional implications, with a particular focus on the neuronal synapses and immune synapses.

Constant regulation for stable CD8 T-cell functional avidity and its possible implications for cancer immunotherapy

The functional avidity (FA) of cytotoxic CD8 T cells impacts strongly on their functional capabilities and correlates with protection from infection and cancer. FA depends on TCR affinity, downstream signaling strength, and TCR affinity-independent parameters of the immune synapse, such as costimulatory and inhibitory receptors. The functional impact of coreceptors on FA remains to be fully elucidated. Despite its importance, FA is infrequently assessed and incompletely understood. There is currently no consensus as to whether FA can be enhanced by optimized vaccine dose or boosting schedule. Recent findings suggest that FA is remarkably stable in vivo, possibly due to continued signaling modulation of critical receptors in the immune synapse. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge and hypothesize that in vivo, codominant T cells constantly "equalize" their FA for similar function. We present a new model of constant FA regulation, and discuss practical implications for T-cell-based cancer immunotherapy.

ERM-Dependent Assembly of T Cell Receptor Signaling and Co-stimulatory Molecules on Microvilli prior to Activation

T cell surfaces are covered with microvilli, actin-rich and flexible protrusions. We use super-resolution microscopy to show that ≥90% of T cell receptor (TCR) complex molecules TCRαβ and TCRζ, as well as the co-receptor CD4 (cluster of differentiation 4) and the co-stimulatory molecule CD2, reside on microvilli of resting human T cells. Furthermore, TCR proximal signaling molecules involved in the initial stages of the immune response, including the protein tyrosine kinase Lck (lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase) and the key adaptor LAT (linker for activation of T cells), are also enriched on microvilli. Notably, phosphorylated proteins of the ERM (ezrin, radixin, and moesin) family colocalize with TCRαβ as well as with actin filaments, implying a role for one or more ERMs in linking the TCR complex to the actin cytoskeleton within microvilli. Our results establish microvilli as key signaling hubs, in which the TCR complex and its proximal signaling molecules and adaptors are preassembled prior to activation in an ERM-dependent manner, facilitating initial antigen sensing.

Neurokinin-1 Receptor Signaling Is Required for Efficient Ca2+ Flux in T-Cell-Receptor-Activated T Cells

Efficient Ca²⁺ flux induced during cognate T cell activation requires signaling the T cell receptor (TCR) and unidentified G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). T cells express the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1R), a GPCR that mediates Ca²⁺ flux in excitable and non-excitable cells. However, the role of the NK1R in TCR signaling remains unknown. We show that the NK1R and its agonists, the neuropeptides substance P and hemokinin-1, co-localize within the immune synapse during cognate activation of T cells. Simultaneous TCR and NK1R stimulation is necessary for efficient Ca²⁺ flux and Ca²⁺-dependent signaling that sustains the survival of activated T cells and helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 bias. In a model of contact dermatitis, mice with T cells deficient in NK1R or its agonists exhibit impaired cellular immunity, due to high mortality of activated T cells. We demonstrate an effect of the NK1R in T cells that is relevant for immunotherapies based on pro-inflammatory neuropeptides and its receptors.

The neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) induces Ca²⁺ flux in excitable cells. Here, Morelli et al. show that NK1R signaling in T cells promotes optimal Ca²⁺ flux triggered by TCR stimulation, which is necessary to sustain T cell survival and the efficient Th1- and Th17-based immunity that is relevant for immunotherapies based on pro-inflammatory neuropeptides.

Optimized tandem CD19/CD20 CAR-engineered T cells in refractory/relapsed B-cell lymphoma

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells targeting CD19 have achieved breakthroughs in the treatment of hematological malignancies, such as relapsed/refractory non-Hodgkin lymphoma (r/rNHL); however, high rates of treatment failure and recurrence after CAR T-cell therapy are considerable obstacles to overcome. In this study, we designed a series of tandem CARs (TanCARs) and found that TanCAR7 T cells showed dual antigen targeting of CD19 and CD20, as well as formed superior and stable immunological synapse (IS) structures, which may be related to their robust antitumor activity. In an open-label single-arm phase 1/2a trial (NCT03097770), we enrolled 33 patients with r/rNHL; 28 patients received an infusion after conditioning chemotherapy. The primary objective was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of TanCAR7 T cells. Efficacy, progression-free survival, and overall survival were evaluated as secondary objectives. Cytokine release syndrome occurred in 14 patients (50%): 36% had grade 1 or 2 and 14% had grade 3. No cases of CAR T-cell-related encephalopathy syndrome (CRES) of grade 3 or higher were confirmed in any patient. One patient died from a treatment-associated severe pulmonary infection. The overall response rate was 79% (95% confidence interval [CI], 60-92%), and the complete response rate was 71%. The progression-free survival rate at 12 months was 64% (95% CI, 43-79%). In this study, TanCAR7 T cells elicited a potent and durable antitumor response, but not grade 3 or higher CRES, in patients with r/rNHL.

Belatacept in renal transplantation in comparison to tacrolimus and molecular understanding of resistance pattern: Meta-analysis and systematic review

BACKGROUND

The T-cell costimulation blocking agent belatacept has been identified as a possible substitute for calcineurin inhibitors, however, no consensus has been established against its use over the standard care agent Tacrolimus.

AIM

To evaluate the effectiveness of belatacept based maintenance immuno-suppressive regimens in comparison to tacrolimus in renal transplantion.

METHODS

We did extensive search of all the available literature comparing the role of belatacept to tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients by searching the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Crossref, Scopus, clinical trials registry on October 5, 2020.

RESULTS

The literature search identified four randomized controlled trials (n = 173 participants) comparing belatacept with tacrolimus. There was no significant difference in estimated renal function at 12 mo [mean difference 4.12 mL/min/1.73 m², confidence interval (CI): -2.18 to 10.42, P = 0.20]. Further, belatacept group was associated with significant increase in biopsy proven acute rejection [relative risk (RR) = 3.27, CI: 0.88 to 12.11, P = 0.08] and worse 12 mo allograft survival (RR = 4.51, CI: 1.23 to 16.58, P = 0.02). However, incidence of new onset diabetes mellitus was lower with belatacept at 12 mo (RR = 0.26, CI: 0.07 to 0.99, P = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The evidence reviewed in this meta-analysis suggested that belatacept-based maintenance immunosuppression regimens were associated with an increased risk allograft loss in renal transplant recipients with equivalent renal functioning against standard tacrolimus; however, observed significantly reduced new onset diabetes mellitus after transplantation incidence and lower serum low density lipid profile levels in belatacept group. In addition, the adaptation of belatacept in renal transplantation has been forestalled by increased rates of rejection and resistance owing to development of various effector memory T cells through, parallel differentiation and immunological plasticity.

A computational study of co-inhibitory immune complex assembly at the interface between T cells and antigen presenting cells

The activation and differentiation of T-cells are mainly directly by their co-regulatory receptors. T lymphocyte-associated protein-4 (CTLA-4) and programed cell death-1 (PD-1) are two of the most important co-regulatory receptors. Binding of PD-1 and CTLA-4 with their corresponding ligands programed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and B7 on the antigen presenting cells (APC) activates two central co-inhibitory signaling pathways to suppress T cell functions. Interestingly, recent experiments have identified a new cis-interaction between PD-L1 and B7, suggesting that a crosstalk exists between two co-inhibitory receptors and the two pairs of ligand-receptor complexes can undergo dynamic oligomerization. Inspired by these experimental evidences, we developed a coarse-grained model to characterize the assembling of an immune complex consisting of CLTA-4, B7, PD-L1 and PD-1. These four proteins and their interactions form a small network motif. The temporal dynamics and spatial pattern formation of this network was simulated by a diffusion-reaction algorithm. Our simulation method incorporates the membrane confinement of cell surface proteins and geometric arrangement of different binding interfaces between these proteins. A wide range of binding constants was tested for the interactions involved in the network. Interestingly, we show that the CTLA-4/B7 ligand-receptor complexes can first form linear oligomers, while these oligomers further align together into two-dimensional clusters. Similar phenomenon has also been observed in other systems of cell surface proteins. Our test results further indicate that both co-inhibitory signaling pathways activated by B7 and PD-L1 can be down-regulated by the new cis-interaction between these two ligands, consistent with previous experimental evidences. Finally, the simulations also suggest that the dynamic and the spatial properties of the immune complex assembly are highly determined by the energetics of molecular interactions in the network. Our study, therefore, brings new insights to the co-regulatory mechanisms of T cell activation.

The activation of a T cell can be regulated by the receptors on its surface, such as CTLA-4 and PD-1. People used to think that these two receptors inhibit T cell activation through distinct pathways. However, recent experiments discovered that the ligands of these two receptors, B7 and PD-L1, can interact with each other on the same surface of antigen presenting cells. Here we utilized computational simulations to investigate functional roles of this newly discovered interaction in T cell coregulation. The specific environment of interface between T cell and antigen presenting cell has been taken into account of our model. Ligand and receptors randomly diffuse within this interface area. They further involve in different types of interactions, with each other from the same side or the opposite side of cell surface. Using this method, we found ligands and receptors can not only form complexes, but also aggregate into large-scale clusters. We also demonstrated that the engagement between B7 and PD-L1 can reduce the interactions with their corresponding receptors. This study, therefore, offers new insights to our understanding of signal regulation in T cells.

Visualization of integrin molecules by fluorescence imaging and techniques

Integrin molecules are transmembrane αβ heterodimers involved in cell adhesion, trafficking, and signaling. Upon activation, integrins undergo dynamic conformational changes that regulate their affinity to ligands. The physiological functions and activation mechanisms of integrins have been heavily discussed in previous studies and reviews, but the fluorescence imaging techniques -which are powerful tools for biological studies- have not. Here we review the fluorescence labeling methods, imaging techniques, as well as Förster resonance energy transfer assays used to study integrin expression, localization, activation, and functions.

Innate immune receptor clustering and its role in immune regulation

The discovery of receptor clustering in the activation of adaptive immune cells has revolutionized our understanding of the physical basis of immune signal transduction. In contrast to the extensive studies of adaptive immune cells, particularly T cells, there is a lesser, but emerging, recognition that the formation of receptor clusters is also a key regulatory mechanism in host-pathogen interactions. Many kinds of innate immune receptors have been found to assemble into nano- or micro-sized domains on the surfaces of cells. The clusters formed between diverse categories of innate immune receptors function as a multi-component apparatus for pathogen detection and immune response regulation. Here, we highlight these pioneering efforts and the outstanding questions that remain to be answered regarding this largely under-explored research topic. We provide a critical analysis of the current literature on the clustering of innate immune receptors. Our emphasis is on studies that draw connections between the phenomenon of receptor clustering and its functional role in innate immune regulation.

Engineered IgG1-Fc Molecules Define Valency Control of Cell Surface Fcγ Receptor Inhibition and Activation in Endosomes

The inhibition of Fcγ receptors (FcγR) is an attractive strategy for treating diseases driven by IgG immune complexes (IC). Previously, we demonstrated that an engineered tri-valent arrangement of IgG1 Fc domains (SIF1) potently inhibited FcγR activation by IC, whereas a penta-valent Fc molecule (PentX) activated FcγR, potentially mimicking ICs and leading to Syk phosphorylation. Thus, a precise balance exists between the number of engaged FcγRs for inhibition versus activation. Here, we demonstrate that Fc valency differentially controls FcγR activation and inhibition within distinct subcellular compartments. Large Fc multimer clusters consisting of 5-50 Fc domains predominately recruited Syk-mScarlet to patches on the plasma membrane, whereas PentX exclusively recruited Syk-mScarlet to endosomes in human monocytic cell line (THP-1 cells). In contrast, SIF1, similar to monomeric Fc, spent longer periods docked to FcγRs on the plasma membrane and did not accumulate and recruit Syk-mScarlet within large endosomes. Single particle tracking (SPT) of fluorescent engineered Fc molecules and Syk-mScarlet at the plasma membrane imaged by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (SPT-TIRF), revealed that Syk-mScarlet sampled the plasma membrane was not recruited to FcγR docked with any of the engineered Fc molecules at the plasma membrane. Furthermore, the motions of FcγRs docked with recombinant Fc (rFc), SIF1 or PentX, displayed similar motions with D ~ 0.15 μm²/s, indicating that SIF1 and PentX did not induce reorganization or microclustering of FcγRs beyond the ligating valency. Multicolor SPT-TIRF and brightness analysis of docked rFc, SIF1 and PentX also indicated that FcγRs were not pre-assembled into clusters. Taken together, activation on the plasma membrane requires assembly of more than 5 FcγRs. Unlike rFc or SIF1, PentX accumulated Syk-mScarlet on endosomes indicating that the threshold for FcγR activation on endosomes is lower than on the plasma membrane. We conclude that the inhibitory effects of SIF1 are mediated by stabilizing a ligated and inactive FcγR on the plasma membrane. Thus, FcγR inhibition can be achieved by low valency ligation with SIF1 that behaves similarly to FcγR docked with monomeric IgG.

Retrograde and Anterograde Transport of Lat-Vesicles during the Immunological Synapse Formation: Defining the Finely-Tuned Mechanism

LAT is an important player of the signaling cascade induced by TCR activation. This adapter molecule is present at the plasma membrane of T lymphocytes and more abundantly in intracellular compartments. Upon T cell activation the intracellular pool of LAT is recruited to the immune synapse (IS). We previously described two pathways controlling LAT trafficking: retrograde transport from endosomes to the TGN, and anterograde traffic from the Golgi to the IS. We address the specific role of four proteins, the GTPase Rab6, the t-SNARE syntaxin-16, the v-SNARE VAMP7 and the golgin GMAP210, in each pathway. Using different methods (endocytosis and Golgi trap assays, confocal and TIRF microscopy, TCR-signalosome pull down) we show that syntaxin-16 is regulating the retrograde transport of LAT whereas VAMP7 is regulating the anterograde transport. Moreover, GMAP210 and Rab6, known to contribute to both pathways, are in our cellular context, specifically and respectively, involved in anterograde and retrograde transport of LAT. Altogether, our data describe how retrograde and anterograde pathways coordinate LAT enrichment at the IS and point to the Golgi as a central hub for the polarized recruitment of LAT to the IS. The role that this finely-tuned transport of signaling molecules plays in T-cell activation is discussed.

Calcium Signaling in T Cells Is Induced by Binding to Nickel-Chelating Lipids in Supported Lipid Bilayers

Supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) are one of the most common cell-membrane model systems to study cell-cell interactions. Nickel-chelating lipids are frequently used to functionalize the SLB with polyhistidine-tagged ligands. We show here that these lipids by themselves can induce calcium signaling in T cells, also when having protein ligands on the SLB. This is important to avoid "false" signaling events in cell studies with SLBs, but also to better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in T-cell signaling. Jurkat T cells transfected with the non-signaling molecule rat CD48 were found to bind to ligand-free SLBs containing ≥2 wt% nickel-chelating lipids upon which calcium signaling was induced. This signaling fraction steadily increased from 24 to 60% when increasing the amount of nickel-chelating lipids from 2 to 10 wt%. Both the signaling fraction and signaling time did not change significantly compared to ligand-free SLBs when adding the CD48-ligand rat CD2 to the SLB. Blocking the SLB with bovine serum albumin reduced the signaling fraction to 11%, while preserving CD2 binding and the exclusion of the phosphatase CD45 from the cell-SLB contacts. Thus, CD45 exclusion alone was not sufficient to result in calcium signaling. In addition, more cells signaled on ligand-free SLBs with copper-chelating lipids instead of nickel-chelating lipids and the signaling was found to be predominantly via T-cell receptor (TCR) triggering. Hence, it is possible that the nickel-chelating lipids act as ligands to the cell's TCRs, an interaction that needs to be blocked to avoid unwanted cell activation.

Dynamic Microtubule Arrays in Leukocytes and Their Role in Cell Migration and Immune Synapse Formation

The organization of microtubule arrays in immune cells is critically important for a properly operating immune system. Leukocytes are white blood cells of hematopoietic origin, which exert effector functions of innate and adaptive immune responses. During these processes the microtubule cytoskeleton plays a crucial role for establishing cell polarization and directed migration, targeted secretion of vesicles for T cell activation and cellular cytotoxicity as well as the maintenance of cell integrity. Considering this large spectrum of distinct effector functions, leukocytes require flexible microtubule arrays, which timely and spatially reorganize allowing the cells to accommodate their specific tasks. In contrast to other specialized cell types, which typically nucleate microtubule filaments from non-centrosomal microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), leukocytes mainly utilize centrosomes for sites of microtubule nucleation. Yet, MTOC localization as well as microtubule organization and dynamics are highly plastic in leukocytes thus allowing the cells to adapt to different environmental constraints. Here we summarize our current knowledge on microtubule organization and dynamics during immune processes and how these microtubule arrays affect immune cell effector functions. We particularly highlight emerging concepts of microtubule involvement during maintenance of cell shape and physical coherence.

The Emerging Function of PKCtheta in Cancer

Protein Kinase C theta (PKCθ) is a serine/threonine kinase that belongs to the novel PKC subfamily. In normal tissue, its expression is restricted to skeletal muscle cells, platelets and T lymphocytes in which PKCθ controls several essential cellular processes such as survival, proliferation and differentiation. Particularly, PKCθ has been extensively studied for its role in the immune system where its translocation to the immunological synapse plays a critical role in T cell activation. Beyond its physiological role in immune responses, increasing evidence implicates PKCθ in the pathology of various diseases, especially autoimmune disorders and cancers. In this review, we discuss the implication of PKCθ in various types of cancers and the PKCθ-mediated signaling events controlling cancer initiation and progression. In these types of cancers, the high PKCθ expression leads to aberrant cell proliferation, migration and invasion resulting in malignant phenotype. The recent development and application of PKCθ inhibitors in the context of autoimmune diseases could benefit the emergence of treatment for cancers in which PKCθ has been implicated.

The Role of T Cell Receptor Signaling in the Development of Type 1 Diabetes

T cell receptor (TCR) signaling influences multiple aspects of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell immunobiology including thymic development, peripheral homeostasis, effector subset differentiation/function, and memory formation. Additional T cell signaling cues triggered by co-stimulatory molecules and cytokines also affect TCR signaling duration, as well as accessory pathways that further shape a T cell response. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a T cell-driven autoimmune disease targeting the insulin producing β cells in the pancreas. Evidence indicates that dysregulated TCR signaling events in T1D impact the efficacy of central and peripheral tolerance-inducing mechanisms. In this review, we will discuss how the strength and nature of TCR signaling events influence the development of self-reactive T cells and drive the progression of T1D through effects on T cell gene expression, lineage commitment, and maintenance of pathogenic anti-self T cell effector function.

Immune synapse instructs epigenomic and transcriptomic functional reprogramming in dendritic cells

Understanding the fate of dendritic cells (DCs) after productive immune synapses (postsynaptic DCs) with T cells during antigen presentation has been largely neglected in favor of deciphering the nuances of T cell activation and memory generation. Here, we describe that postsynaptic DCs switch their transcriptomic signature, correlating with epigenomic changes including DNA accessibility and histone methylation. We focus on the chemokine receptor Ccr7 as a proof-of-concept gene that is increased in postsynaptic DCs. Consistent with our epigenomic observations, postsynaptic DCs migrate more efficiently toward CCL19 in vitro and display enhanced homing to draining lymph nodes in vivo. This work describes a previously unknown DC population whose transcriptomics, epigenomics, and migratory capacity change in response to their cognate contact with T cells.

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) assists inorganic arsenic-induced immune tolerance in murine dendritic cells

Inorganic arsenic, a well-known human carcinogen, poses a major threat to global health. Given the immunosuppressive potentials of inorganic arsenic as well as limited understanding of this metalloid on antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs), we systematically screened the immune targets in response to arsenic treatment, as well as its possible molecular mechanism in cultured murine DCs. Our results denoted that arsenite (As) significantly induced immune tolerance by down-regulating the expression of phenotypic molecules, pro-inflammatory factors and T-lymphocyte helper (Th)1/Th17-inducible cytokines in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated myeloid-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Inconsistent with dampened phosphorylation of immune-related proteins (nuclear factor kappa-B) NF-κB, p38 and JNK, the metalloid drastically induced the expression of Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein, which enlightened us to continuously explore the possible roles of HO-1 pathway in As-induced immune tolerance in BMDCs. In this respect, immunosuppressive properties of HO-1 pathway in BMDCs were firstly confirmed through pharmacological overexpression of HO-1 by both CoPP and CORM-2. By contrast, limited HO-1 expression by HO-1 inhibitor ZnPP specifically alleviated As-mediated down-regulation of CD80, chemokine factor C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) -α, Interleukin (IL)-23 and IL-6, which reminds us the peculiarity of HO-1 in As-induced immune tolerance in murine DCs. Based on these experimental findings, we postulated the immunosuppressive property of inorganic arsenic might be mediated partially by HO-1 in DCs, thus contributing to the interactions of DCs-polarized differentiation of T-lymphocyte subtype as well as the development of infections and malignant diseases.

Microclusters as T Cell Signaling Hubs: Structure, Kinetics, and Regulation

When T cell receptors (TCRs) engage with stimulatory ligands, one of the first microscopically visible events is the formation of microclusters at the site of T cell activation. Since the discovery of these structures almost 20 years ago, they have been studied extensively in live cells using confocal and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. However, due to limits in image resolution and acquisition speed, the spatial relationships of signaling components within microclusters, the kinetics of their assembly and disassembly, and the role of vesicular trafficking in microcluster formation and maintenance were not finely characterized. In this review, we will summarize how new microscopy techniques have revealed novel insights into the assembly of these structures. The sub-diffraction organization of microclusters as well as the finely dissected kinetics of recruitment and disassociation of molecules from microclusters will be discussed. The role of cell surface molecules in microcluster formation and the kinetics of molecular recruitment via intracellular vesicular trafficking to microclusters is described. Finally, the role of post-translational modifications such as ubiquitination in the downregulation of cell surface signaling molecules is also discussed. These results will be related to the role of these structures and processes in T cell activation.

Differentiation and activation of human CD4 T cells is associated with a gradual loss of myelin and lymphocyte protein

Upon generation of monoclonal antibodies to the T cell antigen receptor/CD3 (TCR/CD3) complex, we isolated mAb MT3, whose reactivity correlates inversely with the production of IFN‐γ by human peripheral blood T lymphocytes. Using eukaryotic expression cloning, we identified the MT3 antigen as myelin‐and‐lymphocyte (MAL) protein. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrates high surface expression of MAL on all naïve CD4⁺ T cells whereas MAL expression is diminished on central memory‐ and almost lost on effector memory T cells. MAL^– T cells proliferate strongly in response to stimulation with CD3/CD28 antibodies, corroborating that MAL⁺ T cells are naïve and MAL^– T cells memory subtypes. Further, resting MAL^– T cells harbor a larger pool of Ser59‐ and Tyr394‐ double phosphorylated lymphocyte‐specific kinase (Lck), which is rapidly increased upon in vitro restimulation. Previously, lack of MAL was reported to prevent transport of Lck, the key protein tyrosine kinase of TCR/CD3 signaling to the cell membrane, and to result in strongly impaired human T cell activation. Here, we show that knocking out MAL did not significantly affect Lck membrane localization and immune synapse recruitment, or transcriptional T cell activation. Collectively, our results indicate that loss of MAL is associated with activation‐induced differentiation of human T cells but not with impaired membrane localization of Lck or TCR signaling capacity.

A Multimodal Platform for Simultaneous T-Cell Imaging, Defined Activation, and Mechanobiological Characterization

T-cell antigen recognition is accompanied by extensive morphological rearrangements of the contact zone between the T-cell and the antigen-presenting cell (APC). This process involves binding of the T-cell receptor (TCR) complex to antigenic peptides presented via MHC on the APC surface, the interaction of costimulatory and adhesion proteins, remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton, and the initiation of downstream signaling processes such as the release of intracellular calcium. However, multiparametric time-resolved analysis of these processes is hampered by the difficulty in recording the different readout modalities at high quality in parallel. In this study, we present a platform for simultaneous quantification of TCR distribution via total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, of intracellular calcium levels, and of T-cell-exerted forces via atomic force microscopy (AFM). In our method, AFM cantilevers were used to bring single T-cells into contact with the activating surface. We designed the platform specifically to enable the study of T-cell triggering via functionalized fluid-supported lipid bilayers, which represent a widely accepted model system to stimulate T-cells in an antigen-specific manner. In this paper, we showcase the possibilities of this platform using primary transgenic T-cells triggered specifically via their cognate antigen presented by MHCII.

Soluble CD83 Regulates Dendritic Cell-T Cell Immunological Synapse Formation by Disrupting Rab1a-Mediated F-Actin Rearrangement

Dendritic cell-T cell (DC-T) contacts play an important role in T cell activation, clone generation, and development. Regulating the cytoskeletal protein rearrangement of DCs can modulate DC-T contact and affect T cell activation. However, inhibitory factors on cytoskeletal regulation in DCs remain poorly known. We showed that a soluble form of CD83 (sCD83) inhibited T cell activation by decreasing DC-T contact and synapse formation between DC and T cells. This negative effect of sCD83 on DCs was mediated by disruption of F-actin rearrangements, leading to alter expression and localization of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) and immunological synapse formation between DC and T cells. Furthermore, sCD83 was found to decrease GTP-binding activity of Rab1a, which further decreased colocalization and expression of LRRK2 and F-actin rearrangements in DCs, leading to the loss of MHC-II at DC-T synapses and reduced DC-T synapse formation. Further, sCD83-treated DCs alleviated symptoms of experimental autoimmune uveitis in mice and decreased the number of T cells in the eyes and lymph nodes of these animals. Our findings demonstrate a novel signaling pathway of sCD83 on regulating DC-T contact, which may be harnessed to develop new immunosuppressive therapeutics for autoimmune disease.

Dendritic Cells of Leukemic Origin: Specialized Antigen-Presenting Cells as Potential Treatment Tools for Patients with Myeloid Leukemia

The prognosis of elderly patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and high-grade myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is limited due to the lack of therapy options and high relapse rates. Dendritic cell (DC)-based immunotherapy seems to be a promising treatment tool. DC are potent antigen-presenting cells and play a pivotal role on the interface of the innate and the adaptive immune system. Myeloid leukemia blasts can be converted to DC of leukemic origin (DC_leu), expressing costimulatory molecules along with the whole leukemic antigen repertoire of individual patients. These generated DC_leu are potent stimulators of various immune reactive cells and increase antileukemic immunity ex vivo. Here we review the generating process of DC/DC_leu from leukemic peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well as directly from leukemic whole blood with "minimized" Kits to simulate physiological conditions ex vivo. The purpose of adoptive cell transfer of DC/DC_leu as a vaccination strategy is discussed. A new potential therapy option with Kits for patients with myeloid leukemia, which would render an adoptive DC/DC_leu transfer unnecessary, is presented. In summary, DC/DC_leu-based therapies seem to be promising treatment tools for patients with AML or MDS but ongoing research including trials in animals and humans have to be performed.

Upregulation of T Cell Receptor Signaling Pathway Components in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Patients: Joint Analysis of mRNA and circRNA Expression Profiles

OBJECTIVE

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is one of the most common complications of pregnancy, and its pathogenesis is still unclear. Studies have shown that circular RNAs (circRNAs) can regulate blood glucose levels by targeting mRNAs, but the role of circRNAs in GDM is still unknown. Therefore, a joint microarray analysis of circRNAs and their target mRNAs in GDM patients and healthy pregnant women was carried out.

METHODS

In this study, microarray analyses of mRNA and circRNA in 6 GDM patients and 6 healthy controls were conducted to identify the differentially expressed mRNA and circRNA in GDM patients, and some of the discovered mRNAs and circRNAs were further validated in additional 56 samples by quantitative realtime PCR (qRT-PCR) and droplet digital PCR (ddPCR).

RESULTS

Gene ontology and pathway analyses showed that the differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in T cell immune-related pathways. Cross matching of the differentially expressed mRNAs and circRNAs in the top 10 KEGG pathways identified 4 genes (CBLB, ITPR3, NFKBIA, and ICAM1) and 4 corresponding circRNAs (circ-CBLB, circ-ITPR3, circ-NFKBIA, and circ-ICAM1), and these candidates were subsequently verified in larger samples. These differentially expressed circRNAs and their linear transcript mRNAs were all related to the T cell receptor signaling pathway, and PCR results confirmed the initial microarray results. Moreover, circRNA/miRNA/mRNA interactions and circRNA-binding proteins were predicted, and circ-CBLB, circ-ITPR3, and circ-ICAM1 may serve as GDM-related miRNA sponges and regulate the expression of CBLB, ITPR3, NFKBIA, and ICAM1 in cellular immune pathways.

CONCLUSION

Upregulation of T cell receptor signaling pathway components may represent the major pathological mechanism underlying GDM, thus providing a potential approach for the prevention and treatment of GDM.

Regulations of T Cell Activation by Membrane and Cytoskeleton

Among various types of membrane proteins that are regulated by cytoskeleton, the T cell receptor (TCR) greatly benefits from these cellular machineries for its function. The T cell is activated by the ligation of TCR to its target agonist peptide. However, the binding affinity of the two is not very strong, while the T cell needs to discriminate agonist from many nonagonist peptides. Moreover, the strength and duration of the activation signaling need to be tuned for immunological functions. Many years of investigations revealed that dynamic acto-myosin cytoskeletons and plasma membranes in T cells facilitate such regulations by modulating the spatiotemporal distributions of proteins in plasma membranes and by applying mechanical loads on proteins. In these processes, protein dynamics in multiple scales are involved, ranging from collective molecular motions and macroscopic molecular organizations at the cell–cell interface to microscopic changes in distances between receptor and ligand molecules. In this review, details of how cytoskeletons and membranes regulate these processes are discussed, with the emphasis on how all these processes are coordinated to occur within a single cell system.

Spontaneous Membrane Nanodomain Formation in the Absence or Presence of the Neurotransmitter Serotonin

Detailed knowledge on the formation of biomembrane domains, their structure, composition, and physical characteristics is scarce. Despite its frequently discussed importance in signaling, e.g., in obtaining localized non-homogeneous receptor compositions in the plasma membrane, the nanometer size as well as the dynamic and transient nature of domains impede their experimental characterization. In turn, atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combine both, high spatial and high temporal resolution. Here, using microsecond atomistic MD simulations, we characterize the spontaneous and unbiased formation of nano-domains in a plasma membrane model containing phosphatidylcholine (POPC), palmitoyl-sphingomyelin (PSM), and cholesterol (Chol) in the presence or absence of the neurotransmitter serotonin at different temperatures. In the ternary mixture, highly ordered and highly disordered domains of similar composition coexist at 303 K. The distinction of domains by lipid acyl chain order gets lost at lower temperatures of 298 and 294 K, suggesting a phase transition at ambient temperature. By comparison of domain ordering and composition, we demonstrate how the domain-specific binding of the neurotransmitter serotonin results in a modified domain lipid composition and a substantial downward shift of the phase transition temperature. Our simulations thus suggest a novel mode of action of neurotransmitters possibly of importance in neuronal signal transmission.

Mechanical Immunoengineering of T cells for Therapeutic Applications

T cells, a key component in adaptive immunity, are central to many immunotherapeutic modalities aimed at treating various diseases including cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmune disorders. The past decade has witnessed tremendous progress in immunotherapy, which aims at activation or suppression of the immune responses for disease treatments. Most strikingly, cancer immunotherapy has led to curative responses in a fraction of patients with relapsed or refractory cancers. However, extending those clinical benefits to a majority of cancer patients remains challenging. In order to improve both efficacy and safety of T cell-based immunotherapies, significant effort has been devoted to modulating biochemical signals to enhance T cell proliferation, effector functions, and longevity. Such strategies include discovery of new immune checkpoints, design of armored chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, and targeted delivery of stimulatory cytokines and so on.Despite the intense global research effort in developing novel cancer immunotherapies, a major dimension of the interactions between cancer and the immune system, its biomechanical aspect, has been largely underappreciated. Throughout their lifecycle, T cells constantly survey a multitude of organs and tissues and experience diverse biomechanical environments, such as shear force in the blood flow and a broad range of tissue stiffness. Furthermore, biomechanical properties of tissues or cells may be altered in disease and inflammation. Biomechanical cues, including both passive mechanical cues and active mechanical forces, have been shown to govern T cell development, activation, migration, differentiation, and effector functions. In other words, T cells can sense, respond to, and adapt to both passive mechanical cues and active mechanical forces.Biomechanical cues have been intensively studied at a fundamental level but are yet to be extensively incorporated in the design of immunotherapies. Nonetheless, the growing knowledge of T cell mechanobiology has formed the basis for the development of novel engineering strategies to mechanically modulate T cell immunity, a nascent field that we termed "mechanical immunoengineering". Mechanical immunoengineering exploits biomechanical cues (e.g., stiffness and external forces) to modulate T cell differentiation, proliferation, effector functions, etc., for diagnostic or therapeutic applications. It provides an additional dimension, complementary to traditional modulation of biochemical cues (e.g., antigen density and co-stimulatory signals), to tailor T cell immune responses and enhance therapeutic outcomes. For example, stiff antigen-presenting matrices have been shown to enhance T cell proliferation independently of the intensity of biochemical stimulatory signals. Current strategies of mechanical immunoengineering of T cells can be categorized into two major fields including passive mechanical cue-oriented and active force-oriented strategies. In this Account, we first present a brief overview of T cell mechanobiology. Next, we summarize recent advances in mechanical immunoengineering, discuss the roles of chemistry and material science in the development of these engineering strategies, and highlight potential therapeutic applications. Finally, we present our perspective on the future directions in mechanical immunoengineering and critical steps to translate mechanical immunoengineering strategies into therapeutic applications in the clinic.

Macrophage activation on "phagocytic synapse" arrays: Spacing of nanoclustered ligands directs TLR1/2 signaling with an intrinsic limit

The activation of Toll-like receptor heterodimer 1/2 (TLR1/2) by microbial components plays a critical role in host immune responses against pathogens. TLR1/2 signaling is sensitive to the chemical structure of ligands, but its dependence on the spatial distribution of ligands on microbial surfaces remains unexplored. Here, we reveal the quantitative relationship between TLR1/2-triggered immune responses and the spacing of ligand clusters by designing an artificial "phagocytic synapse" nanoarray platform to mimic the cell-microbe interface. The ligand spacing dictates the proximity of receptor clusters on the cell surface and consequently the pro-inflammatory responses of macrophages. However, cell responses reach their maximum at small ligand spacings when the receptor nanoclusters become adjacent to one another. Our study demonstrates the feasibility of using spatially patterned ligands to modulate innate immunity. It shows that the receptor clusters of TLR1/2 act as a driver in integrating the spatial cues of ligands into cell-level activation events.

Maturation of Monocyte-Derived DCs Leads to Increased Cellular Stiffness, Higher Membrane Fluidity, and Changed Lipid Composition

Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells of the immune system. Upon sensing pathogenic material in their environment, DCs start to mature, which includes cellular processes, such as antigen uptake, processing and presentation, as well as upregulation of costimulatory molecules and cytokine secretion. During maturation, DCs detach from peripheral tissues, migrate to the nearest lymph node, and find their way into the correct position in the net of the lymph node microenvironment to meet and interact with the respective T cells. We hypothesize that the maturation of DCs is well prepared and optimized leading to processes that alter various cellular characteristics from mechanics and metabolism to membrane properties. Here, we investigated the mechanical properties of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) using real-time deformability cytometry to measure cytoskeletal changes and found that mature moDCs were stiffer compared to immature moDCs. These cellular changes likely play an important role in the processes of cell migration and T cell activation. As lipids constitute the building blocks of the plasma membrane, which, during maturation, need to adapt to the environment for migration and DC-T cell interaction, we performed an unbiased high-throughput lipidomics screening to identify the lipidome of moDCs. These analyses revealed that the overall lipid composition was significantly changed during moDC maturation, even implying an increase of storage lipids and differences of the relative abundance of membrane lipids upon maturation. Further, metadata analyses demonstrated that lipid changes were associated with the serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cholesterol levels in the blood of the donors. Finally, using lipid packing imaging we found that the membrane of mature moDCs revealed a higher fluidity compared to immature moDCs. This comprehensive and quantitative characterization of maturation associated changes in moDCs sets the stage for improving their use in clinical application.

Corrected Super-Resolution Microscopy Enables Nanoscale Imaging of Autofluorescent Lung Macrophages

Observing the cell surface and underlying cytoskeleton at nanoscale resolution using super-resolution microscopy has enabled many insights into cell signaling and function. However, the nanoscale dynamics of tissue-specific immune cells have been relatively little studied. Tissue macrophages, for example, are highly autofluorescent, severely limiting the utility of light microscopy. Here, we report a correction technique to remove autofluorescent noise from stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) data sets. Simulations and analysis of experimental data identified a moving median filter as an accurate and robust correction technique, which is widely applicable across challenging biological samples. Here, we used this method to visualize lung macrophages activated through Fc receptors by antibody-coated glass slides. Accurate, nanoscale quantification of macrophage morphology revealed that activation induced the formation of cellular protrusions tipped with MHC class I protein. These data are consistent with a role for lung macrophage protrusions in antigen presentation. Moreover, the tetraspanin protein CD81, known to mark extracellular vesicles, appeared in ring-shaped structures (mean diameter 93 ± 50 nm) at the surface of activated lung macrophages. Thus, a moving median filter correction technique allowed us to quantitatively analyze extracellular secretions and membrane structure in tissue-derived immune cells.

Relevance of glycans in the interaction between T lymphocyte and the antigen presenting cell

The immunological synapse promotes receptors and ligands interaction in the contact interface between the T lymphocyte and the antigen presenting cell; glycosylation of the proteins involved in this biological process favors regulation of molecular interactions and development of the T lymphocyte effector response. Glycans in the immunological synapse influence cellular and molecular processes such as folding, expression, and structural stability of proteins, they also mediate ligand-receptor interaction and propagation of the intracellular signaling or inhibition of uncontrolled cellular activation that could lead to the development of autoimmunity, among others. It has been suggested that altered glycosylation of proteins that participate in the immunological synapse affects the signaling processes and cell proliferation, as well as exacerbation of the effector mechanisms of T cells that trigger systemic damage and autoimmunity. Understanding the role of glycans in the immune response has allowed for advances in the development of immunotherapies in different fields through the controlled and specific activation of the immune response. This review describes the structural and biological aspects of glycans associated with some molecules present in the immunological synapse, providing information that allows understanding the function of glycosylation in the interaction between the T lymphocyte and the antigen-presenting cell, as well as its impact on signaling and development regulation of T lymphocytes effector response.

Quantitative Interactomics of Lck-TurboID in Living Human T Cells Unveils T Cell Receptor Stimulation-Induced Proximal Lck Interactors

While Lck has been widely recognized to play a pivotal role in the initiation of the T cell receptor (TCR) signaling pathway, an understanding of the precise regulation of Lck in T cells upon TCR activation remains elusive. Investigation of protein-protein interaction (PPI) using proximity labeling techniques such as TurboID has the potential to provide valuable molecular insights into Lck regulatory networks. By expressing Lck-TurboID in Jurkat T cells, we have uncovered a dynamic, short-range Lck protein interaction network upon 30 min of TCR stimulation. In this novel application of TurboID, we detected 27 early signaling-induced Lck-proximal interactors in living T cells, including known and novel Lck interactors, validating the discovery power of this tool. Our results revealed previously unappreciated Lck PPI which may be associated with cytoskeletal rearrangement, ubiquitination of TCR signaling proteins, activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, coalescence of the LAT signalosome, and formation of the immunological synapse. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time in immune cells and for the kinase Lck that TurboID can be utilized to unveil PPI dynamics in living cells at a time scale consistent with early TCR signaling. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD020759.

Primary Ciliary Signaling in the Skin-Contribution to Wound Healing and Scarring

Primary cilia (PC) are solitary, post-mitotic, microtubule-based, and membrane-covered protrusions that are found on almost every mammalian cell. PC are specialized cellular sensory organelles that transmit environmental information to the cell. Signaling through PC is involved in the regulation of a variety of cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, and migration. Conversely, defective, or abnormal PC signaling can contribute to the development of various pathological conditions. Our knowledge of the role of PC in organ development and function is largely based on ciliopathies, a family of genetic disorders with mutations affecting the structure and function of PC. In this review, we focus on the role of PC in their major signaling pathways active in skin cells, and their contribution to wound healing and scarring. To provide comprehensive insights into the current understanding of PC functions, we have collected data available in the literature, including evidence across cell types, tissues, and animal species. We conclude that PC are underappreciated subcellular organelles that significantly contribute to both physiological and pathological processes of the skin development and wound healing. Thus, PC assembly and disassembly and PC signaling may serve as attractive targets for antifibrotic and antiscarring therapies.

Super-resolution Imaging of the T cell Central Supramolecular Signaling Cluster Using Stimulated Emission Depletion Microscopy

Supramolecular signaling assemblies are of interest for their unique signaling properties. A µm scale signaling assembly, the central supramolecular signaling cluster (cSMAC), forms at the center interface of T cells activated by antigen presenting cells (APC). The adaptor protein linker for activation of T cells (LAT) is a key cSMAC component. The cSMAC has widely been studied using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy of CD4⁺ T cells activated by planar APC substitutes. Here we provide a protocol to image the cSMAC in its cellular context at the interface between a T cell and an APC. Super resolution stimulated emission depletion microscopy (STED) was utilized to determine the localization of LAT, that of its active, phosphorylated form and its entire pool. Agonist peptide-loaded APCs were incubated with TCR transgenic CD4⁺ T cells for 4.5 min before fixation and antibody staining. Fixed cell couples were imaged using a 100x 1.4 NA objective on a Leica SP8 AOBS confocal laser scanning microscope. LAT clustered in multiple supramolecular complexes and their number and size distributions were determined. Using this protocol, cSMAC properties in its cellular context at the interface between a T cell and an APC could be quantified.

Coordinating Cytoskeleton and Molecular Traffic in T Cell Migration, Activation, and Effector Functions

Dynamic localization of receptors and signaling molecules at the plasma membrane and within intracellular vesicular compartments is crucial for T lymphocyte sensing environmental cues, triggering membrane receptors, recruiting signaling molecules, and fine-tuning of intracellular signals. The orchestrated action of actin and microtubule cytoskeleton and intracellular vesicle traffic plays a key role in all these events that together ensure important steps in T cell physiology. These include extravasation and migration through lymphoid and peripheral tissues, T cell interactions with antigen-presenting cells, T cell receptor (TCR) triggering by cognate antigen–major histocompatibility complex (MHC) complexes, immunological synapse formation, cell activation, and effector functions. Cytoskeletal and vesicle traffic dynamics and their interplay are coordinated by a variety of regulatory molecules. Among them, polarity regulators and membrane–cytoskeleton linkers are master controllers of this interplay. Here, we review the various ways the T cell plasma membrane, receptors, and their signaling machinery interplay with the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton and with intracellular vesicular compartments. We highlight the importance of this fine-tuned crosstalk in three key stages of T cell biology involving cell polarization: T cell migration in response to chemokines, immunological synapse formation in response to antigen cues, and effector functions. Finally, we discuss two examples of perturbation of this interplay in pathological settings, such as HIV-1 infection and mutation of the polarity regulator and tumor suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) that leads to familial polyposis and colorectal cancer.

Bioengineering tools for probing intracellular events in T lymphocytes

T lymphocytes are the central coordinator and executor of many immune functions. The activation and function of T lymphocytes are mediated through the engagement of cell surface receptors and regulated by a myriad of intracellular signaling network. Bioengineering tools, including imaging modalities and fluorescent probes, have been developed and employed to elucidate the cellular events throughout the functional lifespan of T cells. A better understanding of these events can broaden our knowledge in the immune systems biology, as well as accelerate the development of effective diagnostics and immunotherapies. Here we review the commonly used and recently developed techniques and probes for monitoring T lymphocyte intracellular events, following the order of intracellular events in T cells from activation, signaling, metabolism to apoptosis. The techniques introduced here can be broadly applied to other immune cells and cell systems. This article is categorized under: Immune System Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Immune System Diseases > Biomedical Engineering Infectious Diseases > Biomedical Engineering.

Coreceptors and TCR Signaling - the Strong and the Weak of It

The T-cell coreceptors CD4 and CD8 have well-characterized and essential roles in thymic development, but how they contribute to immune responses in the periphery is unclear. Coreceptors strengthen T-cell responses by many orders of magnitude - beyond a million-fold according to some estimates - but the mechanisms underlying these effects are still debated. T-cell receptor (TCR) triggering is initiated by the binding of the TCR to peptide-loaded major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) molecules on the surfaces of other cells. CD4 and CD8 are the only T-cell proteins that bind to the same pMHC ligand as the TCR, and can directly associate with the TCR-phosphorylating kinase Lck. At least three mechanisms have been proposed to explain how coreceptors so profoundly amplify TCR signaling: (1) the Lck recruitment model and (2) the pseudodimer model, both invoked to explain receptor triggering per se, and (3) two-step coreceptor recruitment to partially triggered TCRs leading to signal amplification. More recently it has been suggested that, in addition to initiating or augmenting TCR signaling, coreceptors effect antigen discrimination. But how can any of this be reconciled with TCR signaling occurring in the absence of CD4 or CD8, and with their interactions with pMHC being among the weakest specific protein-protein interactions ever described? Here, we review each theory of coreceptor function in light of the latest structural, biochemical, and functional data. We conclude that the oldest ideas are probably still the best, i.e., that their weak binding to MHC proteins and efficient association with Lck allow coreceptors to amplify weak incipient triggering of the TCR, without comprising TCR specificity.