151
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Mao Z, Zhang S, Chen H. Stem cell therapy for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. CELL REGENERATION 2015; 4:11. [PMID: 26594318 PMCID: PMC4653876 DOI: 10.1186/s13619-015-0026-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of motor neurons. Currently, no effective therapy is available to treat ALS, except for Riluzole, which has only limited clinical benefits. Stem-cell-based therapy has been intensively and extensively studied as a potential novel treatment strategy for ALS and has been shown to be effective, at least to some extent. In this article, we will review the current state of research on the use of stem cell therapy in the treatment of ALS and discuss the most promising stem cells for the treatment of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijuan Mao
- Department of Neurology of Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Suming Zhang
- Department of Neurology of Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation of Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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152
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Baer ML, Henderson SC, Colello RJ. Elucidating the Role of Injury-Induced Electric Fields (EFs) in Regulating the Astrocytic Response to Injury in the Mammalian Central Nervous System. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142740. [PMID: 26562295 PMCID: PMC4643040 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Injury to the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) induces astrocytes to change their morphology, to increase their rate of proliferation, and to display directional migration to the injury site, all to facilitate repair. These astrocytic responses to injury occur in a clear temporal sequence and, by their intensity and duration, can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on the repair of damaged CNS tissue. Studies on highly regenerative tissues in non-mammalian vertebrates have demonstrated that the intensity of direct-current extracellular electric fields (EFs) at the injury site, which are 50-100 fold greater than in uninjured tissue, represent a potent signal to drive tissue repair. In contrast, a 10-fold EF increase has been measured in many injured mammalian tissues where limited regeneration occurs. As the astrocytic response to CNS injury is crucial to the reparative outcome, we exposed purified rat cortical astrocytes to EF intensities associated with intact and injured mammalian tissues, as well as to those EF intensities measured in regenerating non-mammalian vertebrate tissues, to determine whether EFs may contribute to the astrocytic injury response. Astrocytes exposed to EF intensities associated with uninjured tissue showed little change in their cellular behavior. However, astrocytes exposed to EF intensities associated with injured tissue showed a dramatic increase in migration and proliferation. At EF intensities associated with regenerating non-mammalian vertebrate tissues, these cellular responses were even more robust and included morphological changes consistent with a regenerative phenotype. These findings suggest that endogenous EFs may be a crucial signal for regulating the astrocytic response to injury and that their manipulation may be a novel target for facilitating CNS repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L. Baer
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Scott C. Henderson
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Raymond J. Colello
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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153
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Proliferating cells in the adolescent rat amygdala: Characterization and response to stress. Neuroscience 2015; 311:105-17. [PMID: 26476262 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The amygdala is a heterogeneous group of nuclei that plays a role in emotional and social learning. As such, there has been increased interest in its development in adolescent animals, a period in which emotional/social learning increases dramatically. While many mechanisms of amygdala development have been studied, the role of cell proliferation during adolescence has received less attention. Using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) injections in adolescent and adult rats, we previously found an almost fivefold increase in BrdU-positive cells in the amygdala of adolescents compared to adults. Approximately one third of BrdU-labeled cells in the amygdala contained the putative neural marker doublecortin (DCX), suggesting a potential for neurogenesis. To further investigate this possibility in adolescents, we examined the proliferative dynamics of DCX/BrdU-labeled cells. Surprisingly, DCX/BrdU-positive cells were found to comprise a stable subpopulation of BrdU-containing cells across survivals up to 56 days, and there was no evidence of neural maturation by 28 days after BrdU injection. Additionally, we found that approximately 50% of BrdU+ cells within the adolescent amygdala contain neural-glial antigen (NG2) and are therefore presumptive oligodendrocyte precursors (OPCs). We next characterized the response to a short-lived stressor (3-day repeated variable stress, RVS). The total BrdU-labeled cell number decreased by ∼30% by 13 days following RVS (10 days post-BrdU injection) as assessed by stereologic counting methods, but the DCX/BrdU-labeled subpopulation was relatively resistant to RVS effects. In contrast, NG2/BrdU-labeled cells were strongly influenced by RVS. We conclude that typical neurogenesis is not a feature of the adolescent amygdala. These findings point to several possibilities, including the possibility that DCX/BrdU cells are late-developing neural precursors, or a unique subtype of NG2 cell that is relatively resistant to stress. In contrast, many proliferating OPCs are significantly impacted by a short-lived stressor, suggesting consequences for myelination in the developing amygdala.
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154
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Viganò F, Schneider S, Cimino M, Bonfanti E, Gelosa P, Sironi L, Abbracchio MP, Dimou L. GPR17 expressing NG2-Glia: Oligodendrocyte progenitors serving as a reserve pool after injury. Glia 2015; 64:287-99. [PMID: 26464068 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In the adult brain NG2-glia continuously generate mature, myelinating oligodendrocytes. To which extent the differentiation process is common to all NG2-glia and whether distinct pools are recruited for repair under physiological and pathological conditions still needs clarification. Here, we aimed at investigating the differentiation potential of adult NG2-glia that specifically express the G-protein coupled receptor 17 (GPR17), a membrane receptor that regulates the differentiation of these cells at postnatal stages. To this aim, we generated the first BAC transgenic GPR17-iCreER(T2) mouse line for fate mapping studies. In these mice, under physiological conditions, GPR17(+) cells--in contrast to GPR17(-) NG2-glia--did not differentiate within 3 months, a peculiarity that was overcome after cerebral damage induced by acute injury or ischemia. After these insults, GPR17(+) NG2-glia rapidly reacted to the damage and underwent maturation, suggesting that they represent a 'reserve pool' of adult progenitors maintained for repair purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Viganò
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, 80336, Germany.,Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Institute for Stem Cell Research, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Sarah Schneider
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Mauro Cimino
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Urbino, 61029, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bonfanti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | - Paolo Gelosa
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, 20133, Italy.,Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Milan, 20138, Italy
| | - Luigi Sironi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, 20133, Italy.,Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Milan, 20138, Italy
| | - Maria P Abbracchio
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | - Leda Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, 80336, Germany.,Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Institute for Stem Cell Research, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,SYNERGY, Excellence Cluster of Systemic Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, 81377, Germany
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155
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Viganò F, Dimou L. The heterogeneous nature of NG2-glia. Brain Res 2015; 1638:129-137. [PMID: 26388262 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In the central nervous system, NG2-glia are the cells responsible for the generation of mature oligodendrocytes during development and adulthood. Some studies could show that NG2-glia can give origin also to astrocytes and neurons, a property that makes them similar to neural stem cells. Beside their important role as progenitors, NG2-glia are believed also to have more functions due to their unique interaction with neurons through synapses. It is however not clear whether these features are common to all NG2-glia or different subpopulations of NG2-glia devoted to different functions exist. Therefore the aim of this review is to highlight the state of the art on NG2-glia heterogeneity from development to adulthood and in different brain areas, and discuss the impact of it on our understanding of the glial neurobiology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:NG2-glia(Invited only).
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Affiliation(s)
- F Viganò
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich 80336, Germany
| | - L Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich 80336, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg 85764, Germany; SYNERGY, Excellence Cluster of Systemic Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich 81377, Germany.
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156
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157
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Péron S, Berninger B. Reawakening the sleeping beauty in the adult brain: neurogenesis from parenchymal glia. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2015; 34:46-53. [PMID: 26296150 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Life-long neurogenesis is highly restricted to specialized niches in the adult mammalian brain and therefore the brain's capacity for spontaneous regeneration is extremely limited. However, recent work has demonstrated that under certain circumstances parenchymal astrocytes and NG2 glia can generate neuronal progeny. In the striatum, stroke or excitotoxic lesions can reawaken in astrocytes a latent neurogenic program resulting in the genesis of new neurons. By contrast, in brain areas that fail to mount a neurogenic response following injury, such as the cerebral cortex, forced expression of neurogenic reprogramming factors can lineage convert local glia into induced neurons. Yet, injury-induced and reprogramming-induced neurogenesis exhibit intriguing commonalities, suggesting that they may converge on similar mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Péron
- Laboratory "Adult Neurogenesis and Cellular Reprogramming", Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch Weg 19, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Benedikt Berninger
- Laboratory "Adult Neurogenesis and Cellular Reprogramming", Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch Weg 19, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, D-55131 Mainz, Germany.
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158
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Lebkuechner I, Wilhelmsson U, Möllerström E, Pekna M, Pekny M. Heterogeneity of Notch signaling in astrocytes and the effects of GFAP and vimentin deficiency. J Neurochem 2015; 135:234-48. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Isabell Lebkuechner
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology; Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg; Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Ulrika Wilhelmsson
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology; Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg; Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Elin Möllerström
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology; Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg; Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Marcela Pekna
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology; Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg; Gothenburg Sweden
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Parkville Victoria Australia
- University of Newcastle; New South Wales Australia
| | - Milos Pekny
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation; Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology; Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg; Gothenburg Sweden
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Parkville Victoria Australia
- University of Newcastle; New South Wales Australia
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159
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Sirko S, Irmler M, Gascón S, Bek S, Schneider S, Dimou L, Obermann J, De Souza Paiva D, Poirier F, Beckers J, Hauck SM, Barde YA, Götz M. Astrocyte reactivity after brain injury-: The role of galectins 1 and 3. Glia 2015; 63:2340-61. [PMID: 26250529 PMCID: PMC5042059 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes react to brain injury in a heterogeneous manner with only a subset resuming proliferation and acquiring stem cell properties in vitro. In order to identify novel regulators of this subset, we performed genomewide expression analysis of reactive astrocytes isolated 5 days after stab wound injury from the gray matter of adult mouse cerebral cortex. The expression pattern was compared with astrocytes from intact cortex and adult neural stem cells (NSCs) isolated from the subependymal zone (SEZ). These comparisons revealed a set of genes expressed at higher levels in both endogenous NSCs and reactive astrocytes, including two lectins-Galectins 1 and 3. These results and the pattern of Galectin expression in the lesioned brain led us to examine the functional significance of these lectins in brains of mice lacking Galectins 1 and 3. Following stab wound injury, astrocyte reactivity including glial fibrillary acidic protein expression, proliferation and neurosphere-forming capacity were found significantly reduced in mutant animals. This phenotype could be recapitulated in vitro and was fully rescued by addition of Galectin 3, but not of Galectin 1. Thus, Galectins 1 and 3 play key roles in regulating the proliferative and NSC potential of a subset of reactive astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swetlana Sirko
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Martin Irmler
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sergio Gascón
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sarah Bek
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany
| | - Sarah Schneider
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Leda Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Jara Obermann
- Research Unit Protein Science, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Daisylea De Souza Paiva
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Department of Physiology, Federal University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francoise Poirier
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS-University Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Johannes Beckers
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany.,Chair of Experimental Genetics, Center of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
| | - Stefanie M Hauck
- Research Unit Protein Science, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Yves-Alain Barde
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Neuherberg, Germany.,SYNERGY, Excellence Cluster of Systems Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany
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160
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Ben Haim L, Carrillo-de Sauvage MA, Ceyzériat K, Escartin C. Elusive roles for reactive astrocytes in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:278. [PMID: 26283915 PMCID: PMC4522610 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes play crucial roles in the brain and are involved in the neuroinflammatory response. They become reactive in response to virtually all pathological situations in the brain such as axotomy, ischemia, infection, and neurodegenerative diseases (ND). Astrocyte reactivity was originally characterized by morphological changes (hypertrophy, remodeling of processes) and the overexpression of the intermediate filament glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). However, it is unclear how the normal supportive functions of astrocytes are altered by their reactive state. In ND, in which neuronal dysfunction and astrocyte reactivity take place over several years or decades, the issue is even more complex and highly debated, with several conflicting reports published recently. In this review, we discuss studies addressing the contribution of reactive astrocytes to ND. We describe the molecular triggers leading to astrocyte reactivity during ND, examine how some key astrocyte functions may be enhanced or altered during the disease process, and discuss how astrocyte reactivity may globally affect ND progression. Finally we will consider the anticipated developments in this important field. With this review, we aim to show that the detailed study of reactive astrocytes may open new perspectives for ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Ben Haim
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département des Sciences du Vivant, Institut d'Imagerie Biomédicale, MIRCen Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ; Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Maria-Angeles Carrillo-de Sauvage
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département des Sciences du Vivant, Institut d'Imagerie Biomédicale, MIRCen Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ; Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Kelly Ceyzériat
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département des Sciences du Vivant, Institut d'Imagerie Biomédicale, MIRCen Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ; Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Carole Escartin
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Département des Sciences du Vivant, Institut d'Imagerie Biomédicale, MIRCen Fontenay-aux-Roses, France ; Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris-Sud, UMR 9199 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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161
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Akhtar AA, Breunig JJ. Lost highway(s): barriers to postnatal cortical neurogenesis and implications for brain repair. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:216. [PMID: 26136658 PMCID: PMC4468390 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The genesis of the cerebral cortex is a highly complex and tightly-orchestrated process of cell division, migration, maturation, and integration. Developmental missteps often have catastrophic consequences on cortical function. Further, the cerebral cortex, in which neurogenesis takes place almost exclusively prenatally, has a very poor capacity for replacement of neurons lost to injury or disease. A multitude of factors underlie this deficit, including the depletion of radial glia, the gliogenic switch which mitigates continued neurogenesis, diminished neuronal migratory streams, and inflammatory processes associated with disease. Despite this, there are glimmers of hope that new approaches may allow for more significant cortical repair. Herein, we review corticogenesis from the context of regeneration and detail the strategies to promote neurogenesis, including interneuron transplants and glial reprogramming. Such strategies circumvent the "lost highways" which are critical for cortical development but are absent in the adult. These new approaches may provide for the possibility of meaningful clinical regeneration of elements of cortical circuitry lost to trauma and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslam Abbasi Akhtar
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joshua J Breunig
- Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, CA, USA
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162
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A new model for post-integration latency in macroglial cells to study HIV-1 reservoirs of the brain. AIDS 2015; 29:1147-59. [PMID: 26035317 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000000691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Macroglial cells like astrocytes are key targets for the formation of HIV-1 reservoirs in the brain. The 'shock-and-kill' HIV-1 cure strategy proposes eradication of reservoirs by clinical treatment with latency reversing agents (LRAs). However, virus activation may endanger the brain, due to limited cell turnover, viral neurotoxicity and poor penetration of antiretroviral drugs. Since the brain is not accessible to clinical sampling, we established an experimental model to investigate the LRA effects on HIV-1 latency in macroglial reservoirs. DESIGN Human neural stem cells (HNSC.100) were used to generate a system that models HIV-1 transcriptional latency in proliferating progenitor, as well as differentiated macroglial cell populations and latency-modulating effects of LRAs and compounds targeting HIV-1 transcription were analysed. METHODS HNSCs were infected with pseudotyped Env-defective HIV-1 viruses. HIV-1 DNA and RNA levels were quantified by qPCR. Expression of latent GFP-reporter viruses was analysed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. NF-κB signalling was investigated by confocal microscopy and chromatin immunoprecipitation. RESULTS Two of the eight well known LRAs (tumour necrosis factor-alpha, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid) reactivated HIV-1 in latently infected HNSCs. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha reactivated HIV-1 in progenitor and differentiated populations, whereas suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid was more potent in progenitors. Pre-treatment with inhibitors of key HIV-1 transcription factors (NF-κB, Cdk9) suppressed HIV-1 reactivation. CONCLUSION We conclude that latent HIV-1 in macroglial reservoirs can be activated by selected LRAs. Identification of small molecules that suppress HIV-1 reactivation supports functional cure strategies. We propose using the HNSC model to develop novel strategies to enforce provirus quiescence in the brain.
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163
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Dimou L, Gallo V. NG2-glia and their functions in the central nervous system. Glia 2015; 63:1429-51. [PMID: 26010717 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In the central nervous system, NG2-glia represent a neural cell population that is distinct from neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. While in the past the main role ascribed to these cells was that of progenitors for oligodendrocytes, in the last years it has become more obvious that they have further functions in the brain. Here, we will discuss some of the most current and highly debated issues regarding NG2-glia: Do these cells represent a heterogeneous population? Can they give rise to different progenies, and does this change under pathological conditions? How do they respond to injury or pathology? What is the role of neurotransmitter signaling between neurons and NG2-glia? We will first give an overview on the developmental origin of NG2-glia, and then discuss whether their distinct properties in different brain regions are the result of environmental influences, or due to intrinsic differences. We will then review and discuss their in vitro differentiation potential and in vivo lineage under physiological and pathological conditions, together with their electrophysiological properties in distinct brain regions and at different developmental stages. Finally, we will focus on their potential to be used as therapeutic targets in demyelinating and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, this review article will highlight the importance of NG2-glia not only in the healthy, but also in the diseased brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, 80336, Germany.,Institute for Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - V Gallo
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's Research Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia
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164
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Than-Trong E, Bally-Cuif L. Radial glia and neural progenitors in the adult zebrafish central nervous system. Glia 2015; 63:1406-28. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Than-Trong
- Team Zebrafisdh Neurogenetics; Paris-Saclay University, Paris-Sud University, CNRS, UMR 9197, Paris-Saclay Institute for Neuroscience (NeuroPSI); Avenue De La Terrasse, Bldg 5 Gif-sur-Yvette F-91190 France
| | - Laure Bally-Cuif
- Team Zebrafisdh Neurogenetics; Paris-Saclay University, Paris-Sud University, CNRS, UMR 9197, Paris-Saclay Institute for Neuroscience (NeuroPSI); Avenue De La Terrasse, Bldg 5 Gif-sur-Yvette F-91190 France
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165
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Choudhury GR, Ding S. Reactive astrocytes and therapeutic potential in focal ischemic stroke. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 85:234-244. [PMID: 25982835 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are specialized and the most abundant cell type in the central nervous system (CNS). They play important roles in the physiology of the brain. Astrocytes are also critically involved in many CNS disorders including focal ischemic stroke, the leading cause of brain injury and death in patients. One of the prominent pathological features of a focal ischemic stroke is reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation. Reactive astrogliosis is accompanied with changes in morphology, proliferation, and gene expression in the reactive astrocytes. This study provides an overview of the most recent advances in astrocytic Ca(2+) signaling, spatial, and temporal dynamics of the morphology and proliferation of reactive astrocytes as well as signaling pathways involved in the reactive astrogliosis after ischemic stroke based on results from experimental studies performed in various animal models. This review also discusses the therapeutic potential of reactive astrocytes in focal ischemic stroke. As reactive astrocytes exhibit high plasticity, we suggest that modulation of local reactive astrocytes is a promising strategy for cell-based stroke therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shinghua Ding
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, Columbia, MO, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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166
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Götz M, Sirko S, Beckers J, Irmler M. Reactive astrocytes as neural stem or progenitor cells: In vivo lineage, In vitro potential, and Genome-wide expression analysis. Glia 2015; 63:1452-68. [PMID: 25965557 PMCID: PMC5029574 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Here, we review the stem cell hallmarks of endogenous neural stem cells (NSCs) during development and in some niches of the adult mammalian brain to then compare these with reactive astrocytes acquiring stem cell hallmarks after traumatic and ischemic brain injury. Notably, even endogenous NSCs including the earliest NSCs, the neuroepithelial cells, generate in most cases only a single type of progeny and self‐renew only for a rather short time in vivo. In vitro, however, especially cells cultured under neurosphere conditions reveal a larger potential and long‐term self‐renewal under the influence of growth factors. This is rather well comparable to reactive astrocytes in the traumatic or ischemic brain some of which acquire neurosphere‐forming capacity including multipotency and long‐term self‐renewal in vitro, while they remain within their astrocyte lineage in vivo. Both reactive astrocytes and endogenous NSCs exhibit stem cell hallmarks largely in vitro, but their lineage differs in vivo. Both populations generate largely a single cell type in vivo, but endogenous NSCs generate neurons and reactive astrocytes remain in the astrocyte lineage. However, at some early postnatal stages or in some brain regions reactive astrocytes can be released from this fate restriction, demonstrating that they can also enact neurogenesis. Thus, reactive astrocytes and NSCs share many characteristic hallmarks, but also exhibit key differences. This conclusion is further substantiated by genome‐wide expression analysis comparing NSCs at different stages with astrocytes from the intact and injured brain parenchyma. GLIA 2015;63:1452–1468
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany.,SYNERGY, Excellence Cluster of Systemic Neurology, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Swetlana Sirko
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Beckers
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany.,Department of Experimental Genetics, Technical University Munich, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Martin Irmler
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
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167
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Cordeiro MF, Horn AP. Stem cell therapy in intracerebral hemorrhage rat model. World J Stem Cells 2015; 7:618-629. [PMID: 25914768 PMCID: PMC4404396 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v7.i3.618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a very complex pathology, with many different not fully elucidated etiologies and prognostics. It is the most severe subtype of stroke, with high mortality and morbidity rates. Unfortunately, despite the numerous promising preclinical assays including neuroprotective, anti-hypertensive, and anti-inflammatory drugs, to this moment only symptomatic treatments are available, motivating the search for new alternatives. In this context, stem cell therapy emerged as a promising tool. However, more than a decade has passed, and there is still much to be learned not only about stem cells, but also about ICH itself, and how these two pieces come together. To date, rats have been the most widely used animal model in this research field, and there is much more to be learned from and about them. In this review, we first summarize ICH epidemiology, risk factors, and pathophysiology. We then present different methods utilized to induce ICH in rats, and examine how accurately they represent the human disease. Next, we discuss the different types of stem cells used in previous ICH studies, also taking into account the tested transplantation sites. Finally, we summarize what has been achieved in assays with stem cells in rat models of ICH, and point out some relevant issues where attention must be given in future efforts.
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168
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Decoding astrocyte heterogeneity: New tools for clonal analysis. Neuroscience 2015; 323:10-9. [PMID: 25917835 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The importance of astrocyte heterogeneity came out as a hot topic in neurosciences especially over the last decades, when the development of new methodologies allowed demonstrating the existence of big differences in morphological, neurochemical and physiological features between astrocytes. However, although the knowledge about the biology of astrocytes is increasing rapidly, an important characteristic that remained unexplored, until the last years, has been the relationship between astrocyte lineages and cell heterogeneity. To fill this gap, a new method called StarTrack was recently developed, a powerful genetic tool that allows tracking astrocyte lineages forming cell clones. Using StarTrack, a single astrocyte progenitor and its progeny can be specifically labeled from its generation, during embryonic development, to its final fate in the adult brain. Because of this specific labeling, astrocyte clones, exhibiting heterogeneous morphologies and features, can be easily analyzed in relation to their ontogenetic origin. This review summarizes how astrocyte heterogeneity can be decoded studying the embryonic development of astrocyte lineages and their clonal relationship. Finally, we discuss about some of the challenges and opportunities emerging in this exciting area of investigation.
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169
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Kunze A, Achilles A, Keiner S, Witte OW, Redecker C. Two distinct populations of doublecortin-positive cells in the perilesional zone of cortical infarcts. BMC Neurosci 2015; 16:20. [PMID: 25881110 PMCID: PMC4404690 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-015-0160-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recovery following stroke depends on cellular plasticity in the perilesional zone (PZ). Doublecortin (DCX), a protein mainly labeling immature neurons in neurogenic niches is also highly expressed in the vicinity of focal cortical infarcts. Notably, the number of DCX+ cells positively correlates with the recovery of functional deficits after stroke though the nature and origin of these cells remains unclear. Results In the present study, we aimed to characterize the population of DCX+ cells in the vicinity of ischemic infarcts in a mouse model in detail. Employing a photothrombosis model, distinct immunohistochemical techniques, stereology and confocal microscopy, we show that: i) DCX+ cells in the perilesional zone do not constitute a homogenous population and two cell types, stellate and polar cells can be distinguished according to their morphology. ii) Stellate cells are mainly located in the lateral and medial vicinity of the insult and express astrocytic markers. iii) Polar cells are found almost exclusively in the corpus callosum region including in the preserved deep cortical layers close to the subventricular zone (SVZ). Further, they do not show any colocalisation of glial markers. Polar morphology and distribution suggest a migration towards the lesion. Conclusions In summary, our findings provide evidence that in mice DCX+ cells in the perilesional zone of cortical infarcts comprise a distinct cell population and the majority of cells are of glial nature. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12868-015-0160-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albrecht Kunze
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Achilles
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Silke Keiner
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Otto W Witte
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany. .,Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.
| | - Christoph Redecker
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Erlanger Allee 101, D-07747, Jena, Germany.
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170
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Fritsche E, Alm H, Baumann J, Geerts L, Håkansson H, Masjosthusmann S, Witters H. Literature review on in vitro and alternative Developmental Neurotoxicity (DNT) testing methods. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2015.en-778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Fritsche
- Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), Group of Sphere Models and Risk Assessment, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Henrik Alm
- Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), Group of Sphere Models and Risk Assessment, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jenny Baumann
- Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), Group of Sphere Models and Risk Assessment, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Lieve Geerts
- Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Environmental Risk & Health, Boeretang 200, B‐2400 Mol, Belgium
| | - Helen Håkansson
- Karolinska Institute (KI), Institute of Environmental Medicine (IMM), Unit of Environmental Health Risk Assessment, SE‐171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefan Masjosthusmann
- Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), Group of Sphere Models and Risk Assessment, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hilda Witters
- Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Environmental Risk & Health, Boeretang 200, B‐2400 Mol, Belgium
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171
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Expression of a novel serine/threonine kinase gene, Ulk4, in neural progenitors during Xenopus laevis forebrain development. Neuroscience 2015; 290:61-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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172
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Werneburg S, Mühlenhoff M, Stangel M, Hildebrandt H. Polysialic acid on SynCAM 1 in NG2 cells and on neuropilin-2 in microglia is confined to intracellular pools that are rapidly depleted upon stimulation. Glia 2015; 63:1240-55. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Werneburg
- Hannover Medical School; Institute for Cellular Chemistry; Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1 Hannover Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZSN); Hannover Germany
| | - Martina Mühlenhoff
- Hannover Medical School; Institute for Cellular Chemistry; Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1 Hannover Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZSN); Hannover Germany
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry; Department of Neurology; Hannover Medical School; Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1 Hannover Germany
| | - Herbert Hildebrandt
- Hannover Medical School; Institute for Cellular Chemistry; Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1 Hannover Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience (ZSN); Hannover Germany
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173
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Abstract
Astrocytes are specialized and most numerous glial cell type in the central nervous system and play important roles in physiology. Astrocytes are also critically involved in many neural disorders including focal ischemic stroke, a leading cause of brain injury and human death. One of the prominent pathological features of focal ischemic stroke is reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation associated with morphological changes and proliferation. This review paper discusses the recent advances in spatial and temporal dynamics of morphology and proliferation of reactive astrocytes after ischemic stroke based on results from experimental animal studies. As reactive astrocytes exhibit stem cell-like properties, knowledge of dynamics of reactive astrocytes and glial scar formation will provide important insights for astrocyte-based cell therapy in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinghua Ding
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri-Columbia, MO, USA ; Department of Bioengineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, MO, USA
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174
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Nato G, Caramello A, Trova S, Avataneo V, Rolando C, Taylor V, Buffo A, Peretto P, Luzzati F. Striatal astrocytes produce neuroblasts in an excitotoxic model of Huntington's disease. Development 2015; 142:840-5. [PMID: 25655705 DOI: 10.1242/dev.116657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In the adult brain, subsets of astrocytic cells residing in well-defined neurogenic niches constitutively generate neurons throughout life. Brain lesions can stimulate neurogenesis in otherwise non-neurogenic regions, but whether local astrocytic cells generate neurons in these conditions is unresolved. Here, through genetic and viral lineage tracing in mice, we demonstrate that striatal astrocytes become neurogenic following an acute excitotoxic lesion. Similar to astrocytes of adult germinal niches, these activated parenchymal progenitors express nestin and generate neurons through the formation of transit amplifying progenitors. These results shed new light on the neurogenic potential of the adult brain parenchyma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Nato
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
| | - Alessia Caramello
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
| | - Sara Trova
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
| | - Valeria Avataneo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
| | - Chiara Rolando
- Departement of Biomedecin, University of Basel, Basel 4050, Switzerland
| | - Verdon Taylor
- Departement of Biomedecin, University of Basel, Basel 4050, Switzerland
| | - Annalisa Buffo
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Turin, Turin 10126, Italy
| | - Paolo Peretto
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
| | - Federico Luzzati
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology (DBIOS), University of Turin, Turin 10123, Italy Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano 10043, Italy
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175
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Funk GD, Rajani V, Alvares TS, Revill AL, Zhang Y, Chu NY, Biancardi V, Linhares-Taxini C, Katzell A, Reklow R. Neuroglia and their roles in central respiratory control; an overview. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2015; 186:83-95. [PMID: 25634606 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
While once viewed as mere housekeepers, providing structural and metabolic support for neurons, it is now clear that neuroglia do much more. Phylogenetically, they have undergone enormous proliferation and diversification as central nervous systems grew in their complexity. In addition, they: i) are morphologically and functionally diverse; ii) play numerous, vital roles in maintaining CNS homeostasis; iii) are key players in brain development and responses to injury; and, iv) via gliotransmission, are likely participants in information processing. In this review, we discuss the diverse roles of neuroglia in maintaining homeostasis in the CNS, their evolutionary origins, the different types of neuroglia and their functional significance for respiratory control, and finally consider evidence that they contribute to the processing of chemosensory information in the respiratory network and the homeostatic control of blood gases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D Funk
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Vishaal Rajani
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tucaauê S Alvares
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Ann L Revill
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Nathan Y Chu
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Vivian Biancardi
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Fac. de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias/UNESP, Via de Acesso Paulo Donato Castellane km 05, Jaboticabal, SP 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Camila Linhares-Taxini
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, Fac. de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias/UNESP, Via de Acesso Paulo Donato Castellane km 05, Jaboticabal, SP 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Alexis Katzell
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert Reklow
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Women and Children's Health Research Institute (WCHRI), Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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176
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How to make neurons--thoughts on the molecular logic of neurogenesis in the central nervous system. Cell Tissue Res 2014; 359:5-16. [PMID: 25416507 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-2048-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal differentiation relies on a set of interconnected molecular events to achieve the differentiation of pan-neuronal hallmarks, together with neuronal subtype-specific features. Here, we propose a conceptual framework for these events, based on recent findings. This framework encompasses a dimension in time during development, progressing from early master regulators to later expressed effector genes and terminal selector genes. As a horizontal intersection, we propose the action of permissive fate determinants that are critical in allowing progression through the above transcriptional phases. Typically, these are widely expressed and often interact with the chromatin remodeling machinery. We conclude by discussing this model in the context of the direct fate conversion of various somatic cells into neurons.
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177
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Heinrich C, Bergami M, Gascón S, Lepier A, Viganò F, Dimou L, Sutor B, Berninger B, Götz M. Sox2-mediated conversion of NG2 glia into induced neurons in the injured adult cerebral cortex. Stem Cell Reports 2014; 3:1000-14. [PMID: 25458895 PMCID: PMC4264057 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The adult cerebral cortex lacks the capacity to replace degenerated neurons following traumatic injury. Conversion of nonneuronal cells into induced neurons has been proposed as an innovative strategy toward brain repair. Here, we show that retrovirus-mediated expression of the transcription factors Sox2 and Ascl1, but strikingly also Sox2 alone, can induce the conversion of genetically fate-mapped NG2 glia into induced doublecortin (DCX)+ neurons in the adult mouse cerebral cortex following stab wound injury in vivo. In contrast, lentiviral expression of Sox2 in the unlesioned cortex failed to convert oligodendroglial and astroglial cells into DCX+ cells. Neurons induced following injury mature morphologically and some acquire NeuN while losing DCX. Patch-clamp recording of slices containing Sox2- and/or Ascl1-transduced cells revealed that a substantial fraction of these cells receive synaptic inputs from neurons neighboring the injury site. Thus, NG2 glia represent a potential target for reprogramming strategies toward cortical repair. Sox2 or Sox2/Ascl1 can convert glia into induced DCX+ neurons in the injured cortex Sox10-iCreERT2-mediated fate mapping shows that induced neurons are NG2 glia derived Induced neurons receive (or retain) synapses from preexisting neurons Without prior injury, Sox2 does not convert cortical macroglia into neurons
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Heinrich
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; INSERM U836, University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Matteo Bergami
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Sergio Gascón
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, National Research Center for Environment and Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Alexandra Lepier
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Francesca Viganò
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Leda Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, National Research Center for Environment and Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Bernd Sutor
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Benedikt Berninger
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55128 Mainz, Germany; Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, National Research Center for Environment and Health, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), 80336 Munich, Germany.
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178
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Merson TD, Bourne JA. Endogenous neurogenesis following ischaemic brain injury: insights for therapeutic strategies. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2014; 56:4-19. [PMID: 25128862 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Ischaemic stroke is among the most common yet most intractable types of central nervous system (CNS) injury in the adult human population. In the acute stages of disease, neurons in the ischaemic lesion rapidly die and other neuronal populations in the ischaemic penumbra are vulnerable to secondary injury. Multiple parallel approaches are being investigated to develop neuroprotective, reparative and regenerative strategies for the treatment of stroke. Accumulating evidence indicates that cerebral ischaemia initiates an endogenous regenerative response within the adult brain that potentiates adult neurogenesis from populations of neural stem and progenitor cells. A major research focus has been to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the potentiation of adult neurogenesis and to appreciate how interventions designed to modulate these processes could enhance neural regeneration in the post-ischaemic brain. In this review, we highlight recent advances over the last 5 years that help unravel the cellular and molecular mechanisms that potentiate endogenous neurogenesis following cerebral ischaemia and are dissecting the functional importance of this regenerative mechanism following brain injury. This article is part of a Directed Issue entitled: Regenerative Medicine: the challenge of translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias D Merson
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - James A Bourne
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Building 75, Level 1 North STRIP 1, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
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179
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Ruat M, Faure H, Daynac M. Smoothened, Stem Cell Maintenance and Brain Diseases. TOPICS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/7355_2014_83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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