151
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Chen CM, Wu CT, Yang TH, Chang YA, Sheu ML, Liu SH. Green Tea Catechin Prevents Hypoxia/Reperfusion-Evoked Oxidative Stress-Regulated Autophagy-Activated Apoptosis and Cell Death in Microglial Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:4078-4085. [PMID: 27144449 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Defective activation and proliferation in microglial cells has been suggested to be associated with the increase of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. We investigated the protection and molecular mechanism of green tea catechin on hypoxia/reperfusion-induced microglial cell injury in vitro. Microglial cells were cultured in hypoxia condition (O2 < 1%) and then re-incubated to the complete normal culture medium (reperfusion). Hypoxia/reperfusion obviously decreased cell viability and induced apoptosis in microglial cells, but not in neuronal cells. Catechin significantly inhibited the hypoxia/reperfusion-induced decreased cell viability and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis in microglia. The administration of both PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 and mTOR inhibitor rapamycin demonstrated that Akt/mTOR-regulated autophagy was involved in the hypoxia/reperfusion-induced microglia apoptosis/death. Catechin up-regulated the Akt and mTOR phosphorylation and inhibited the hypoxia/reperfusion-induced autophagy in microglia. These results suggest that hypoxia/reperfusion can evoke autophagy-activated microglia apoptosis/death via an ROS-regulated Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, which can be reversed by catechin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Mu Chen
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University, College of Medicine , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Tien Wu
- Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Hua Yang
- Department of Otolaryngology, National Taiwan University Hospital , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ya-An Chang
- Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University , Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Meei-Ling Sheu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University , Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shing Hwa Liu
- Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University , Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University , Taichung, Taiwan
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152
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Xiong XY, Liu L, Yang QW. Functions and mechanisms of microglia/macrophages in neuroinflammation and neurogenesis after stroke. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 142:23-44. [PMID: 27166859 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Microglia/macrophages are the major immune cells involved in the defence against brain damage. Their morphology and functional changes are correlated with the release of danger signals induced by stroke. These cells are normally responsible for clearing away dead neural cells and restoring neuronal functions. However, when excessively activated by the damage-associated molecular patterns following stroke, they can produce a large number of proinflammatory cytokines that can disrupt neural cells and the blood-brain barrier and influence neurogenesis. These effects indicate the important roles of microglia/macrophages in the pathophysiological processes of stroke. However, the modifiable and adaptable nature of microglia/macrophages may also be beneficial for brain repair and not just result in damage. These distinct roles may be attributed to the different microglia/macrophage phenotypes because the M1 population is mainly destructive, while the M2 population is neuroprotective. Additionally, different gene expression signature changes in microglia/macrophages have been found in diverse inflammatory milieus. These biofunctional features enable dual roles for microglia/macrophages in brain damage and repair. Currently, it is thought that the proper inflammatory milieu may provide a suitable microenvironment for neurogenesis; however, detailed mechanisms underlying the inflammatory responses that initiate or inhibit neurogenesis remain unknown. This review summarizes recent progress concerning the mechanisms involved in brain damage, repair and regeneration related to microglia/macrophage activation and phenotype transition after stroke. We also argue that future translational studies should be targeting multiple key regulating molecules to improve brain repair, which should be accompanied by the concept of a "therapeutic time window" for sequential therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yi Xiong
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital & The Second Affiliated Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Xinqiao zhengjie No.183, Shapingba District Chongqing, 400037, China
| | - Liang Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital & The Second Affiliated Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Xinqiao zhengjie No.183, Shapingba District Chongqing, 400037, China
| | - Qing-Wu Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital & The Second Affiliated Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Xinqiao zhengjie No.183, Shapingba District Chongqing, 400037, China.
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153
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Shen YF, Yu WH, Dong XQ, Du Q, Yang DB, Wu GQ, Zhang ZY, Wang H, Jiang L. The change of plasma galectin-3 concentrations after traumatic brain injury. Clin Chim Acta 2016; 456:75-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2016.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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154
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Weng L, Wu Z, Zheng W, Meng H, Han L, Wang S, Yuan Z, Xu Y. Malibatol A enhances alternative activation of microglia by inhibiting phosphorylation of Mammalian Ste20-like kinase1 in OGD-BV-2 cells. Neurol Res 2016; 38:342-8. [DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2016.1174423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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155
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van der Hoeven NW, Hollander MR, Yıldırım C, Jansen MF, Teunissen PF, Horrevoets AJ, van der Pouw Kraan TCTM, van Royen N. The emerging role of galectins in cardiovascular disease. Vascul Pharmacol 2016; 81:31-41. [PMID: 26945624 DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Galectins are an ancient family of β-galactoside-specific lectins and consist of 15 different types, each with a specific function. They play a role in the immune system, inflammation, wound healing and carcinogenesis. In particular the role of galectin in cancer is widely studied. Lately, the role of galectins in the development of cardiovascular disease has gained attention. Worldwide cardiovascular disease is still the leading cause of death. In ischemic heart disease, atherosclerosis limits adequate blood flow. Angiogenesis and arteriogenesis are highly important mechanisms relieving ischemia by restoring perfusion to the post-stenotic myocardial area. Galectins act ambiguous, both relieving ischemia and accelerating atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis can ultimately lead to myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke, which are both associated with galectins. There is also a role for galectins in the development of myocarditis by their influence on inflammatory processes. Moreover, galectin acts as a biomarker for the severity of myocardial ischemia and heart failure. This review summarizes the association between galectins and the development of multiple cardiovascular diseases such as myocarditis, ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction, heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Furthermore it focuses on the association between galectin and more general mechanisms such as angiogenesis, arteriogenesis and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maurits R Hollander
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cansu Yıldırım
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthijs F Jansen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul F Teunissen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anton J Horrevoets
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Niels van Royen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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156
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Crotti A, Ransohoff RM. Microglial Physiology and Pathophysiology: Insights from Genome-wide Transcriptional Profiling. Immunity 2016; 44:505-515. [DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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157
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Galectin-3 Inhibition Is Associated with Neuropathic Pain Attenuation after Peripheral Nerve Injury. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148792. [PMID: 26872020 PMCID: PMC4752273 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain remains a prevalent and persistent clinical problem because it is often poorly responsive to the currently used analgesics. It is very urgent to develop novel drugs to alleviate neuropathic pain. Galectin-3 (gal3) is a multifunctional protein belonging to the carbohydrate-ligand lectin family, which is expressed by different cells. Emerging studies showed that gal3 elicits a pro-inflammatory response by recruiting and activating lymphocytes, macrophages and microglia. In the study we investigated whether gal3 inhibition could suppress neuroinflammation and alleviate neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury. We found that L5 spinal nerve ligation (SNL) increases the expression of gal3 in dorsal root ganglions at the mRNA and protein level. Intrathecal administration of modified citrus pectin (MCP), a gal3 inhibitor, reduces gal3 expression in dorsal root ganglions. MCP treatment also inhibits SNL-induced gal3 expression in primary rat microglia. SNL results in an increased activation of autophagy that contributes to microglial activation and subsequent inflammatory response. Intrathecal administration of MCP significantly suppresses SNL-induced autophagy activation. MCP also inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced autophagy in cultured microglia in vitro. MCP further decreases LPS-induced expression of proinflammatory mediators including IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 by regulating autophagy. Intrathecal administration of MCP results in adecreased mechanical and cold hypersensitivity following SNL. These results demonstrated that gal3 inhibition is associated with the suppression of SNL-induced inflammatory process andneurophathic pain attenuation.
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158
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Ma Y, Wang J, Wang Y, Yang GY. The biphasic function of microglia in ischemic stroke. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 157:247-272. [PMID: 26851161 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 491] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are brain resident macrophages originated from primitive progenitor cells in the yolk sac. Microglia can be activated within hours and recruited to the lesion site. Traditionally, microglia activation is considered to play a deleterious role in ischemic stroke, as inhibition of microglia activation attenuates ischemia induced brain injury. However, increasing evidence show that microglia activation is critical for attenuating neuronal apoptosis, enhancing neurogenesis, and promoting functional recovery after cerebral ischemia. Differential polarization of microglia could likely explain the biphasic role of microglia in ischemia. We comprehensively reviewed the mechanisms involved in regulating microglia activation and polarization. The latest discoveries of microRNAs in modulating microglia function are discussed. In addition, the interaction between microglia and other cells including neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and stem cells were also reviewed. Future therapies targeting microglia may not exclusively aim at suppressing microglia activation, but also at modulating microglia polarization at different stages of ischemic stroke. More work is needed to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of microglia polarization under ischemic environment. The roles of microRNAs and transplanted stem cells in mediating microglia activation and polarization during brain ischemia also need to be further studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ma
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China; Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Jixian Wang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Rehabilitation, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yongting Wang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - Guo-Yuan Yang
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China; Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
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159
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The emerging role of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 in cerebral ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 137:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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160
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Cordeau P, Lalancette-Hébert M, Weng YC, Kriz J. Estrogen receptors alpha mediates postischemic inflammation in chronically estrogen-deprived mice. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 40:50-60. [PMID: 26973103 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens are known to exert neuroprotective and immuneomodulatory effects after stroke. However, at present, little is known about the role of estrogens and its receptors in postischemic inflammation after menopause. Here, we provide important in vivo evidence of a distinct shift in microglial phenotypes in the model of postmenopause brain. Using a model-system for live imaging of microglial activation in the context of chronic estrogen- and ERα-deficiency associated with aging, we observed a marked deregulation of the TLR2 signals and/or microglial activation in ovariectomized and/or ERα knockout mice. Further analysis revealed a 5.7-fold increase in IL-6, a 4.7-fold increase in phospho-Stat3 levels suggesting an overactivation of JAK/STAT3 pathway and significantly larger infarction in ERα knockouts chronically deprived of estrogen. Taken together, our results suggest that in the experimental model of menopause and/or aging, ERα mediates innate immune responses and/or microglial activation, and ischemia-induced production of IL-6. Based on our results, we propose that the loss of functional ERα may lead to deregulation of postischemic inflammatory responses and increased vulnerability to ischemic injury in aging female brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Cordeau
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Research Centre of Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec, Laval University, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Mélanie Lalancette-Hébert
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Research Centre of Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec, Laval University, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Yuan Cheng Weng
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Research Centre of Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec, Laval University, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Jasna Kriz
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Research Centre of Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec, Laval University, Québec, Québec, Canada.
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161
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Hoyos HC, Marder M, Ulrich R, Gudi V, Stangel M, Rabinovich GA, Pasquini LA, Pasquini JM. The Role of Galectin-3: From Oligodendroglial Differentiation and Myelination to Demyelination and Remyelination Processes in a Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination Model. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 949:311-332. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-40764-7_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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162
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Jeong SY, Jeon R, Choi YK, Jung JE, Liang A, Xing C, Wang X, Lo EH, Song YS. Activation of microglial Toll-like receptor 3 promotes neuronal survival against cerebral ischemia. J Neurochem 2015; 136:851-858. [PMID: 26603372 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Emerging experimental evidence suggests that activation of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) by its agonist polyinosinic polycytidylic acid (poly-ICLC) protects neurons against cerebral ischemia, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. In the brain, TLR3 is mostly expressed in glial cells. Therefore, we assess the hypothesis that TLR3 activation in microglia is required for neuroprotection against ischemia. After transient focal cerebral ischemia, microglia/macrophages (MMs) demonstrate a significant reduction in TLR3 and its downstream cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6). Subsequently, activation of TLR3 by poly-ICLC restored TLR3 expression and decreased infarction. To further investigate these mechanisms, we turned to a primary cell culture system. Consistent with the in vivo findings, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) significantly reduced TLR3 and IL-6 mRNA expression in microglia, but poly-ICLC significantly rescued TLR3 and IL-6 expression. Importantly, conditioned media from OGD-treated microglia increased neuronal death after OGD. In contrast, the conditioned media from microglia treated with poly-ICLC after OGD significantly protected against OGD-induced neuron death. Taken together, our findings provide proof-of-concept that activation of TLR3 in microglia may promote neuron survival after ischemia. We assessed the hypothesis that Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) activation in microglia is required for neuroprotection against ischemia. After transient focal cerebral ischemia, microglia/macrophage demonstrates a reduction in TLR3 and Interleukin 6 (IL-6). Also, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) reduces TLR3 and IL-6 expression in microglia, but polyinosinic polycytidylic acid (poly-ICLC) rescues TLR3 and IL-6. Importantly, conditioned media from microglia treated with poly-ICLC protects against OGD-induced neuron death. We propose that activation of TLR3 in microglia may promote neuron survival after ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yeon Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Raok Jeon
- College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yoon Kyung Choi
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joo Eun Jung
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Anna Liang
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Changhong Xing
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eng H Lo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yun Seon Song
- College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea.,Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
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163
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Lanza V, D'Agata R, Iacono G, Bellia F, Spoto G, Vecchio G. Cyclam glycoconjugates as lectin ligands and protective agents of metal-induced amyloid aggregation. J Inorg Biochem 2015; 153:377-382. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2015.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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164
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Chaudhari AD, Gude RP, Kalraiya RD, Chiplunkar SV. Endogenous galectin-3 expression levels modulate immune responses in galectin-3 transgenic mice. Mol Immunol 2015; 68:300-11. [PMID: 26442663 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Galectin-3 (Gal-3), a β-galactoside-binding mammalian lectin, is involved in cancer progression and metastasis. However, there is an unmet need to identify the underlying mechanisms of cancer metastasis mediated by endogenous host galectin-3. Galectin-3 is also known to be an important regulator of immune responses. The present study was aimed at analysing how expression of endogenous galectin-3 regulates host immunity and lung metastasis in B16F10 murine melanoma model. Transgenic Gal-3(+/-) (hemizygous) and Gal-3(-/-) (null) mice exhibited decreased levels of Natural Killer (NK) cells and lower NK mediated cytotoxicity against YAC-1 tumor targets, compared to Gal-3(+/+) (wild-type) mice. On stimulation, Gal-3(+/-) and Gal-3(-/-) mice splenocytes showed increased T cell proliferation than Gal-3(+/+) mice. Intracellular calcium flux was found to be lower in activated T cells of Gal-3(-/-) mice as compared to T cells from Gal-3(+/+) and Gal-3(+/-) mice. In Gal-3(-/-) mice, serum Th1, Th2 and Th17 cytokine levels were found to be lowest, exhibiting dysregulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines balance. Marked decrease in serum IFN-γ levels and splenic IFN-γR1 (IFN-γ Receptor 1) expressing T and NK cell percentages were observed in Gal-3(-/-) mice. On recombinant IFN-γ treatment of splenocytes in vitro, Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) 1 and SOCS3 protein expression was higher in Gal-3(-/-) mice compared to that in Gal-3(+/+) and Gal-3(+/-) mice; suggesting possible attenuation of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) 1 mediated IFN-γ signaling in Gal-3(-/-) mice. The ability of B16F10 melanoma cells to form metastatic colonies in the lungs of Gal-3(+/+) and Gal-3(-/-) mice remained comparable, whereas it was found to be reduced in Gal-3(+/-) mice. Our data indicates that complete absence of endogenous host galectin-3 facilitates lung metastasis of B16F10 cells in mice, which may be contributed by dysregulated immune responses resulting from decreased NK cytotoxicity, disturbed serum Th1, Th2, Th17 cytokine milieu, reduced serum IFN-γ levels and attenuation of splenic STAT1 mediated IFN-γ signalling in Gal-3(-/-) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna D Chaudhari
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai 410210, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rajiv P Gude
- Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai 410210, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rajiv D Kalraiya
- Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai 410210, Maharashtra, India
| | - Shubhada V Chiplunkar
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai 410210, Maharashtra, India.
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165
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Bodhankar S, Lapato A, Chen Y, Vandenbark AA, Saugstad JA, Offner H. Role for microglia in sex differences after ischemic stroke: importance of M2. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:1515-29. [PMID: 26246072 PMCID: PMC4644102 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-015-9714-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. This process depends, in part, upon proinflammatory factors released by activated resident central nervous system (CNS) microglia (MG). Previous studies demonstrated that transfer of IL-10(+) B-cells reduced infarct volumes in male C57BL/6 J recipient mice when given 24 h prior to or therapeutically at 4 or 24 h after experimental stroke induced by 60 min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The present study assesses possible sex differences in immunoregulation by IL-10(+) B-cells on primary male vs. female MG cultured from naïve and ischemic stroke-induced mice. Thus, MG cultures were treated with recombinant (r)IL-10, rIL-4 or IL-10(+) B-cells after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activation and evaluated by flow cytometry for production of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors. We found that IL-10(+) B-cells significantly reduced MG production of TNF-α, IL-1β and CCL3 post-MCAO and increased their expression of the anti-inflammatory M2 marker, CD206, by cell-cell interactions. Moreover, MG from female vs. male mice had higher expression of IL-4 and IL-10 receptors and increased production of IL-4, especially after treatment with IL-10(+) B-cells. These findings indicate that IL-10-producing B-cells play a crucial role in regulating MG activation, proinflammatory cytokine release and M2 phenotype induction, post-MCAO, with heightened sensitivity of female MG to IL-4 and IL-10. This study, coupled with our previous demonstration of increased numbers of transferred IL-10(+) B-cells in the ischemic hemisphere, provide a mechanistic basis for local regulation by secreted IL-10 and IL-4 as well as direct B-cell/MG interactions that promote M2-MG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheetal Bodhankar
- Neuroimmunology Research, R&D-31, VA Portland Health Care System, 3710 SW U.S. Veterans Hospital Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
| | - Andrew Lapato
- Neuroimmunology Research, R&D-31, VA Portland Health Care System, 3710 SW U.S. Veterans Hospital Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
| | - Yingxin Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
| | - Arthur A Vandenbark
- Neuroimmunology Research, R&D-31, VA Portland Health Care System, 3710 SW U.S. Veterans Hospital Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
| | - Julie A Saugstad
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA
| | - Halina Offner
- Neuroimmunology Research, R&D-31, VA Portland Health Care System, 3710 SW U.S. Veterans Hospital Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA.
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA.
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166
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McCormick SM, Heller NM. Regulation of Macrophage, Dendritic Cell, and Microglial Phenotype and Function by the SOCS Proteins. Front Immunol 2015; 6:549. [PMID: 26579124 PMCID: PMC4621458 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are innate immune cells of dynamic phenotype that rapidly respond to external stimuli in the microenvironment by altering their phenotype to respond to and to direct the immune response. The ability to dynamically change phenotype must be carefully regulated to prevent uncontrolled inflammatory responses and subsequently to promote resolution of inflammation. The suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins play a key role in regulating macrophage phenotype. In this review, we summarize research to date from mouse and human studies on the role of the SOCS proteins in determining the phenotype and function of macrophages. We will also touch on the influence of the SOCS on dendritic cell (DC) and microglial phenotype and function. The molecular mechanisms of SOCS function in macrophages and DCs are discussed, along with how dysregulation of SOCS expression or function can lead to alterations in macrophage/DC/microglial phenotype and function and to disease. Regulation of SOCS expression by microRNA is discussed. Novel therapies and unanswered questions with regard to SOCS regulation of monocyte-macrophage phenotype and function are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M McCormick
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, MD , USA
| | - Nicola M Heller
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, MD , USA ; Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore, MD , USA
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167
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Ergul A, Valenzuela JP, Fouda AY, Fagan SC. Cellular connections, microenvironment and brain angiogenesis in diabetes: Lost communication signals in the post-stroke period. Brain Res 2015; 1623:81-96. [PMID: 25749094 PMCID: PMC4743654 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes not only increases the risk but also worsens the motor and cognitive recovery after stroke, which is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Repair after stroke requires coordinated communication among various cell types in the central nervous system as well as circulating cells. Vascular restoration is critical for the enhancement of neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Given that vascular disease is a major component of all complications associated with diabetes including stroke, this review will focus on cellular communications that are important for vascular restoration in the context of diabetes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Cell Interactions In Stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adviye Ergul
- Charlie Norwood Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA; Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th Street, CA 2094, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Program in Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
| | - John Paul Valenzuela
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th Street, CA 2094, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Abdelrahman Y Fouda
- Charlie Norwood Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA; Program in Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Susan C Fagan
- Charlie Norwood Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA; Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Program in Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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168
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James RE, Hillis J, Adorján I, Gration B, Mundim MV, Iqbal AJ, Majumdar MM, Yates RL, Richards MMH, Goings GE, DeLuca GC, Greaves DR, Miller SD, Szele FG. Loss of galectin-3 decreases the number of immune cells in the subventricular zone and restores proliferation in a viral model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2015; 64:105-21. [PMID: 26337870 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) frequently starts near the lateral ventricles, which are lined by subventricular zone (SVZ) progenitor cells that can migrate to lesions and contribute to repair. Because MS-induced inflammation may decrease SVZ proliferation and thus limit repair, we studied the role of galectin-3 (Gal-3), a proinflammatory protein. Gal-3 expression was increased in periventricular regions of human MS in post-mortem brain samples and was also upregulated in periventricular regions in a murine MS model, Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection. Whereas TMEV increased SVZ chemokine (CCL2, CCL5, CCL, and CXCL10) expression in wild type (WT) mice, this was inhibited in Gal-3(-/-) mice. Though numerous CD45+ immune cells entered the SVZ of WT mice after TMEV infection, their numbers were significantly diminished in Gal-3(-/-) mice. TMEV also reduced neuroblast and proliferative SVZ cell numbers in WT mice but this was restored in Gal-3(-/-) mice and was correlated with increased numbers of doublecortin+ neuroblasts in the corpus callosum. In summary, our data showed that loss of Gal-3 blocked chemokine increases after TMEV, reduced immune cell migration into the SVZ, reestablished SVZ proliferation and increased the number of progenitors in the corpus callosum. These results suggest Gal-3 plays a central role in modulating the SVZ neurogenic niche's response to this model of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E James
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - James Hillis
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - István Adorján
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Betty Gration
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Mayara V Mundim
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Asif J Iqbal
- Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Moon-Moon Majumdar
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Richard L Yates
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Maureen M H Richards
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Gwendolyn E Goings
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Gabriele C DeLuca
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - David R Greaves
- Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen D Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Francis G Szele
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3HS, United Kingdom
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169
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Franco PG, Pasquini LA, Pérez MJ, Rosato-Siri MV, Silvestroff L, Pasquini JM. Paving the way for adequate myelination: The contribution of galectin-3, transferrin and iron. FEBS Lett 2015; 589:3388-95. [PMID: 26296311 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Considering the worldwide incidence of well characterized demyelinating disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and the increasing number of pathologies recently found to involve hypomyelinating factors such as micronutrient deficits, elucidating the molecular basis of central nervous system (CNS) demyelination, remyelination and hypomyelination becomes essential to the development of future neuroregenerative therapies. In this context, this review discusses novel findings on the contribution of galectin-3 (Gal-3), transferrin (Tf) and iron to the processes of myelination and remyelination and their potentially positive regulation of oligodendroglial precursor cell (OPC) differentiation. Studies were conducted in cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination and iron deficiency (ID)-induced hypomyelination, and the participation of glial and neural stem cells (NSC) in the remyelination process was evaluated by means of both in vivo and in vitro assays on primary cell cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula G Franco
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura A Pasquini
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María J Pérez
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María V Rosato-Siri
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucas Silvestroff
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juana M Pasquini
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, IQUIFIB-CONICET, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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170
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Umekawa T, Osman AM, Han W, Ikeda T, Blomgren K. Resident microglia, rather than blood-derived macrophages, contribute to the earlier and more pronounced inflammatory reaction in the immature compared with the adult hippocampus after hypoxia-ischemia. Glia 2015; 63:2220-30. [PMID: 26179283 PMCID: PMC5034822 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of neuronal injury after hypoxia–ischemia (HI) are different in the immature and the adult brain, but microglia activation has not been compared. The purpose of this study was to phenotype resident microglia and blood‐derived macrophages in the hippocampus after HI in neonatal (postnatal day 9, P9) or adult (3 months of age, 3mo) mice. Unilateral brain injury after HI was induced in Cx3cr1GFP/+Ccr2RFP/+ male mice on P9 (n = 34) or at 3mo (n = 53) using the Vannucci model. Resident microglia (Cx3cr1‐GFP+) proliferated and were activated earlier after HI in the P9 (1–3 days) than that in the 3mo hippocampus, but remained longer in the adult brain (3–7 days). Blood‐derived macrophages (Ccr2‐RFP+) peaked 3 days after HI in both immature (P9) and adult (3mo) hippocampi but were twice as frequent in adult brains, 41% vs. 21% of all microglia/macrophages. CCL2 expression was three times higher in the P9 hippocampi, indicating that the proinflammatory response was more pronounced in the immature brain after HI. This corresponded well with the higher numbers of galectin‐3‐positive resident microglia in the P9 hippocampi, but did not correlate with CD16/32‐ or CD206‐positive resident microglia or blood‐derived macrophages. In conclusion, resident microglia, rather than infiltrating blood‐derived macrophages, proliferate and are activated earlier in the immature than in the adult brain, but remain increased longer in the adult brain. The inflammatory response is more pronounced in the immature brain, and this correlate well with galectin‐3 expression in resident microglia. GLIA 2015;63:2220–2230
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Umekawa
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Ahmed M Osman
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Wei Han
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tomoaki Ikeda
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Klas Blomgren
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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171
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Titomanlio L, Fernández-López D, Manganozzi L, Moretti R, Vexler ZS, Gressens P. Pathophysiology and neuroprotection of global and focal perinatal brain injury: lessons from animal models. Pediatr Neurol 2015; 52:566-584. [PMID: 26002050 PMCID: PMC4720385 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2015.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arterial ischemic stroke occurs more frequently in term newborns than in the elderly, and brain immaturity affects mechanisms of ischemic injury and recovery. The susceptibility to injury of the brain was assumed to be lower in the perinatal period as compared with childhood. This concept was recently challenged by clinical studies showing marked motor disabilities after stroke in neonates, with the severity of motor and cortical sensory deficits similar in both perinatal and childhood ischemic stroke. Our understanding of the triggers and the pathophysiological mechanisms of perinatal stroke has greatly improved in recent years, but many factors remain incompletely understood. METHODS In this review, we focus on the pathophysiology of perinatal stroke and on therapeutic strategies that can protect the immature brain from the consequences of stroke by targeting inflammation and brain microenvironment. RESULTS Studies in neonatal rodent models of cerebral ischemia have suggested a potential role for soluble inflammatory molecules as important modulators of injury and recovery. A great effort is underway to investigate neuroprotective molecules based on our increasing understanding of the pathophysiology. CONCLUSION In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of new insights concerning pathophysiology of focal and global perinatal brain injury and their implications for new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Titomanlio
- Pediatric Emergency Department, APHP, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France
- Inserm, U1141, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - David Fernández-López
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-0663, USA
| | - Lucilla Manganozzi
- Pediatric Emergency Department, APHP, Robert Debré Hospital, Paris, France
- Inserm, U1141, F-75019 Paris, France
| | | | - Zinaida S. Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158-0663, USA
| | - Pierre Gressens
- Inserm, U1141, F-75019 Paris, France
- Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 676, F-75019 Paris, France
- PremUP, Paris, France
- Centre for the Developing Brain, King’s College, St Thomas’ Campus, London SE1 7EH, UK
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172
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Holtman IR, Raj DD, Miller JA, Schaafsma W, Yin Z, Brouwer N, Wes PD, Möller T, Orre M, Kamphuis W, Hol EM, Boddeke EWGM, Eggen BJL. Induction of a common microglia gene expression signature by aging and neurodegenerative conditions: a co-expression meta-analysis. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2015; 3:31. [PMID: 26001565 PMCID: PMC4489356 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-015-0203-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 409] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Microglia are tissue macrophages of the central nervous system that monitor brain homeostasis and react upon neuronal damage and stress. Aging and neurodegeneration induce a hypersensitive, pro-inflammatory phenotype, referred to as primed microglia. To determine the gene expression signature of priming, the transcriptomes of microglia in aging, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) mouse models were compared using Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA). Results A highly consistent consensus transcriptional profile of up-regulated genes was identified, which prominently differed from the acute inflammatory gene network induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Where the acute inflammatory network was significantly enriched for NF-κB signaling, the primed microglia profile contained key features related to phagosome, lysosome, antigen presentation, and AD signaling. In addition, specific signatures for aging, AD, and ALS were identified. Conclusion Microglia priming induces a highly conserved transcriptional signature with aging- and disease-specific aspects. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40478-015-0203-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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173
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Manouchehrian O, Arnér K, Deierborg T, Taylor L. Who let the dogs out?: detrimental role of Galectin-3 in hypoperfusion-induced retinal degeneration. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:92. [PMID: 25968897 PMCID: PMC4490716 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0312-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Retinal ischemia results in a progressive degeneration of neurons and a pathological activation of glial cells, resulting in vision loss. In the brain, progressive damage after ischemic insult has been correlated to neuroinflammatory processes involving microglia. Galectin-3 has been shown to mediate microglial responses to ischemic injury in the brain. Therefore, we wanted to explore the contribution of Galectin-3 (Gal-3) to hypoperfusion-induced retinal degeneration in mice. Methods Gal-3 knockout (Gal-3 KO) and wildtype (WT) C57BL/6 mice were subjected to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion by bilateral narrowing of the common carotid arteries using metal coils resulting in a 30% reduction of blood flow. Sham operated mice served as controls. After 17 weeks, the mice were sacrificed and the eyes were analyzed for retinal architecture, neuronal cell survival, and glial reactivity using morphological staining and immunohistochemistry. Results Hypoperfusion caused a strong increase in Gal-3 expression and microglial activation in WT mice, coupled with severe degenerative damage to all retinal neuronal subtypes, remodeling of the retinal lamination and Müller cell gliosis. In contrast, hypoperfused Gal-3 KO mice displayed a retained laminar architecture, a significant preservation of photoreceptors and ganglion cell neurons, and an attenuation of microglial and Müller cell activation. Conclusion Moderate cerebral blood flow reduction in the mouse results in severe retinal degenerative damage. In mice lacking Gal-3 expression, pathological changes are significantly attenuated. Gal-3 is thereby a potential target for treatment and prevention of hypoperfusion-induced retinal degeneration and a strong candidate for further research as a factor behind retinal degenerative disease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0312-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Manouchehrian
- Department of Ophthalmology, BMC, Lund University, Klinikgatan 26, Lund, S-22184, Sweden.
| | - Karin Arnér
- Department of Ophthalmology, BMC, Lund University, Klinikgatan 26, Lund, S-22184, Sweden.
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, BMC, Lund University, Klinikgatan 26, Lund, S-22184, Sweden.
| | - Linnéa Taylor
- Department of Ophthalmology, BMC, Lund University, Klinikgatan 26, Lund, S-22184, Sweden.
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174
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Wang Y, Reis C, Applegate R, Stier G, Martin R, Zhang JH. Ischemic conditioning-induced endogenous brain protection: Applications pre-, per- or post-stroke. Exp Neurol 2015; 272:26-40. [PMID: 25900056 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the area of brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases, a plethora of experimental and clinical evidence strongly indicates the promise of therapeutically exploiting the endogenous adaptive system at various levels like triggers, mediators and the end-effectors to stimulate and mobilize intrinsic protective capacities against brain injuries. It is believed that ischemic pre-conditioning and post-conditioning are actually the strongest known interventions to stimulate the innate neuroprotective mechanism to prevent or reverse neurodegenerative diseases including stroke and traumatic brain injury. Recently, studies showed the effectiveness of ischemic per-conditioning in some organs. Therefore the term ischemic conditioning, including all interventions applied pre-, per- and post-ischemia, which spans therapeutic windows in 3 time periods, has recently been broadly accepted by scientific communities. In addition, it is extensively acknowledged that ischemia-mediated protection not only affects the neurons but also all the components of the neurovascular network (consisting of neurons, glial cells, vascular endothelial cells, pericytes, smooth muscle cells, and venule/veins). The concept of cerebroprotection has been widely used in place of neuroprotection. Intensive studies on the cellular signaling pathways involved in ischemic conditioning have improved the mechanistic understanding of tolerance to cerebral ischemia. This has added impetus to exploration for potential pharmacologic mimetics, which could possibly induce and maximize inherent protective capacities. However, most of these studies were performed in rodents, and the efficacy of these mimetics remains to be evaluated in human patients. Several classical signaling pathways involving apoptosis, inflammation, or oxidation have been elaborated in the past decades. Newly characterized mechanisms are emerging with the advances in biotechnology and conceptual renewal. In this review we are going to focus on those recently reported methodological and mechanistic discoveries in the realm of ischemic conditioning. Due to the varied time differences of ischemic conditioning in different animal models and clinical trials, it is important to define optimal timing to achieve the best conditioning induced neuroprotection. This brings not only an opportunity in the treatment of stroke, but challenges as well, as data is just becoming available and the procedures are not yet optimized. The purpose of this review is to shed light on exploiting these ischemic conditioning modalities to protect the cerebrovascular system against diverse injuries and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuechun Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, USA; Department of Physiology, Jinan University School of Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cesar Reis
- Department of Anesthesiology, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Richard Applegate
- Department of Anesthesiology, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Gary Stier
- Department of Anesthesiology, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Robert Martin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Loma Linda University Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
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175
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Wang QY, Sun P, Zhang Q, Yao SL. Minocycline attenuates microglial response and reduces neuronal death after cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 35:225-229. [PMID: 25877356 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-015-1415-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The possible role of minocycline in microglial activation and neuronal death after cardiac arrest (CA) and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in mice was investigated in this study. The mice were given potassium chloride to stop the heart beating for 8 min to achieve CA, and they were subsequently resuscitated with epinephrine and chest compressions. Forty adult C57BL/6 male mice were divided into 4 groups (n=10 each): sham-operated group, CA/CPR group, CA/CPR+minocycline group, and CA/CPR+vehicle group. Animals in the latter two groups were intraperitoneally injected with minocycline (50 mg/kg) or vehicle (normal saline) 30 min after recovery of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). Twenty-four h after CA/CPR, the brains were removed for histological evaluation of the hippocampus. Microglial activation was evaluated by detecting the expression of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba1) by immunohistochemistry. Neuronal death was analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and the levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in the hippocampus were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results showed that the neuronal death was aggravated, most microglia were activated and TNF-α levels were enhanced in the hippocampus CA1 region of mice subjected to CA/CPR as compared with those in the sham-operated group (P<0.05). Administration with minocycline 30 min after ROSC could significantly decrease the microglial response, TNF-α levels and neuronal death (P<0.05). It was concluded that early administration with minocycline has a strong therapeutic potential for CA/CPR-induced brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian-Yan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Institute of Anesthesia and Critical Care, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China
| | - Peng Sun
- Department of Emergency, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Institute of Anesthesia and Critical Care, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Shang-Long Yao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Institute of Anesthesia and Critical Care, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
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176
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Early microlesion of viral encephalitis confirmed by galectin-3 expression after a virus inoculation. Neurosci Lett 2015; 592:107-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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177
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Varrier M, Forni LG, Ostermann M. Long-term sequelae from acute kidney injury: potential mechanisms for the observed poor renal outcomes. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2015; 19:102. [PMID: 25887052 PMCID: PMC4361133 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-015-0805-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This article is one of ten reviews selected from the Annual Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine 2015 and co-published as a series in Critical Care. Other articles in the series can be found online at http://ccforum.com/series/annualupdate2015. Further information about the Annual Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine is available from http://www.springer.com/series/8901.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Varrier
- Department of Critical Care & Nephrology, Guy's & St Thomas' Foundation Hospital, London, UK. .,King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Lui G Forni
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Surrey County Hospital, Surrey Peri-operative Anesthesia Critical Care Collaborative Research group (SPACeR), Guildford, UK.
| | - Marlies Ostermann
- Department of Critical Care & Nephrology, Guy's & St Thomas' Foundation Hospital, London, UK. .,King's College London, London, UK.
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178
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Burguillos MA, Svensson M, Schulte T, Boza-Serrano A, Garcia-Quintanilla A, Kavanagh E, Santiago M, Viceconte N, Oliva-Martin MJ, Osman AM, Salomonsson E, Amar L, Persson A, Blomgren K, Achour A, Englund E, Leffler H, Venero JL, Joseph B, Deierborg T. Microglia-Secreted Galectin-3 Acts as a Toll-like Receptor 4 Ligand and Contributes to Microglial Activation. Cell Rep 2015; 10:1626-1638. [PMID: 25753426 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory response induced by microglia plays a critical role in the demise of neuronal populations in neuroinflammatory diseases. Although the role of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in microglia's inflammatory response is fully acknowledged, little is known about endogenous ligands that trigger TLR4 activation. Here, we report that galectin-3 (Gal3) released by microglia acts as an endogenous paracrine TLR4 ligand. Gal3-TLR4 interaction was further confirmed in a murine neuroinflammatory model (intranigral lipopolysaccharide [LPS] injection) and in human stroke subjects. Depletion of Gal3 exerted neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects following global brain ischemia and in the neuroinflammatory LPS model. These results suggest that Gal3-dependent-TLR4 activation could contribute to sustained microglia activation, prolonging the inflammatory response in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Angel Burguillos
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Cancer Centrum Karolinska, R8:03, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden; Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, BMC B11, Lund 221 84, Sweden.
| | - Martina Svensson
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, BMC B11, Lund 221 84, Sweden
| | - Tim Schulte
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17165, Sweden
| | - Antonio Boza-Serrano
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, BMC B11, Lund 221 84, Sweden
| | - Albert Garcia-Quintanilla
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Edel Kavanagh
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Cancer Centrum Karolinska, R8:03, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden
| | - Martiniano Santiago
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Nikenza Viceconte
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Maria Jose Oliva-Martin
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Ahmed Mohamed Osman
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Q2:07, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden
| | - Emma Salomonsson
- Section MIG, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Solvegatan 23, Lund University, Lund 223 62, Sweden
| | - Lahouari Amar
- Neuronal Survival Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, Lund 221 84, Sweden
| | - Annette Persson
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Lund University Hospital, Lund 221 85, Sweden
| | - Klas Blomgren
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Q2:07, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden
| | - Adnane Achour
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17165, Sweden
| | - Elisabet Englund
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Lund University Hospital, Lund 221 85, Sweden
| | - Hakon Leffler
- Section MIG, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Solvegatan 23, Lund University, Lund 223 62, Sweden
| | - Jose Luis Venero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Bertrand Joseph
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Cancer Centrum Karolinska, R8:03, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, BMC B11, Lund 221 84, Sweden
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179
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The role of Galectin-3 in α-synuclein-induced microglial activation. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2014; 2:156. [PMID: 25387690 PMCID: PMC4236422 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-014-0156-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative motor disorder. The neuropathology is characterized by intraneuronal protein aggregates of α-synuclein and progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra. Previous studies have shown that extracellular α-synuclein aggregates can activate microglial cells, induce inflammation and contribute to the neurodegenerative process in PD. However, the signaling pathways involved in α-synuclein-mediated microglia activation are poorly understood. Galectin-3 is a member of a carbohydrate-binding protein family involved in cell activation and inflammation. Therefore, we investigated whether galectin-3 is involved in the microglia activation triggered by α-synuclein. RESULTS We cultured microglial (BV2) cells and induced cell activation by addition of exogenous α-synuclein monomers or aggregates to the cell culture medium. This treatment induced a significant increase in the levels of proinflammatory mediators including the inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS), interleukin 1 Beta (IL-1β) and Interleukin-12 (IL-12). We then reduced the levels of galectin-3 expression using siRNA or pharmacologically targeting galectin-3 activity using bis-(3-deoxy-3-(3-fluorophenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)-β-D-galactopyranosyl)-sulfane. Both approaches led to a significant reduction in the observed inflammatory response induced by α-synuclein. We confirmed these findings using primary microglial cells obtained from wild-type and galectin-3 null mutant mice. Finally, we performed injections of α-synuclein in the olfactory bulb of wild type mice and observed that some of the α-synuclein was taken up by activated microglia that were immunopositive for galectin-3. CONCLUSIONS We show that α-synuclein aggregates induce microglial activation and demonstrate for the first time that galectin-3 plays a significant role in microglia activation induced by α-synuclein. These results suggest that genetic down-regulation or pharmacological inhibition of galectin-3 might constitute a novel therapeutic target in PD and other synucleinopathies.
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180
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Kratzer I, Chip S, Vexler ZS. Barrier mechanisms in neonatal stroke. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:359. [PMID: 25426016 PMCID: PMC4224076 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical data continue to reveal that the incidence of perinatal stroke is high, similar to that in the elderly. Perinatal stroke leads to significant morbidity and severe long-term neurological and cognitive deficits, including cerebral palsy. Experimental models of cerebral ischemia in neonatal rodents have shown that the pathophysiology of perinatal brain damage is multifactorial. Cerebral vasculature undergoes substantial structural and functional changes during early postnatal brain development. Thus, the state of the vasculature could affect susceptibility of the neonatal brain to cerebral ischemia. In this review, we discuss some of the most recent findings regarding the neurovascular responses of the immature brain to focal arterial stroke in relation to neuroinflammation. We also discuss a possible role of the neonatal blood-CSF barrier in modulating inflammation and the long-term effects of early neurovascular integrity after neonatal stroke on angiogenesis and neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Kratzer
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sophorn Chip
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
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181
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Shichita T, Ito M, Yoshimura A. Post-ischemic inflammation regulates neural damage and protection. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:319. [PMID: 25352781 PMCID: PMC4196547 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-ischemic inflammation is important in ischemic stroke pathology. However, details of the inflammation process, its resolution after stroke and its effect on pathology and neural damage have not been clarified. Brain swelling, which is often fatal in ischemic stroke patients, occurs at an early stage of stroke due to endothelial cell injury and severe inflammation by infiltrated mononuclear cells including macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. At early stage of inflammation, macrophages are activated by molecules released from necrotic cells [danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)], and inflammatory cytokines and mediators that increase ischemic brain damage by disruption of the blood–brain barrier are released. After post-ischemic inflammation, macrophages function as scavengers of necrotic cell and brain tissue debris. Such macrophages are also involved in tissue repair and neural cell regeneration by producing tropic factors. The mechanisms of inflammation resolution and conversion of inflammation to neuroprotection are largely unknown. In this review, we summarize information accumulated recently about DAMP-induced inflammation and the neuroprotective effects of inflammatory cells, and discuss next generation strategies to treat ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Shichita
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Keio University Tokyo, Japan ; Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency Tokyo, Japan
| | - Minako Ito
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Keio University Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akihiko Yoshimura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Keio University Tokyo, Japan
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182
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Wang H, Guo W, Liu H, Zeng R, Lu M, Chen Z, Xiao Q. Inhibition of inflammatory mediator release from microglia can treat ischemic/hypoxic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 2014; 8:1157-68. [PMID: 25206410 PMCID: PMC4107605 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.13.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β aggravate neuronal injury by mediating the inflammatory reaction following ischemic/hypoxic brain injury. It remains unclear whether interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β are released by microglia or astrocytes. This study prepared hippocampal slices that were subsequently subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining verified that neurons exhibited hypoxic changes. Results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay found that interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β participated in this hypoxic process. Moreover, when hypoxic injury occurred in the hippocampus, the release of interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β was mediated by the P2X4 receptor and P2X7 receptor. Immunofluorescence staining revealed that during ischemia/hypoxia, the P2X4 receptor, P2X7 receptor, interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β expression was detectable in rat hippocampal microglia, but only P2X4 receptor and P2X7 receptor expression was detected in astrocytes. Results suggested that the P2X4 receptor and P2X7 receptor, respectively, mediated interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β released by microglia, resulting in hippocampal ischemic/hypoxic injury. Astrocytes were activated, but did not synthesize or release interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaibo Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Weitao Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
| | | | - Rong Zeng
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Mingnan Lu
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ziqiu Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Qixian Xiao
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical College, Zhanjiang 524001, Guangdong Province, China
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183
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Özen I, Deierborg T, Miharada K, Padel T, Englund E, Genové G, Paul G. Brain pericytes acquire a microglial phenotype after stroke. Acta Neuropathol 2014; 128:381-96. [PMID: 24848101 PMCID: PMC4131168 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-014-1295-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pericytes are located on the abluminal side of endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in all organs. They have been identified as multipotent progenitor cells in several tissues of the body including the human brain. New evidence suggests that pericytes contribute to tissue repair, but their role in the injured brain is largely unknown. Here, we investigate the role of pericytes in ischemic stroke. Using a pericyte-reporter mouse model, we provide unique evidence that regulator of G-protein signaling 5 expressing cells are activated pericytes that leave the blood vessel wall, proliferate and give rise to microglial cells after ischemic brain injury. Consistently, we show that activated pericytes express microglial markers in human stroke brain tissue. We demonstrate that human brain-derived pericytes adopt a microglial phenotype and upregulate mRNA specific for activated microglial cells under hypoxic conditions in vitro. Our study indicates that the vasculature is a novel source of inflammatory cells with a microglial phenotype in brain ischemia and hence identifies pericytes as an important new target for the development of future stroke therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilknur Özen
- Translational Neurology Group, Department of Clinical Science, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, 22184 Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Science, BMC, Lund University, 22184 Lund, Sweden
| | - Kenichi Miharada
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Gene Therapy, Lund Strategic Center for Stem Cell Biology and Cell Therapy, BMC, Lund University, 22184 Lund, Sweden
| | - Thomas Padel
- Translational Neurology Group, Department of Clinical Science, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, 22184 Lund, Sweden
| | - Elisabet Englund
- Department of Neuropathology, Scania University Hospital, 22185 Lund, Sweden
| | - Guillem Genové
- Division of Vascular Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gesine Paul
- Translational Neurology Group, Department of Clinical Science, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund University, 22184 Lund, Sweden
- Department of Neurology, Scania University Hospital, 22185 Lund, Sweden
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184
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Hu X, Liou AKF, Leak RK, Xu M, An C, Suenaga J, Shi Y, Gao Y, Zheng P, Chen J. Neurobiology of microglial action in CNS injuries: receptor-mediated signaling mechanisms and functional roles. Prog Neurobiol 2014; 119-120:60-84. [PMID: 24923657 PMCID: PMC4121732 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the first line of immune defense against central nervous system (CNS) injuries and disorders. These highly plastic cells play dualistic roles in neuronal injury and recovery and are known for their ability to assume diverse phenotypes. A broad range of surface receptors are expressed on microglia and mediate microglial 'On' or 'Off' responses to signals from other host cells as well as invading microorganisms. The integrated actions of these receptors result in tightly regulated biological functions, including cell mobility, phagocytosis, the induction of acquired immunity, and trophic factor/inflammatory mediator release. Over the last few years, significant advances have been made toward deciphering the signaling mechanisms related to these receptors and their specific cellular functions. In this review, we describe the current state of knowledge of the surface receptors involved in microglial activation, with an emphasis on their engagement of distinct functional programs and their roles in CNS injuries. It will become evident from this review that microglial homeostasis is carefully maintained by multiple counterbalanced strategies, including, but not limited to, 'On' and 'Off' receptor signaling. Specific regulation of theses microglial receptors may be a promising therapeutic strategy against CNS injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Hu
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Geriatric Research, Educational and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA 15240, USA.
| | - Anthony K F Liou
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15282, USA
| | - Mingyue Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chengrui An
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Suenaga
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Yejie Shi
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Yanqin Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Geriatric Research, Educational and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA 15240, USA.
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185
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Therapeutically targeting neuroinflammation and microglia after acute ischemic stroke. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:297241. [PMID: 25089266 PMCID: PMC4095830 DOI: 10.1155/2014/297241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation has a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke, and recent studies posit that inflammation acts as a double-edged sword, not only detrimentally augmenting secondary injury, but also potentially promoting recovery. An initial event of inflammation in ischemic stroke is the activation of microglia, leading to production of both pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators acting through multiple receptor signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the role of microglial mediators in acute ischemic stroke and elaborate on preclinical and clinical studies focused on microglia in stroke models. Understanding how microglia can lead to both pro- and anti-inflammatory responses may be essential to implement therapeutic strategies using immunomodulatory interventions in ischemic stroke.
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186
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Cherry JD, Olschowka JA, O’Banion MK. Neuroinflammation and M2 microglia: the good, the bad, and the inflamed. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:98. [PMID: 24889886 PMCID: PMC4060849 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1176] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of multiple macrophage activation states is not new. However, extending this idea to resident tissue macrophages, like microglia, has gained increased interest in recent years. Unfortunately, the research on peripheral macrophage polarization does not necessarily translate accurately to their central nervous system (CNS) counterparts. Even though pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines can polarize microglia to distinct activation states, the specific functions of these states is still an area of intense debate. This review examines the multiple possible activation states microglia can be polarized to. This is followed by a detailed description of microglial polarization and the functional relevance of this process in both acute and chronic CNS disease models described in the literature. Particular attention is given to utilizing M2 microglial polarization as a potential therapeutic option in treating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Cherry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - John A Olschowka
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - M Kerry O’Banion
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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187
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Viguier M, Advedissian T, Delacour D, Poirier F, Deshayes F. Galectins in epithelial functions. Tissue Barriers 2014; 2:e29103. [PMID: 25097826 PMCID: PMC4117684 DOI: 10.4161/tisb.29103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Galectins are a family of animal lectins comprising 15 members in vertebrates. These proteins are involved in many biological processes including epithelial homeostasis and tumor progression by displaying intracellular and extracellular activities. Hence Galectins can be found either in the cytoplasm or the nucleus, associated with membranes or in the extracellular matrix. Current studies aim at understanding the roles of Galectins in cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion, cellular polarity and motility. This review discusses recent progress in defining the specificities and mechanisms of action of Galectins as cell regulators in epithelial cells. Physiological, cellular and molecular aspects of Galectin specificities will be treated successively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireille Viguier
- Institut Jacques Monod Umr 7592 Cnrs-Université Paris Diderot ; Paris, France
| | - Tamara Advedissian
- Institut Jacques Monod Umr 7592 Cnrs-Université Paris Diderot ; Paris, France
| | - Delphine Delacour
- Institut Jacques Monod Umr 7592 Cnrs-Université Paris Diderot ; Paris, France
| | - Françoise Poirier
- Institut Jacques Monod Umr 7592 Cnrs-Université Paris Diderot ; Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Deshayes
- Institut Jacques Monod Umr 7592 Cnrs-Université Paris Diderot ; Paris, France
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188
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The Yin and Yang of innate immunity in stroke. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:807978. [PMID: 24877133 PMCID: PMC4021995 DOI: 10.1155/2014/807978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Immune system plays an elementary role in the pathophysiological progress of ischemic stroke. It consists of innate and adaptive immune system. Activated within minutes after ischemic onset, innate immunity is responsible for the elimination of necrotic cells and tissue repair, while it is critically involved in the initiation and amplification of poststroke inflammation that amplifies ischemic damage to the brain tissue. Innate immune response requires days to be fully developed, providing a considerable time window for therapeutic intervention, suggesting prospect of novel immunomodulatory therapies against poststroke inflammation-induced brain injury. However, obstacles still exist and a comprehensive understanding of ischemic stroke and innate immune reaction is essential. In this review, we highlighted the current experimental and clinical data depicting the innate immune response following ischemic stroke, mainly focusing on the recognition of damage-associated molecular patterns, activation and recruitment of innate immune cells, and involvement of various cytokines. In addition, clinical trials targeting innate immunity were also documented regardless of the outcome, stressing the requirements for further investigation.
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189
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Moon ES, Karadimas SK, Yu WR, Austin JW, Fehlings MG. Riluzole attenuates neuropathic pain and enhances functional recovery in a rodent model of cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 62:394-406. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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190
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Galectin-3 controls the response of microglial cells to limit cuprizone-induced demyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 62:441-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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191
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Fernández PE, Diessler ME, Pachame A, Ortega HH, Gimeno EJ, Portiansky EL, Barbeito CG. Intermediate filament proteins expression and carbohydrate moieties in trophoblast and decidual cells of mature cat placenta. Reprod Domest Anim 2014; 49:263-9. [PMID: 24471554 DOI: 10.1111/rda.12265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize cytoskeletal intermediate filament proteins and glycoconjugates of syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast and decidual cells of feline endotheliochorial placenta. Samples from 12 normal pregnant female cats, after 45 ± 5 days of gestation, were obtained removing the uterine horns by hysterectomy. Sections were processed for routine observation and for immunohistochemistry using anticytokeratin, antivimentin and antidesmin antibodies. In addition, lectin histochemistry was performed using a panel of several biotinylated lectins to characterize glycosides expression profile. Cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast showed immunoreactivity only with acidic and basic cytokeratins. Decidual cells were only positive to vimentin, consistent with their origin from endometrial fibroblasts. Trophoblast expressed a broad population of glycans, highly exposing terminal N-acetyl glucosamine residues and non-sialylated galactose and N-acetyl galactosamine oligomers. Oligosaccharides bound by Phaseolus vulgaris erythroagglutinin were the only highly branched N-linked residues evidenced in cats, and they were restricted to the syncytium. Unlike results reported on humans, mice and rats on lectin affinity of decidual cells, sialid acids and complex N-linked oligosaccharides were not demonstrated in cats. Glycosylation of proteins determines many of their final properties, thus becoming essential for the embryo-maternal dialogue during implantation and placentation. Changes in glycosylation pattern have been related to pathological pregnancies in other species. Hence, the knowledge about glycosylation profile of the normal cat placenta may lead to a better understanding of both normal and pathological reproductive events.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Fernández
- General Pathology, School of Veterinary Sciences UNLP, La Plata, Argentina
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192
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Young CC, Al-Dalahmah O, Lewis NJ, Brooks KJ, Jenkins MM, Poirier F, Buchan AM, Szele FG. Blocked angiogenesis in Galectin-3 null mice does not alter cellular and behavioral recovery after middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 63:155-64. [PMID: 24269916 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis is thought to decrease stroke size and improve behavioral outcomes and therefore several clinical trials are seeking to augment it. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) expression increases after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and has been proposed to limit damage 3days after stroke. We carried out mild MCAO that damages the striatum but spares the cerebral cortex and SVZ. Gal-3 gene deletion prevented vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) upregulation after MCAO. This inhibited post-MCAO increases in endothelial proliferation and angiogenesis in the striatum allowing us to uniquely address the function of angiogenesis in this model of stroke. Apoptosis and infarct size were unchanged in Gal-3(-/-) mice 7 and 14 days after MCAO, suggesting that angiogenesis does not affect lesion size. Microglial and astrocyte activation/proliferation after MCAO was similar in wild type and Gal-3(-/-) mice. In addition, openfield activity, motor hemiparesis, proprioception, reflex, tremors and grooming behaviors were essentially identical between WT and Gal-3(-/-) mice at 1, 3, 7, 10 and 14 days after MCAO, suggesting that penumbral angiogenesis has limited impact on behavioral recovery. In addition to angiogenesis, increased adult subventricular zone (SVZ) neurogenesis is thought to provide neuroprotection after stroke in animal models. SVZ neurogenesis and migration to lesion were overall unaffected by the loss of Gal-3, suggesting no compensation for the lack of angiogenesis in Gal-3(-/-) mice. Because angiogenesis and neurogenesis are usually coordinately regulated, identifying their individual effects on stroke has hitherto been difficult. These results show that Gal-3 is necessary for angiogenesis in stroke in a VEGF-dependant manner, but suggest that angiogenesis may be dispensable for post-stroke endogenous repair, therefore drawing into question the clinical utility of augmenting angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Young
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Osama Al-Dalahmah
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Nicola J Lewis
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Keith J Brooks
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Micaela M Jenkins
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Françoise Poirier
- Institut Jacques Monod, UMR CNRS 7592, Université Paris Diderot, 75205 Paris 13, France
| | - Alastair M Buchan
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Francis G Szele
- University of Oxford, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK.
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193
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Nikodemova M, Small AL, Smith SMC, Mitchell GS, Watters JJ. Spinal but not cortical microglia acquire an atypical phenotype with high VEGF, galectin-3 and osteopontin, and blunted inflammatory responses in ALS rats. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 69:43-53. [PMID: 24269728 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of microglia, CNS resident immune cells, is a pathological hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disorder affecting motor neurons. Despite evidence that microglia contribute to disease progression, the exact role of these cells in ALS pathology remains unknown. We immunomagnetically isolated microglia from different CNS regions of SOD1(G93A) rats at three different points in disease progression: presymptomatic, symptom onset and end-stage. We observed no differences in microglial number or phenotype in presymptomatic rats compared to wild-type controls. Although after disease onset there was no macrophage infiltration, there were significant increases in microglial numbers in the spinal cord, but not cortex. At disease end-stage, microglia were characterized by high expression of galectin-3, osteopontin and VEGF, and concomitant downregulated expression of TNFα, IL-6, BDNF and arginase-1. Flow cytometry revealed the presence of at least two phenotypically distinct microglial populations in the spinal cord. Immunohistochemistry showed that galectin-3/osteopontin positive microglia were restricted to the ventral horns of the spinal cord, regions with severe motor neuron degeneration. End-stage SOD1(G93A) microglia from the cortex, a less affected region, displayed similar gene expression profiles to microglia from wild-type rats, and displayed normal responses to systemic inflammation induced by LPS. On the other hand, end-stage SOD1(G93A) spinal microglia had blunted responses to systemic LPS suggesting that in addition to their phenotypic changes, they may also be functionally impaired. Thus, after disease onset, microglia acquired unique characteristics that do not conform to typical M1 (inflammatory) or M2 (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes. This transformation was observed only in the most affected CNS regions, suggesting that overexpression of mutated hSOD1 is not sufficient to trigger these changes in microglia. These novel observations suggest that microglial regional and phenotypic heterogeneity may be an important consideration when designing new therapeutic strategies targeting microglia and neuroinflammation in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nikodemova
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Alissa L Small
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Stephanie M C Smith
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jyoti J Watters
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
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194
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Sohrabji F, Williams M. Stroke neuroprotection: oestrogen and insulin-like growth factor-1 interactions and the role of microglia. J Neuroendocrinol 2013; 25:1173-81. [PMID: 23763366 PMCID: PMC5630268 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Oestrogen has been shown to be neuroprotective for stroke and other neural injury models. Oestrogen promotes a neuroprotective phenotype through myriad actions, including stimulating neurogenesis, promoting neuronal differentiation and survival, suppressing neuroinflammation and maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. At the molecular level, oestrogen directly modulates genes that are beneficial for repair and regeneration via the canonical oestrogen receptor. Increasingly, evidence indicates that oestrogen acts in concert with growth factors to initiate neuroprotection. Oestrogen and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 act cooperatively to influence cell survival, and combined steroid hormone/growth factor interaction has been well documented in the context of neurones and astrocytes. Here, we summarise the evidence that oestrogen-mediated neuroprotection is critically dependent on IGF-1 signalling, and specifically focus on microglia as the source of IGF-1 and the locus of oestrogen-IGF-1 interactions in stroke neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Sohrabji
- Women's Health in Neuroscience Program, Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, TAMHSC College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, USA
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195
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Microglial responses after ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:746068. [PMID: 24223607 PMCID: PMC3810327 DOI: 10.1155/2013/746068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of death worldwide. Ischemic stroke is caused by blockage of blood vessels in the brain leading to tissue death, while intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) occurs when a blood vessel ruptures, exposing the brain to blood components. Both are associated with glial toxicity and neuroinflammation. Microglia, as the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), continually sample the environment for signs of injury and infection. Under homeostatic conditions, they have a ramified morphology and phagocytose debris. After stroke, microglia become activated, obtain an amoeboid morphology, and release inflammatory cytokines (the M1 phenotype). However, microglia can also be alternatively activated, performing crucial roles in limiting inflammation and phagocytosing tissue debris (the M2 phenotype). In rodent models, microglial activation occurs very early after stroke and ICH; however, their specific roles in injury and repair remain unclear. This review summarizes the literature on microglial responses after ischemic stroke and ICH, highlighting the mediators of microglial activation and potential therapeutic targets for each condition.
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196
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Immunohistochemical localization of galectin-3 in the brain with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (DA strain) infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.14405/kjvr.2013.53.3.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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197
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Shin T. The pleiotropic effects of galectin-3 in neuroinflammation: a review. Acta Histochem 2013; 115:407-11. [PMID: 23305876 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2012.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2012] [Revised: 11/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The β-galactoside-binding lectin, galectin-3, is expressed in a variety of mammalian cells and tissues. It is involved in cell adhesion, activation, proliferation, apoptosis and cell migration. It also plays an important role in inflammation as a pro-inflammatory mediator. The involvement of galectin-3 in various inflammation models, including those of autoimmune disease, skin disease, and cancer, has been investigated extensively. Moreover, galectin-3 has been suggested to be a therapeutic target for various diseases. The present review deals with the expression of galectin-3 in central nervous system (CNS) tissues during normal development and in various models of inflammation. The available information indicates that galectin-3 is essential for normal brain development and plays diverse roles in CNS inflammation, combining pro-inflammatory roles with re-modeling capacity in damaged CNS tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taekyun Shin
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine and Veterinary Medical Research Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Republic of Korea.
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198
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Patel AR, Ritzel R, McCullough LD, Liu F. Microglia and ischemic stroke: a double-edged sword. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2013; 5:73-90. [PMID: 23750306 PMCID: PMC3669736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory processes have a fundamental role in the pathophysiology of stroke. A key initial event is the rapid activation of resident immune cells, primarily microglia. This cell population is an important target for new therapeutic approaches to limit stroke damage. Activation of microglia is normally held in check by strictly controlled mechanisms involving neuronal-glial communication. Ischemic stroke is a powerful stimulus that disables the endogenous inhibitory signaling and triggers microglial activation. Once activated, microglia exhibit a spectrum of phenotypes, release both pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators, and function to either exacerbate ischemic injury or help repair depending on different molecular signals the microglial receptors receive. Various ligands and receptors have been identified for microglial activation. Experimental tools to detect these inflammatory signals are being increasingly developed in an effort to define the functional roles of microglia. Fine-tuning immunomodulatory interventions based on the heterogeneous profiles of microglia are urgently needed for ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita R Patel
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Rodney Ritzel
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Louise D McCullough
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, Connecticut 06030
- Department of Neurology, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Fudong Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, Connecticut 06030
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199
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Piao CS, Stoica BA, Wu J, Sabirzhanov B, Zhao Z, Cabatbat R, Loane DJ, Faden AI. Late exercise reduces neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 54:252-63. [PMID: 23313314 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Delayed secondary biochemical and cellular changes after traumatic brain injury continue for months to years, and are associated with chronic neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration. Physical activity can reduce inflammation and facilitate recovery after brain injury. Here, we investigated the time-dependent effects, and underlying mechanisms of post-traumatic exercise initiation on outcome after moderate traumatic brain injury using a well-characterized mouse controlled cortical impact model. Late exercise initiation beginning at 5weeks after trauma, but not early initiation of exercise at 1week, significantly reduced working and retention memory impairment at 3months, and decreased lesion volume compared to non-exercise injury controls. Cognitive recovery was associated with attenuation of classical inflammatory pathways, activation of alternative inflammatory responses and enhancement of neurogenesis. In contrast, early initiation of exercise failed to alter behavioral recovery or lesion size, while increasing the neurotoxic pro-inflammatory responses. These data underscore the critical importance of timing of exercise initiation after trauma and its relation to neuroinflammation, and challenge the widely held view that effective neuroprotection requires early intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Shu Piao
- Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR) and Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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200
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Seizure-induced neuronal death is suppressed in the absence of the endogenous lectin Galectin-1. J Neurosci 2013; 32:15590-600. [PMID: 23115194 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4983-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pilocarpine injection induces epileptic seizures in rodents, an experimental paradigm extensively used to model temporal lobe epilepsy in humans. It includes conspicuous neuronal death in the forebrain and previous work has demonstrated an involvement of the neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) in this process. Following the identification of Galectin-1 (Gal-1) as a downstream effector of p75(NTR), we examine here the role of this endogenous lectin in pilocarpine-induced cell death in adult mice. We found that most somatostatin-positive neurons also express Gal-1 and that in mice lacking the corresponding gene Lgals1, pilocarpine-induced neuronal death was essentially abolished in the forebrain. We also found that the related lectin Galectin-3 (Gal-3) was strongly upregulated by pilocarpine in microglial cells. This upregulation was absent in Lgals1 mutants and our results with Lgals3-null animals show that Gal-3 is not required for neuronal death in the hippocampus. These findings provide new insights into the roles and regulation of endogenous lectins in the adult CNS and a surprisingly selective proapoptotic role of Gal-1 for a subpopulation of GABAergic interneurons.
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