Organization and transmitter specificity of medullary neurons activated by sustained hypertension: implications for understanding baroreceptor reflex circuitry

Nitric oxide producing neurones in the rat medulla oblongata that project to nucleus tractus solitarii

The production of nitric oxide in neurones of the rat medulla oblongata that project to the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) was examined by simultaneous immunohistochemical detection of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and of cholera toxin B-subunit (CTb), which was injected into the caudal zone of the NTS. Neurones immunoreactive for CTb and neurones immunoreactive for NOS were widely co-distributed and found in almost all the anatomical divisions of the medulla. Dual-labelled cells, containing both CTb and NOS immunoreactivities were more numerous ipsilaterally to the injection sites. They were concentrated principally in the more rostral zone of the NTS, raphé nuclei, dorsal, intermediate and lateral reticular areas, spinal trigeminal and paratrigeminal nuclei and the external cuneate and medial vestibular nuclei. Isolated dual-labelled neurones were also scattered throughout most of the divisions of the reticular formation. These observations indicate that many areas of the medulla that are known to relay somatosensory and viscerosensory inputs contain NOS immunoreactive neurones that project to the NTS, and may, therefore, contribute to the dense NOS-immunoreactive innervation of the NTS. The release of nitric oxide from the axon terminals of these neurones may modulate autonomic responses generated by NTS neurones in relation to peripheral sensory stimuli, and thus ultimately regulate sympathetic and/or parasympathetic outflow.

Electrophysiological and morphological characteristics of nucleus tractus solitarii neurons projecting to the ventrolateral medulla

Electrophysiological and morphological properties of a direct projection from the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) to the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) were investigated. NTS neurons projecting to the VLM exhibit a monosynaptic excitatory response followed by an inhibitory one after the tractus solitarius stimulation. These neurons show spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents, and have medium to large soma (14-26 microm in diameter). It is concluded that the projection from the NTS to the VLM is mediated mostly by medium to large neurons that are inhibited locally by GABAergic interneurons within the NTS.

Trigemino-autonomic connections in the muskrat: the neural substrate for the diving response

Stimulation of the anterior ethmoidal nerve of the muskrat produces a cardiorespiratory depression similar to the diving response. This includes an apnea, a parasympathetic bradycardia, and a selective increase in sympathetic vascular tone. However, the brainstem circuitry that links the afferent stimulus to the efferent autonomic responses is unknown. We used the anterograde transneuronal transport of the herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), strain 129, after its injection into the anterior ethmoidal nerve to determine the primary, secondary, and tertiary brainstem relays responsible for this cardiorespiratory response. In an effort to check the validity of this relatively untested tracer, we also injected the medullary dorsal horn with biotinylated dextran amine to determine the secondary trigemino-autonomic projections. Approximately 1 microl (6x10(6) PFU) of the HSV-1 virus was injected directly into the anterior ethmoidal nerve of muskrats. After 2-6 days, their trigeminal ganglions, spinal cords and brainstems were cut and immunohistologically processed for HSV-1. Initially (2 days), HSV-1 was observed only in the trigeminal ganglion. After approximately 3 days, HSV-1 was observed first in many brainstem areas optimally labeled between 4 and 4.5 days. In these cases, the ventrolateral superficial medullary dorsal horn, the ventral paratrigeminal nucleus and the interface between the interpolar and caudal subnuclei were labeled ipsilaterally. The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), especially its ventrolateral, dorsolateral, and commissural subnuclei were labeled as well as the caudal, intermediate and rostral ventrolateral medulla. Within the pons, the superior salivatory nucleus, the A5 area, the ventrolateral part of the parabrachial nucleus and the Kölliker-Fuse nucleus were labeled. Only after a survival of 4 days or more, the locus coeruleus, the nucleus raphe magnus, the nucleus paragigantocellularis, pars alpha, and the pontine raphe nucleus were labeled. Injections of biotinylated dextran amine were made into the medullary dorsal horn (MDH) in a location similar to that labeled after the viral injections. Fine fibers and terminals were labeled in the same brainstem areas labeled after injections of HSV-1 into the anterior ethmoidal nerve. This study outlines the potential brainstem circuit for the diving response, the most powerful autonomic reflex known. It also confirms the efficacy for using HSV-1, strain 129, as an anterograde transneuronal transport method.

Role of the locus ceruleus in baroreceptor regulation of supraoptic vasopressin neurons in the rat

The goal of this study was to identify the source of baroreceptor-related noradrenergic innervation of the diagonal band of Broca (DBB). Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent sinoaortic denervation (SAD, n = 13) or sham SAD surgery (n = 13). We examined Fos expression produced by baroreceptor activation and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase immunofluorescence in hindbrain regions that contain noradrenergic neurons. Baroreceptors were stimulated by increasing blood pressure >40 mmHg with phenylephrine (10 microgram. kg(-1). min(-1) iv) in sham SAD and SAD rats. Controls were infused with 0.9% saline. Only the locus ceruleus (LC) demonstrated a baroreceptor-dependent increase in Fos immunoreactivity in dopamine-beta-hydroxylase-positive neurons. In a second experiment, normal rats received rhodamine-labeled microsphere injections in the DBB (n = 12) before phenylephrine or vehicle infusion. In these experiments, only the LC consistently contained Fos-positive cells after phenylephrine infusion that were retrogradely labeled from the DBB. Finally, we lesioned the LC with ibotenic acid and obtained extracellular recordings from identified vasopressin neurons in the supraoptic nucleus. LC lesions significantly reduced the number of vasopressin neurons that were inhibited by acute baroreceptor stimulation. Together, these results suggest that noradrenergic neurons in the LC participate in the baroreflex activation of the DBB and may thus be important in the baroreflex inhibition of vasopressin-releasing neurons in the supraoptic nucleus.

Pressor response to pulsatile compression of the rostral ventrolateral medulla mediated by nitric oxide and c-fos expression

It has been reported that neurovascular compression of the rostral ventrolateral medulla might be causally related to essential hypertension. Recently, we found that pulsatile compression of the rostral ventrolateral medulla increases sympathetic nerve activity and elevates arterial pressure via activation of glutamate receptors in rats. We also found that increases in sympathetic and cardiovascular activities by microinjection of L-glutamate into the rostral ventrolateral medulla are mediated by c-fos expression-related substance(s) following activation of the nitric oxide-cyclic GMP pathway. Herein, we investigated whether responses to pulsatile compression are mediated by local activation of the nitric oxide-cyclic GMP pathway and/or c-fos expression-related substance(s) in rats. Increases in arterial pressure (15+/-1 mmHg), heart rate (9+/-1 b.p.m.), and sympathetic nerve activity (% change: 8.5+/-1.1%) induced by pulsatile compression were partially but significantly inhibited after local microinjection of a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, L-N(G)-nitroarginine methyl ester (8+/-2 mmHg, 1+/-1 b.p.m., 4.0+/-1.3%; P<0.05 vs compression without pretreatment) or 7-nitroindazole (7+/-2 mmHg, 2+/-1 b.p.m., 4.0+/-1. 5%; P<0.05), or a soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor, methylene blue (9+/-1 mmHg, 4+/-1 b.p.m., 4.1+/-1.4%; P<0.05). In addition, increases in arterial pressure, heart rate, and sympathetic nerve activity by pulsatile compression were significantly reduced 6 h after microinjection of antisense oligodeoxynucleotide to c-fos mRNA (2+/-2 mmHg, 2+/-1 b.p.m., 1.0+/-1.0%; P<0.05 vs sense oligodeoxynucleotide). These results suggest that increases in sympathetic and cardiovascular activities induced by pulsatile compression of the rostral ventrolateral medulla are mediated, at least in part, by local activation of the nitric oxide-cyclic GMP pathway and c-fos expression-related substance(s) in rats.

Anatomical substrates for baroreflex sympathoinhibition in the rat

The fundamental neuronal substrates of the arterial baroreceptor reflex have been elucidated by combining anatomical, neurophysiological, and pharmacological approaches. A serial pathway between neurons located in the nuclei of the solitary tract (NTS), the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVL), and the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVL) plays a critical role in inhibition of sympathetic outflow following stimulation of baroreceptor afferents. In this paper, we summarize our studies using tract-tracing and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry to define the potential functional sites for synaptic transmission within this circuitry. The results are discussed as they relate to the literature showing: (1) baroreceptor afferents excite second-order neurons in NTS through the release of glutamate; (2) these NTS neurons in turn send excitatory projections to neurons in the CVL; (3) GABAergic CVL neurons directly inhibit RVL sympathoexcitatory neurons; and (4) activation of this NTS-->CVL-->RVL pathway leads to disfacilitation of sympathetic preganglionic neurons by promoting withdrawal of their tonic excitatory drive, which largely arises from neurons in the RVL. Baroreceptor control may also be regulated over direct reticulospinal pathways exemplified by a newly recognized sympathoinhibitory region of the medulla, the gigantocellular depressor area. This important autonomic reflex may also be influenced by parallel, multiple, and redundant networks.

Baroreflex dependent and independent roles of the caudal ventrolateral medulla in cardiovascular regulation

The caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM) plays a critical role in cardiovascular regulation. Convincing data now support the hypothesis that inhibition of sympathoexcitatory neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) by CVLM neurons constitutes the necessary inhibitory link in baroreceptor reflex mediated control of sympathetic vasomotor outflow. Inhibition or destruction of the CVLM produces severe acute hypertension, consistent with blockade of baroreceptor reflexes and withdrawal of inhibition of RVLM sympathoexcitatory neurons. However, other data indicate that the CVLM also tonically inhibits RVLM sympathoexcitatory neurons in a manner not driven by baroreceptor input. In some studies, inhibition of the CVLM results in an increase in arterial pressure (AP) without inhibiting baroreceptor reflexes, possibly reflecting baroreceptor-independent and baroreceptor-dependent sub-regions of the CVLM. Furthermore, in baroreceptor-denervated rats, inhibition of the CVLM still leads to large increases in AP. In addition, in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) central processing of baroreceptor reflexes appears normal but CVLM-mediated inhibition of the RVLM seems to be attenuated, suggesting that it is specifically a baroreceptor-independent mechanism of cardiovascular regulation in SHR that is altered. Taken together, these findings support an important, tonic, baroreceptor-independent inhibition of RVLM sympathoexcitatory neurons exerted by the CVLM.

Medial prefrontal depressor response: involvement of the rostral and caudal ventrolateral medulla in the rat

The importance of neurones of the caudal and rostral ventrolateral medulla (CVLM and RVLM, respectively) in mediation of the medial prefrontal cortex depressor response was studied in halothane-anaesthetised rats. Blockade of GABA(A) receptors in the RVLM produced by microinjection of bicuculline (50 nl, 2 mM, n = 6) resulted in reversal of the depressor (-9.5 +/- 1.2 mm Hg) and lumbar sympathetic (-6.5 +/- 5.7 units) responses to pressor (+7.8 +/- 3.5 mm Hg) and sympathoexcitatory (+19.3 +/- 12.5 units) responses and simultaneous blockade of baroreceptor reflex-mediated sympathoinhibition. Baroreflex blockade was reflected by a significant reduction in the gain (slope of the blood pressure vs. lumbar sympathetic nerve discharge regression line) of the reflex. Microinjection of the excitatory amino acid antagonist kynurenic acid (100 nl, 50 mM, n = 6) into the CVLM blocked the baroreflex and significantly reduced the depressor (-9.6 +/- 0.4 to -6.9 +/- 0.6 mm Hg) and lumbar sympathetic (-4.0 +/- 2.1 to 2.9 +/- 1.9 units) responses to medial prefrontal cortex stimulation. These results support the hypothesis that the medial prefrontal cortex depressor response is mediated by a pathway which converges at the level of the RVLM and which is only partly dependent on an excitatory input to caudal ventrolateral medullary neurones.

Location and electrophysiological characterization of rostral medullary adrenergic neurons that contain neuropeptide Y mRNA in rat medulla

The objective of this study was to characterize the projection pattern and electrophysiological properties of the rostral medullary adrenergic neurons (C(1)) that express neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA in rat. NPY mRNA was found in a variable fraction of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive (TH-IR) neurons depending on the medullary level. By retrograde labeling (Fast Blue, FluoroGold), NPY mRNA was detected in virtually all C(1) cells (96%) and C(3) cells (100%) with hypothalamic projections but in only 9% of C(1) cells and 58% of C(3) cells projecting to thoracic segment 3 (T(3)) or T(6) of the spinal cord. To identify the electrophysiological properties of the C(1) cells that express NPY mRNA, we recorded from baroinhibited neurons within the C(1) region of the ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and tested for projections to segment T(3), the hypothalamus, or both. By using the juxtacellular method, we labeled these cells with biotinamide and determined whether the recorded neurons were TH-IR and contained NPY mRNA. At rostral levels (Bregma -11.8 mm), barosensitive neurons had a wide range of conduction velocities (0.4-6.0 m/second) and discharge rates (2-28 spikes/second). Most projected to T(3) only (27 of 31 cells), and 4 projected to both the hypothalamus and the spinal cord. Most of the baroinhibited cells with spinal projections but with no hypothalamic projections had TH-IR but no NPY mRNA (11 of 17 cells). Only 1 cell had both (1 of 17 cells), and 5 cells had neither (5 of 17 cells). Both TH-IR and NPY mRNA were found in neurons with dual projections (2 of 2 cells). At level Bregma -12.5 mm, baroinhibited neurons had projections to the hypothalamus only (13 of 13 cells) and had unmyelinated axons and a low discharge rate. Four of five neurons contained both TH-IR and NPY mRNA, and 1 neuron contained neither. In short, NPY is expressed mostly by C(1) cells with projection to the hypothalamus. NPY-positive C(1) neurons are barosensitive, have unmyelinated axons, and have a very low rate of discharge. Most bulbospinal C(1) cells with a putative sympathoexcitatory role do not make NPY.

Hypotension activates neuropeptide Y-containing neurons in the rat medulla oblongata

The present study was designed to determine whether neurons within cardiovascular control nuclei of the rat brainstem that become activated following a hypotensive insult also possess the capacity to utilize neuropeptide Y. Adult male Wistar-Kyoto rats were injected with glyceryl trinitrate (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle, and 4 h later anaesthetized (pentobarbitone, 60 mg/kg, i.p.) and transcardially perfused. The brains were removed and processed by standard two-colour peroxidase immunohistochemistry. Activated cells were determined by incubation with a primary antibody to Fos protein, which was followed by a second incubation with a primary antibody to neuropeptide Y for double labelling of Fos-positive cells. Compared to vehicle, glyceryl trinitrate-induced hypotension caused a marked induction of Fos protein in the caudal one-third of the nucleus tractus solitarius (bregma -14 to -13.3 mm), which tailed off rapidly in more rostral sections. Following hypotension, significant populations of activated cells were also observed in the rostral and caudal ventrolateral medulla. In the caudal nucleus tractus solitarius and the posterior part of the medial nucleus tractus solitarius, respectively, 15 of 104 and 40 of 120 Fos-positive cells exhibited cytoplasmic neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity following hypotension, compared to seven of 40 and 15 of 40 in vehicle-treated rats, indicating a significant (two- to three-fold) increase in double-labelled cells following systemic glyceryl trinitrate (P < 0.05, unpaired t-test). In contrast, in the anterior part of the medial nucleus tractus solitarius, the number of double-labelled cells did not change following hypotension. An increase in double-labelled cells was also observed in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (2.5-fold increase compared to vehicle) and caudal ventrolateral medulla (5.8-fold increase compared to vehicle) following hypotension. These data indicate that, in the rat, neuropeptide Y-containing neurons are involved in the central response to a hypotensive challenge. The primary regions where neuropeptide Y-containing neurons appear to be activated are the caudal one-third of the nucleus tractus solitarius and the caudal ventrolateral medulla/rostral ventrolateral medulla, which are key nuclei associated with the integration of the baroreceptor heart rate reflex and sympathetic vasomotor outflow.

Differential roles of NMDA and non-NMDA receptors in synaptic responses of neurons in nucleus tractus solitarii of the rat

The relative role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and non-NMDA receptors in synaptic responses of neurons in caudal nucleus tractus solitarii (cNTS) was delineated by immunohistochemical and electrophysiologic experiments in rats. Double immunohistochemical staining in in vivo experiments revealed that approximately 80% of cNTS neurons that showed Fos-like immunoreactivity induced by baroreceptor activation were generally also immunoreactive to non-NMDA receptor subunits GluR1 or GluR2. On the other hand, only 20% of Fos-labeled cNTS neurons showed immunoreactivity to NMDA receptor subunits NMDAR1 or NMDAR2. Stimulation of the ipsilateral solitary tract at suprathreshold intensity in slice preparations induced Fos expression in the cNTS and evoked either a single action potential or a complex synaptic response consisting of an initial action potential followed by a secondary slow depolarization. In a majority (70%) of cNTS neurons that exhibited the complex synaptic response, both the initial and secondary components were eliminated reversibly by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (20 microM). This non-NMDA antagonist also inhibited the single action potential manifested by the other population of cNTS neurons. On the other hand, only the secondary slow depolarization was blocked by D(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (250 microM) or potentiated by NMDA (1.7 microM). Our results suggested that NMDA and non-NMDA receptors are involved differentially in the synaptic responses of cNTS neurons. Non-NMDA receptors may be distributed predominantly on a majority of the second-order cNTS neurons that may receive primary baroreceptor afferent inputs. On the other hand, NMDA receptors are located primarily on higher-order neurons, which may be connected reciprocally with the second-order cNTS neurons.

Properties of C1 and other ventrolateral medullary neurones with hypothalamic projections in the rat

1. This study compared (i) the properties of C1 cells with those of neighbouring non-C1 neurones that project to the hypothalamus and (ii) the properties of C1 cells that project to the hypothalamus with those of their medullospinal counterparts. 2. Extracellular recordings were made at three rostrocaudal levels of the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) in alpha-chloralose-anaesthetized, artificially ventilated, paralysed rats. Recorded cells were filled with biotinamide. 3. Level I (0-300 microm behind facial nucleus) contained spontaneously active neurones that were silenced by baro- and cardiopulmonary receptor activation and virtually unaffected by nociceptive stimulation (firing rate altered by < 20 %). These projected either to the cord (type I; 36/39), or to the hypothalamus (type II; 2/39) but rarely to both (1/39). 4. Level II (600-800 microm behind facial nucleus) contained (i) type I neurones (n = 3) (ii) type II neurones (n = 11), (iii) neurones that projected to the hypothalamus and were silenced by baro- and cardiopulmonary receptor activation but activated by strong nociceptive stimulation (type III, n = 2), (iv) non-barosensitive cells activated by weak nociceptive stimulation which projected only to the hypothalamus (type IV, n = 9), (v) cells that projected to the hypothalamus and responded to none of the applied stimuli (type V, n = 7) and (vi) neurones activated by elevating blood pressure which projected neither to the cord nor to the hypothalamus (type VI, n = 4). 5. Level III (1400-1600 microm behind facial motor nucleus) contained all the cell types found at level II except type I. 6. Most of type I and II (17/26) and half of type III cells (4/8) were C1 neurones. Type IV-V were rarely adrenergic (2/12) and type VI were never adrenergic (0/3). 7. All VLM baroinhibited cells project either to the cord or the hypothalamus and virtually all (21/23) C1 cells receive inhibitory inputs from arterial and cardiopulmonary receptors.

Evidence for glycinergic respiratory neurons: Bötzinger neurons express mRNA for glycinergic transporter 2

Bötzinger (BOTZ) neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla fire during the late expiratory phase of the respiratory cycle. These cells inhibit phrenic motor neurons and several types of respiratory neurons in the medulla oblongata. BOTZ cells produce a fast, chloride-mediated inhibition of their target neurons, but the neurotransmitter used by these cells has not been determined. In the present study, we examine whether gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or glycine could be the inhibitory neurotransmitter of BOTZ cells. In chloralose-anesthetized rats, we individually filled 20 physiologically characterized BOTZ neurons with biotinamide by using a juxtacellular labeling method. Medullary sections containing the labeled BOTZ neurons were processed for in situ hybridization by using digoxigenin-labeled riboprobes for glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform 67 (GAD67), a marker for GABAergic neurons, or for glycine transporter 2 (GLYT2), a marker for glycinergic neurons. All BOTZ cells examined contained GLYT2 mRNA (n = 10), whereas none had detectable levels of GAD67 mRNA (n = 10). For a positive control, 12 GABAergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars reticulata also were recorded and filled with biotinamide in vivo. Most of these cells, as expected, had detectable levels of GAD67 mRNA (11 out of 12). These results demonstrate that the juxtacellular labeling method can be combined with in situ hybridization to identify physiologically characterized cells with probable GABAergic or glycinergic phenotypes. Furthermore, these data suggest that BOTZ neurons use the neurotransmitter glycine and not GABA to provide widespread inhibition of respiratory-related neurons.

Subgroups of hindbrain catecholamine neurons are selectively activated by 2-deoxy-D-glucose induced metabolic challenge

Glucose is a major fuel for body energy metabolism and an essential metabolic fuel for the brain. Consequently, glucose deficit (glucoprivation) elicits a variety of physiological and behavioral responses crucial for survival. Previous work indicates an important role for brain catecholamine neurons in mediation of responses to glucoprivation. This experiment was conducted to identify the specific catecholamine neurons that are activated by glucoprivation. Activation of hindbrain catecholamine neurons by the antimetabolic glucose analogue, 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG; 50, 100, 200 or 400 mg/kg, s.c.) was evaluated using double label immunohistochemistry. Fos protein was used as the marker for neuronal activation and the enzymes tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and phenethanolamine-N-methyl transferase (PNMT) were used as the markers for norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) neurons. 2-Deoxy-D-glucose (200 and 400 mg/kg) produced selective activation of distinct hindbrain catecholamine cell groups. In the ventrolateral medulla, doubly labeled neurons were concentrated in the area of A1/C1 and were predominantly adrenergic in phenotype. In the dorsal medulla, doubly labeled neurons were limited to C2 and C3 cell groups. In the pons, some A6 neurons were Fos-positive. Neurons in rostral C1, ventral C3, A2, A5 and A7 did not express Fos-ir in response to 2DG. Our results identify specific subpopulations of catecholamine neurons that are selectively activated by 2DG. Previously demonstrated connections of these subpopulations are consistent with their participation in the feeding and hyperglycemic response to glucoprivation. Finally, the predominant and seemingly preferential activation of epinephrine neurons suggests that they may play a unique role in the brain's response to glucose deficit.

Characterization of neurons in the area of the medullary lateral reticular nucleus responsive to noxious visceral and cutaneous stimuli

In halothane-anesthetized rats, 283 caudal medullary neurons responsive to colorectal distension (CRD) were characterized using extracellular electrodes. Neurons inhibited by CRD (n = 82) were in the area dorsal to the lateral reticular nucleus (LRN). Most neurons excited by CRD (n = 130) were located within or immediately adjacent to the LRN, were excited by noxious heat and/or noxious pinch of at least half the body surface and were called bilateral nociceptive specific (bNS) neurons. bNS neurons had accelerating responses to graded CRD (threshold: 20 +/- 2 mmHg). Ten of twelve bNS neurons tested could be antidromically activated by electrical stimulation of the midline cerebellum. Other neurons excited by CRD (n = 71) had mixed responses to cutaneous stimuli and were generally located in the area dorsal to the LRN. Increases in blood pressure due to intravenous phenylephrine did not significantly alter the spontaneous activity of neurons excited by CRD, but altered spontaneous activity (12 excited, four inhibited) in all neurons tested which were inhibited by CRD. Decreases in blood pressure produced by intravenous nitroprusside produced a reciprocal response in most neurons inhibited by CRD and had a delayed onset (20-30 s after bolus administration) excitatory effect on 21 of 27 units excited by CRD. Combined with other studies, these data suggest a role for neurons within and adjacent to the LRN in the modulation of visceral nociception. They also implicate a role for the cerebellum in visceral nociceptive processing.