151
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Stone NE, Raj A, Young KM, DeLuca AP, Chrit FE, Tucker BA, Alexeev A, McDonald J, Benigno BB, Sulchek T. Label-free microfluidic enrichment of cancer cells from non-cancer cells in ascites. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18032. [PMID: 34504124 PMCID: PMC8429413 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96862-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The isolation of a patient's metastatic cancer cells is the first, enabling step toward treatment of that patient using modern personalized medicine techniques. Whereas traditional standard-of-care approaches select treatments for cancer patients based on the histological classification of cancerous tissue at the time of diagnosis, personalized medicine techniques leverage molecular and functional analysis of a patient's own cancer cells to select treatments with the highest likelihood of being effective. Unfortunately, the pure populations of cancer cells required for these analyses can be difficult to acquire, given that metastatic cancer cells typically reside in fluid containing many different cell populations. Detection and analyses of cancer cells therefore require separation from these contaminating cells. Conventional cell sorting approaches such as Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting or Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting rely on the presence of distinct surface markers on cells of interest which may not be known nor exist for cancer applications. In this work, we present a microfluidic platform capable of label-free enrichment of tumor cells from the ascites fluid of ovarian cancer patients. This approach sorts cells based on differences in biomechanical properties, and therefore does not require any labeling or other pre-sort interference with the cells. The method is also useful in the cases when specific surface markers do not exist for cells of interest. In model ovarian cancer cell lines, the method was used to separate invasive subtypes from less invasive subtypes with an enrichment of ~ sixfold. In ascites specimens from ovarian cancer patients, we found the enrichment protocol resulted in an improved purity of P53 mutant cells indicative of the presence of ovarian cancer cells. We believe that this technology could enable the application of personalized medicine based on analysis of liquid biopsy patient specimens, such as ascites from ovarian cancer patients, for quick evaluation of metastatic disease progression and determination of patient-specific treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E Stone
- The George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Abhishek Raj
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801103, India
| | - Katherine M Young
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332-0535, USA
| | - Adam P DeLuca
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Carver College of Medicine, Institute for Vision Research, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Fatima Ezahra Chrit
- The George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Budd A Tucker
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Carver College of Medicine, Institute for Vision Research, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Alexander Alexeev
- The George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - John McDonald
- School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, 313 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332-0405, USA
| | | | - Todd Sulchek
- The George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
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152
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Sohrabi Kashani A, Packirisamy M. Cancer-Nano-Interaction: From Cellular Uptake to Mechanobiological Responses. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9587. [PMID: 34502495 PMCID: PMC8431109 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the advancement of nanotechnology, the nano-bio-interaction field has emerged. It is essential to enhance our understanding of nano-bio-interaction in different aspects to design nanomedicines and improve their efficacy for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Many researchers have extensively studied the toxicological responses of cancer cells to nano-bio-interaction, while their mechanobiological responses have been less investigated. The mechanobiological properties of cells such as elasticity and adhesion play vital roles in cellular functions and cancer progression. Many studies have noticed the impacts of cellular uptake on the structural organization of cells and, in return, the mechanobiology of human cells. Mechanobiological changes induced by the interactions of nanomaterials and cells could alter cellular functions and influence cancer progression. Hence, in addition to biological responses, the possible mechanobiological responses of treated cells should be monitored as a standard methodology to evaluate the efficiency of nanomedicines. Studying the cancer-nano-interaction in the context of cell mechanics takes our knowledge one step closer to designing safe and intelligent nanomedicines. In this review, we briefly discuss how the characteristic properties of nanoparticles influence cellular uptake. Then, we provide insight into the mechanobiological responses that may occur during the nano-bio-interactions, and finally, the important measurement techniques for the mechanobiological characterizations of cells are summarized and compared. Understanding the unknown mechanobiological responses to nano-bio-interaction will help with developing the application of nanoparticles to modulate cell mechanics for controlling cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Muthukumaran Packirisamy
- Optical Bio-Microsystem Lab, Micro-Nano-Bio-Integration Centre, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Aerospace Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. W., Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada;
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153
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Biswas A, Kim K, Cojoc G, Guck J, Reber S. The Xenopus spindle is as dense as the surrounding cytoplasm. Dev Cell 2021; 56:967-975.e5. [PMID: 33823135 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The mitotic spindle is a self-organizing molecular machine, where hundreds of different molecules continuously interact to maintain a dynamic steady state. While our understanding of key molecular players in spindle assembly is significant, it is still largely unknown how the spindle's material properties emerge from molecular interactions. Here, we use correlative fluorescence imaging and label-free three-dimensional optical diffraction tomography (ODT) to measure the Xenopus spindle's mass density distribution. While the spindle has been commonly referred to as a denser phase of the cytoplasm, we find that it has the same density as its surrounding, which makes it neutrally buoyant. Molecular perturbations suggest that spindle mass density can be modulated by tuning microtubule nucleation and dynamics. Together, ODT provides direct, unbiased, and quantitative information of the spindle's emergent physical properties-essential to advance predictive frameworks of spindle assembly and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abin Biswas
- IRI Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Max-Planck-Institute for the Science of Light, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Kyoohyun Kim
- Max-Planck-Institute for the Science of Light, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; BIOTEC, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Gheorghe Cojoc
- BIOTEC, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jochen Guck
- Max-Planck-Institute for the Science of Light, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; BIOTEC, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Simone Reber
- IRI Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany; University of Applied Sciences Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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154
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Hosseini K, Frenzel A, Fischer-Friedrich E. EMT changes actin cortex rheology in a cell-cycle-dependent manner. Biophys J 2021; 120:3516-3526. [PMID: 34022239 PMCID: PMC8391033 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The actin cortex is a key structure for cellular mechanics and cellular migration. Accordingly, cancer cells were shown to change their actin cytoskeleton and their mechanical properties in correlation with different degrees of malignancy and metastatic potential. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular transformation associated with cancer progression and malignancy. To date, a detailed study of the effects of EMT on the frequency-dependent viscoelastic mechanics of the actin cortex is still lacking. In this work, we have used an established atomic force microscope-based method of cell confinement to quantify the rheology of the actin cortex of human breast, lung, and prostate epithelial cells before and after EMT in a frequency range of 0.02-2 Hz. Interestingly, we find for all cell lines opposite EMT-induced changes in interphase and mitosis; whereas the actin cortex softens upon EMT in interphase, the cortex stiffens in mitosis. Our rheological data can be accounted for by a rheological model with a characteristic timescale of slowest relaxation. In conclusion, our study discloses a consistent rheological trend induced by EMT in human cells of diverse tissue origin, reflecting major structural changes of the actin cytoskeleton upon EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamran Hosseini
- Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Annika Frenzel
- Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Fischer-Friedrich
- Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
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155
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Lu Q, Barlow DE, Haridas D. Differential detection of immune cell activation by label-free radiation pressure force. Analyst 2021; 146:5150-5159. [PMID: 34286712 DOI: 10.1039/d1an01066b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Label-free radiation pressure force analysis using a microfluidic platform is applied to the differential detection of innate immune cell activation. Murine-derived peritoneal macrophages (IC-21) are used as a model system and the activation of IC-21 cells by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) to M1 pro-inflammatory phenotype is confirmed by RNA gene sequencing and nitric oxide production. The mean cell size determined by radiation pressure force analysis increases slightly after the activation (4 to 6%) and the calculated percentage of population overlaps between the control and the activated group after 14 and 24 h stimulations are at 79% and 77%. Meanwhile the mean cell velocity decreases more significantly after the activation (14% to 15%) and the calculated percentage of population overlaps between the control and the activated group after 14 and 24 h stimulations are only at 14% and 13%. The results demonstrate that the majority of the activated cells acquire a lower velocity than the cells from the control group without changes in cell size. For comparison label-free flow cytometry analysis of living IC-21 cells under the same stimulation conditions are performed and the results show population shifts towards larger values in both forward scatter and side scatter, but the calculated percentage of population overlaps in all case are significant (70% to 83%). Cell images obtained during radiation pressure force analysis by a CCD camera, and by optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveal correlations between the cell activation by LPS/IFN-γ, the increase in cell complexity and surface roughness, and enhanced back scattered light by the activated cells. The unique relationship predicted by Mie's theory between the radiation pressure force exerted on the cell and the angular distribution of the scattered light by the cell which is influenced by its size, complexity, and surface conditions, endows the cell velocity based measurement by radiation pressure force analysis with high sensitivity in differentiating immune cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Lu
- Naval Research Laboratory, Chemistry Division, 4555 Overlook Ave., S.W. Washington, D.C. 20375, USA.
| | - Daniel E Barlow
- Naval Research Laboratory, Chemistry Division, 4555 Overlook Ave., S.W. Washington, D.C. 20375, USA.
| | - Dhanya Haridas
- Naval Research Laboratory, Chemistry Division, 4555 Overlook Ave., S.W. Washington, D.C. 20375, USA.
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156
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Anvari S, Osei E, Maftoon N. Interactions of platelets with circulating tumor cells contribute to cancer metastasis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15477. [PMID: 34326373 PMCID: PMC8322323 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94735-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have suggested that platelets have a crucial role in enhancing the survival of circulating tumor cells in the bloodstream and aggravating cancer metastasis. The main function of platelets is to bind to the sites of the damaged vessels to stop bleeding. However, in cancer patients, activated platelets adhere to circulating tumor cells and exacerbate metastatic spreading. Several hypotheses have been proposed about the platelet-cancer cell interactions, but the underlying mechanisms of these interactions are not completely understood yet. In this work, we quantitatively investigated the interactions between circulating tumor cells, red blood cells, platelets, plasma flow and microvessel walls via computational modelling at the cellular scale. Our highly detailed computational model allowed us to understand and quantitatively explain the role of platelets in deformation, adhesion and survival of tumor cells in their active arrest to the endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Anvari
- Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Ernest Osei
- Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada
- Department of Medical Physics, Grand River Regional Cancer Centre, Kitchener, ON, Canada
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Nima Maftoon
- Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada.
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.
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157
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Hossain S, Hossain S. Mathematical and computational modeling for the determination of optical parameters of breast cancer cell. Electromagn Biol Med 2021; 40:447-458. [PMID: 34323633 DOI: 10.1080/15368378.2021.1958339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study enumerates the quantitative measurement of optical parameters used in several diagnostic procedures for malignant tissue. Optical diagnosis is proposed due to its non-invasive and non-destructive nature. This paper recapitulates Fresnel equation (polarization independent) to determine the characteristic critical angle of malignant tissue. The critical angle of malignant tissue is lower than healthier tissue and is therefore an optical parameter of interest for lesion tissue diagnosis. Similarly, a quantitative analysis is derived to commensurate refractive index and absorption and reflective property of tissue and its nuance with healthier counterparts. The second dichotomy of the research concentrates on comparing and validating the mathematical analysis with COMSOL Multiphysics® 5.2 simulation. The magnitude of malignant tissue reflectance is obtained across a range of incident angle ranging from 0° to 90°. The simulation results satiate the quantitative analysis with only 1.3% deviation. This quantitative result provides prospect of collaborating bio-electromagnetism results with Artificial Intelligence technology for active disease progression diagnosis utilizing minimum invasive diagnostic procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadeeb Hossain
- Department of Electrical Engineering , University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Shamera Hossain
- Department of Cardiology, Ibrahim Cardiac Hospital and Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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158
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Wang H, Enders A, Preuss JA, Bahnemann J, Heisterkamp A, Torres-Mapa ML. 3D printed microfluidic lab-on-a-chip device for fiber-based dual beam optical manipulation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14584. [PMID: 34272408 PMCID: PMC8285473 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93205-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
3D printing of microfluidic lab-on-a-chip devices enables rapid prototyping of robust and complex structures. In this work, we designed and fabricated a 3D printed lab-on-a-chip device for fiber-based dual beam optical manipulation. The final 3D printed chip offers three key features, such as (1) an optimized fiber channel design for precise alignment of optical fibers, (2) an optically clear window to visualize the trapping region, and (3) a sample channel which facilitates hydrodynamic focusing of samples. A square zig–zag structure incorporated in the sample channel increases the number of particles at the trapping site and focuses the cells and particles during experiments when operating the chip at low Reynolds number. To evaluate the performance of the device for optical manipulation, we implemented on-chip, fiber-based optical trapping of different-sized microscopic particles and performed trap stiffness measurements. In addition, optical stretching of MCF-7 cells was successfully accomplished for the purpose of studying the effects of a cytochalasin metabolite, pyrichalasin H, on cell elasticity. We observed distinct changes in the deformability of single cells treated with pyrichalasin H compared to untreated cells. These results demonstrate that 3D printed microfluidic lab-on-a-chip devices offer a cost-effective and customizable platform for applications in optical manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Wang
- Institute of Quantum Optics, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Welfengarten 1, 30167, Hannover, Germany.,Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Stadtfelddamm 34, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Anton Enders
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstrasse 5, 30167, Hannover, Germany
| | - John-Alexander Preuss
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstrasse 5, 30167, Hannover, Germany
| | - Janina Bahnemann
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstrasse 5, 30167, Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexander Heisterkamp
- Institute of Quantum Optics, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Welfengarten 1, 30167, Hannover, Germany.,Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Stadtfelddamm 34, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Maria Leilani Torres-Mapa
- Institute of Quantum Optics, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Welfengarten 1, 30167, Hannover, Germany. .,Lower Saxony Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Implant Research and Development (NIFE), Stadtfelddamm 34, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
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159
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Kolb P, Schundner A, Frick M, Gottschalk KE. In Vitro Measurements of Cellular Forces and their Importance in the Lung-From the Sub- to the Multicellular Scale. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:691. [PMID: 34357063 PMCID: PMC8307149 DOI: 10.3390/life11070691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout life, the body is subjected to various mechanical forces on the organ, tissue, and cellular level. Mechanical stimuli are essential for organ development and function. One organ whose function depends on the tightly connected interplay between mechanical cell properties, biochemical signaling, and external forces is the lung. However, altered mechanical properties or excessive mechanical forces can also drive the onset and progression of severe pulmonary diseases. Characterizing the mechanical properties and forces that affect cell and tissue function is therefore necessary for understanding physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms. In recent years, multiple methods have been developed for cellular force measurements at multiple length scales, from subcellular forces to measuring the collective behavior of heterogeneous cellular networks. In this short review, we give a brief overview of the mechanical forces at play on the cellular level in the lung. We then focus on the technological aspects of measuring cellular forces at many length scales. We describe tools with a subcellular resolution and elaborate measurement techniques for collective multicellular units. Many of the technologies described are by no means restricted to lung research and have already been applied successfully to cells from various other tissues. However, integrating the knowledge gained from these multi-scale measurements in a unifying framework is still a major future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kolb
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Ulm University, 89069 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Annika Schundner
- Institute of General Physiology, Ulm University, 89069 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Manfred Frick
- Institute of General Physiology, Ulm University, 89069 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Kay-E. Gottschalk
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Ulm University, 89069 Ulm, Germany;
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160
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Wu Y, Stewart AG, Lee PVS. High-throughput microfluidic compressibility cytometry using multi-tilted-angle surface acoustic wave. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:2812-2824. [PMID: 34109338 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00186h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cellular mechanical properties (e.g. compressibility) are important biophysical markers in relation to cellular processes and functionality. Among the methods for cell mechanical measurement, acoustofluidic methods appear to be advantageous due to tunability, biocompatibility and acousto-mechanical nature. However, the previous acoustofluidic methods were limited in throughput and number of measurements. In this study, we developed a high-throughput microfluidic compressibility cytometry approach using multi-tilted-angle surface acoustic wave, which can provide thousands of single-cell compressibility measurements within minutes. The compressibility cytometer was constructed to drag microparticles or cells towards the microfluidic channel sidewall at different segments based on their biophysical properties (such as size and compressibility), as a result of the varied balance between acoustics and flow. Mathematical analysis and computational simulation revealed that the compressibility of a cell could be estimated from the position of collision with the sidewall. Microbeads of different materials and sizes were experimentally tested to validate the simulation and to demonstrate the capability to characterise size and compressibility. MDA MB231 cells, of the triple negative breast cancer subtype, were treated with the microtubule disrupting agent colchicine which increased compressibility and treated with the actin disrupting agent cytochalasin B which increased cell size but did not change compressibility. Moreover, the highly metastatic variant MDA MB231 LNm5 cell line showed increased compressibility compared to the parent MDA MB231 cells, indicating the potential utility of high-throughput mechanophenotyping for tumour cell characterisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqi Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Alastair G Stewart
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia and ARC Centre for Personalised Therapeutics Technologies, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Peter V S Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
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161
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Merrick M, Mimlitz MJ, Weeder C, Akhter H, Bray A, Walther A, Nwakama C, Bamesberger J, Djam H, Abid K, Ekpenyong A. In vitro radiotherapy and chemotherapy alter migration of brain cancer cells before cell death. Biochem Biophys Rep 2021; 27:101071. [PMID: 34286111 PMCID: PMC8280507 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.101071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although radiotherapy and most cancer drugs target the proliferation of cancer cells, it is metastasis, the complex process by which cancer cells spread from the primary tumor to other tissues and organs of the body where they form new tumors, that leads to over 90% of all cancer deaths. Thus, there is an urgent need for anti-metastasis strategies alongside chemotherapy and radiotherapy. An important step in the metastatic cascade is migration. It is the first step in metastasis via local invasion. Here we address the question whether ionizing radiation and/or chemotherapy might inadvertently promote metastasis and/or invasiveness by enhancing cell migration. We used a standard laboratory irradiator, Faxitron CellRad, to irradiate both non-cancer (HCN2 neurons) and cancer cells (T98G glioblastoma) with 2 Gy, 10 Gy and 20 Gy of X-rays. Paclitaxel (5 μM) was used for chemotherapy. We then measured the attachment and migration of the cells using an electric cell substrate impedance sensing device. Both the irradiated HCN2 cells and T98G cells showed significantly (p < 0.01) enhanced migration compared to non-irradiated cells, within the first 20–40 h following irradiation with 20 Gy. Our results suggest that cell migration should be a therapeutic target in anti-metastasis/anti-invasion strategies for improved radiotherapy and chemotherapy outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Merrick
- Department of Physics, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | | | - Catherine Weeder
- Department of Biology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Haris Akhter
- Department of Biology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Allie Bray
- Department of Mathematics, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Andrew Walther
- Department of Physics, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Chisom Nwakama
- Department of Chemistry, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Joe Bamesberger
- HCB Pre-health Science, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Honour Djam
- Department of Physics, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Kaamil Abid
- Department of Biology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
| | - Andrew Ekpenyong
- Department of Physics, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, 68178, USA
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162
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Sharma VP, Williams J, Leung E, Sanders J, Eddy R, Castracane J, Oktay MH, Entenberg D, Condeelis JS. SUN-MKL1 Crosstalk Regulates Nuclear Deformation and Fast Motility of Breast Carcinoma Cells in Fibrillar ECM Microenvironment. Cells 2021; 10:1549. [PMID: 34205257 PMCID: PMC8234170 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aligned collagen fibers provide topography for the rapid migration of single tumor cells (streaming migration) to invade the surrounding stroma, move within tumor nests towards blood vessels to intravasate and form distant metastases. Mechanisms of tumor cell motility have been studied extensively in the 2D context, but the mechanistic understanding of rapid single tumor cell motility in the in vivo context is still lacking. Here, we show that streaming tumor cells in vivo use collagen fibers with diameters below 3 µm. Employing 1D migration assays with matching in vivo fiber dimensions, we found a dependence of tumor cell motility on 1D substrate width, with cells moving the fastest and the most persistently on the narrowest 1D fibers (700 nm-2.5 µm). Interestingly, we also observed nuclear deformation in the absence of restricting extracellular matrix pores during high speed carcinoma cell migration in 1D, similar to the nuclear deformation observed in tumor cells in vivo. Further, we found that actomyosin machinery is aligned along the 1D axis and actomyosin contractility synchronously regulates cell motility and nuclear deformation. To further investigate the link between cell speed and nuclear deformation, we focused on the Linker of Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complex proteins and SRF-MKL1 signaling, key regulators of mechanotransduction, actomyosin contractility and actin-based cell motility. Analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas dataset showed a dramatic decrease in the LINC complex proteins SUN1 and SUN2 in primary tumor compared to the normal tissue. Disruption of LINC complex by SUN1 + 2 KD led to multi-lobular elongated nuclei, increased tumor cell motility and concomitant increase in F-actin, without affecting Lamin proteins. Mechanistically, we found that MKL1, an effector of changes in cellular G-actin to F-actin ratio, is required for increased 1D motility seen in SUN1 + 2 KD cells. Thus, we demonstrate a previously unrecognized crosstalk between SUN proteins and MKL1 transcription factor in modulating nuclear shape and carcinoma cell motility in an in vivo relevant 1D microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ved P. Sharma
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
- Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - James Williams
- Colleges of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Albany, NY 12203, USA; (J.W.); (J.S.); (J.C.)
| | - Edison Leung
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
| | - Joe Sanders
- Colleges of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Albany, NY 12203, USA; (J.W.); (J.S.); (J.C.)
| | - Robert Eddy
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
| | - James Castracane
- Colleges of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Albany, NY 12203, USA; (J.W.); (J.S.); (J.C.)
| | - Maja H. Oktay
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
- Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - David Entenberg
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
- Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - John S. Condeelis
- Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (E.L.); (R.E.); (M.H.O.); (D.E.)
- Gruss Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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163
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Uvizl A, Goswami R, Gandhi SD, Augsburg M, Buchholz F, Guck J, Mansfeld J, Girardo S. Efficient and gentle delivery of molecules into cells with different elasticity via Progressive Mechanoporation. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:2437-2452. [PMID: 33977944 PMCID: PMC8204113 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc01224f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular delivery of cargo molecules such as membrane-impermeable proteins or drugs is crucial for cell treatment in biological and medical applications. Recently, microfluidic mechanoporation techniques have enabled transfection of previously inaccessible cells. These techniques create transient pores in the cell membrane by shear-induced or constriction contact-based rapid cell deformation. However, cells deform and recover differently from a given extent of shear stress or compression and it is unclear how the underlying mechanical properties affect the delivery efficiency of molecules into cells. In this study, we identify cell elasticity as a key mechanical determinant of delivery efficiency leading to the development of "progressive mechanoporation" (PM), a novel mechanoporation method that improves delivery efficiency into cells of different elasticity. PM is based on a multistage cell deformation, through a combination of hydrodynamic forces that pre-deform cells followed by their contact-based compression inside a PDMS-based device controlled by a pressure-based microfluidic controller. PM allows processing of small sample volumes (about 20 μL) with high-throughput (>10 000 cells per s), while controlling both operating pressure and flow rate for a reliable and reproducible cell treatment. We find that uptake of molecules of different sizes is correlated with cell elasticity whereby delivery efficiency of small and big molecules is favoured in more compliant and stiffer cells, respectively. A possible explanation for this opposite trend is a different size, number and lifetime of opened pores. Our data demonstrates that PM reliably and reproducibly delivers impermeable cargo of the size of small molecule inhibitors such as 4 kDa FITC-dextran with >90% efficiency into cells of different mechanical properties without affecting their viability and proliferation rates. Importantly, also much larger cargos such as a >190 kDa Cas9 protein-sgRNA complex are efficiently delivered high-lighting the biological, biomedical and clinical applicability of our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Uvizl
- Cell Cycle, Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Ruchi Goswami
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light & Max-Planck-Zentrum für Physik und Medizin, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
| | | | - Martina Augsburg
- Medical Systems Biology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Frank Buchholz
- Medical Systems Biology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jochen Guck
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light & Max-Planck-Zentrum für Physik und Medizin, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Jörg Mansfeld
- Cell Cycle, Biotechnology Center, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany and The Institute of Cancer Research, London SW7 3RP, UK.
| | - Salvatore Girardo
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light & Max-Planck-Zentrum für Physik und Medizin, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
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164
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Kortam S, Merkher Y, Kramer A, Metanes I, Ad-El D, Krausz J, Har-Shai Y, Weihs D. Rapid, quantitative prediction of tumor invasiveness in non-melanoma skin cancers using mechanobiology-based assay. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2021; 20:1767-1774. [PMID: 34120276 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-021-01475-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancers, including basal and squamous cell carcinomas (BCC and SCC), are the most common malignancies worldwide. BCC/SCC cancers are generally highly localized and can be surgically excised; however, invasive tumors may be fatal. Current diagnosis of skin cancer and prognosis of potential invasiveness are based mainly on clinical-pathological factors of the biopsied lesions. SCC invasiveness is also predicted by histomorphological factors, such as the degree of differentiation or the mitotic index, while BCCs are typically considered non-invasive. The above subjective measures do not provide direct, objective prognosis of cellular invasiveness in each specific sample. Hence, we have developed a mechanobiology-based approach to rapidly determine sample invasiveness. Here, cells from 15 fresh tissue samples of suspected non-melanoma skin cancer were seeded on physiological-stiffness (2.4 kPa) synthetic gels, and within 1-h invasive cell subsets were observed to push/indent the gel surface; clinicopathological results were separately obtained using standard protocols. The percentage of indenting cells from invasive (26.2 ± 2.4%) and non-invasive (4.8 ± 0.5%) SCC samples differed significantly (p < 0.0001), with well-separated invasiveness cutoffs of, respectively, > 12% and < 5%. The mechanical invasiveness directly agrees with the SCC cell-differentiation state, where over 3.3-fold more (p < 0.0001) cells from moderately differentiated samples indent the gels as compared to well-differentiated cell samples. In BCCs, < 20% of cells typically indented, and a highly migratory, desmoplastic sample was identified with 46%. By providing rapid, quantitative, early prognosis of invasiveness and potential metastatic risk, our rapid technology may facilitate informed (bed-side) decision making and choice of disease-management protocols on the time-scale of the initial diagnosis and surgical excision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Kortam
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yulia Merkher
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Aviv Kramer
- The Unit of Plastic Surgery, The Lady Davis Carmel Medical Center and the Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine,, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Issa Metanes
- The Unit of Plastic Surgery, The Lady Davis Carmel Medical Center and the Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine,, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dean Ad-El
- The Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery & Burns, Petach Tikva and the Faculty of Medicine, Rabin Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Judit Krausz
- The Department of Pathology, Ha-Emek Medical Center, Afula, Israel
| | - Yaron Har-Shai
- The Unit of Plastic Surgery, The Lady Davis Carmel Medical Center and the Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine,, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Daphne Weihs
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel.
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165
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Mohammadi E, Tabatabaei M, Habibi-Anbouhi M, Tafazzoli-Shadpour M. Chemical inhibitor anticancer drugs regulate mechanical properties and cytoskeletal structure of non-invasive and invasive breast cancer cell lines: Study of effects of Letrozole, Exemestane, and Everolimus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 565:14-20. [PMID: 34087508 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.05.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Regardless of their target and mechanism, anticancer drugs directly influence biological behavior of cancer cells by activating chemical signaling pathways. Due to the complex interaction between diverse signaling pathways, these drugs may profoundly impact the physical characteristics of cancer cells and regulate their mechanical properties. In this study, the effects of two Aromatase Inhibitor (Letrozole and Exemestane), and one mTOR Inhibitor (Everolimus) on cell mechanical properties, actin content/distribution, and nuclear areas of two invasive and non-invasive breast cancer cell line after 24 h treatment with concentrations previously reported were investigated. While metabolic activity of cell lines was highly affected by drug treatment, significant alterations in Young's modulus of cell bodies, nuclear areas, and actin content and distribution were reported with higher impact on invasive cells. It was concluded that regulation of mechanical behavior of cells by all three drugs emphasizes the cross talk between chemical and physical signaling cascades, and describes a correlation between biological and physical behaviors of cancer cells which might give an insight to a better understanding of mechanisms by which anti-cancer drugs function to enhance their performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Mohammadi
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Tabatabaei
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
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166
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Chowdhury F, Huang B, Wang N. Cytoskeletal prestress: The cellular hallmark in mechanobiology and mechanomedicine. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2021; 78:249-276. [PMID: 33754478 PMCID: PMC8518377 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence demonstrates that mechanical forces, in addition to soluble molecules, impact cell and tissue functions in physiology and diseases. How living cells integrate mechanical signals to perform appropriate biological functions is an area of intense investigation. Here, we review the evidence of the central role of cytoskeletal prestress in mechanotransduction and mechanobiology. Elevating cytoskeletal prestress increases cell stiffness and reinforces cell stiffening, facilitates long-range cytoplasmic mechanotransduction via integrins, enables direct chromatin stretching and rapid gene expression, spurs embryonic development and stem cell differentiation, and boosts immune cell activation and killing of tumor cells whereas lowering cytoskeletal prestress maintains embryonic stem cell pluripotency, promotes tumorigenesis and metastasis of stem cell-like malignant tumor-repopulating cells, and elevates drug delivery efficiency of soft-tumor-cell-derived microparticles. The overwhelming evidence suggests that the cytoskeletal prestress is the governing principle and the cellular hallmark in mechanobiology. The application of mechanobiology to medicine (mechanomedicine) is rapidly emerging and may help advance human health and improve diagnostics, treatment, and therapeutics of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhan Chowdhury
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Energy ProcessesSouthern Illinois University CarbondaleCarbondaleIllinoisUSA
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences & State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular BiologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Ning Wang
- Department of Mechanical Science and EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana‐ChampaignUrbanaIllinoisUSA
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167
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Vasilaki D, Bakopoulou A, Tsouknidas A, Johnstone E, Michalakis K. Biophysical interactions between components of the tumor microenvironment promote metastasis. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:339-357. [PMID: 34168685 PMCID: PMC8214652 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00811-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
During metastasis, tumor cells need to adapt to their dynamic microenvironment and modify their mechanical properties in response to both chemical and mechanical stimulation. Physical interactions occur between cancer cells and the surrounding matrix including cell movements and cell shape alterations through the process of mechanotransduction. The latter describes the translation of external mechanical cues into intracellular biochemical signaling. Reorganization of both the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a critical role in these spreading steps. Migrating tumor cells show increased motility in order to cross the tumor microenvironment, migrate through ECM and reach the bloodstream to the metastatic site. There are specific factors affecting these processes, as well as the survival of circulating tumor cells (CTC) in the blood flow until they finally invade the secondary tissue to form metastasis. This review aims to study the mechanisms of metastasis from a biomechanical perspective and investigate cell migration, with a focus on the alterations in the cytoskeleton through this journey and the effect of biologic fluids on metastasis. Understanding of the biophysical mechanisms that promote tumor metastasis may contribute successful therapeutic approaches in the fight against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra Vasilaki
- Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Athina Bakopoulou
- Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Alexandros Tsouknidas
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Computational Mechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, Kozani, Greece
| | | | - Konstantinos Michalakis
- Department of Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Division of Graduate Prosthodontics, Tufts University School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA USA
- University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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168
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Oevreeide IH, Szydlak R, Luty M, Ahmed H, Prot V, Skallerud BH, Zemła J, Lekka M, Stokke BT. On the Determination of Mechanical Properties of Aqueous Microgels-Towards High-Throughput Characterization. Gels 2021; 7:64. [PMID: 34072792 PMCID: PMC8261632 DOI: 10.3390/gels7020064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aqueous microgels are distinct entities of soft matter with mechanical signatures that can be different from their macroscopic counterparts due to confinement effects in the preparation, inherently made to consist of more than one domain (Janus particles) or further processing by coating and change in the extent of crosslinking of the core. Motivated by the importance of the mechanical properties of such microgels from a fundamental point, but also related to numerous applications, we provide a perspective on the experimental strategies currently available and emerging tools being explored. Albeit all techniques in principle exploit enforcing stress and observing strain, the realization differs from directly, as, e.g., by atomic force microscope, to less evident in a fluid field combined with imaging by a high-speed camera in high-throughput strategies. Moreover, the accompanying analysis strategies also reflect such differences, and the level of detail that would be preferred for a comprehensive understanding of the microgel mechanical properties are not always implemented. Overall, the perspective is that current technologies have the capacity to provide detailed, nanoscopic mechanical characterization of microgels over an extended size range, to the high-throughput approaches providing distributions over the mechanical signatures, a feature not readily accessible by atomic force microscopy and micropipette aspiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Haga Oevreeide
- Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; (I.H.O.); (H.A.)
| | - Renata Szydlak
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland; (R.S.); (M.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Marcin Luty
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland; (R.S.); (M.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Husnain Ahmed
- Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; (I.H.O.); (H.A.)
| | - Victorien Prot
- Biomechanics, Department of Structural Engineering, NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; (V.P.); (B.H.S.)
| | - Bjørn Helge Skallerud
- Biomechanics, Department of Structural Engineering, NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; (V.P.); (B.H.S.)
| | - Joanna Zemła
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland; (R.S.); (M.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Małgorzata Lekka
- Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31342 Krakow, Poland; (R.S.); (M.L.); (J.Z.)
| | - Bjørn Torger Stokke
- Biophysics and Medical Technology, Department of Physics, NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway; (I.H.O.); (H.A.)
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169
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Qu LL, Ying YL, Yu RJ, Long YT. In situ food-borne pathogen sensors in a nanoconfined space by surface enhanced Raman scattering. Mikrochim Acta 2021; 188:201. [PMID: 34041602 PMCID: PMC8154335 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-021-04864-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of disease arising from food-borne pathogens is increasing continuously and has become a global public health problem. Rapid and accurate identification of food-borne pathogens is essential for adopting disease intervention strategies and controlling the spread of epidemics. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has attracted increasing interest due to the attractive features including simplicity, rapid measurement, and high sensitivity. It can be used for rapid in situ sensing of single and multicomponent samples within the nanostructure-based confined space by providing molecular fingerprint information and has been demonstrated to be an effective detection strategy for pathogens. This article aims to review the application of SERS to the rapid sensing of food-borne pathogens in food matrices. The mechanisms and advantages of SERS, and detection strategies are briefly discussed. The latest progress on the use of SERS for rapid detection of food-borne bacteria and viruses is considered, including both the labeled and label-free detection strategies. In closing, according to the current situation regarding detection of food-borne pathogens, the review highlights the challenges faced by SERS and the prospects for new applications in food safety. In this review, the advances on the SERS detection of pathogens over the past decades have been reviewed, focusing on the improvements in sensitivity, reproducibility, specificity, and the performance of the SERS-based assay in complex analytical scenarios. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Lu Qu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Jiangsu Normal University, 221116, Xuzhou, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yi-Lun Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, People's Republic of China
| | - Ru-Jia Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yi-Tao Long
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, People's Republic of China
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170
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Alibert C, Pereira D, Lardier N, Etienne-Manneville S, Goud B, Asnacios A, Manneville JB. Multiscale rheology of glioma cells. Biomaterials 2021; 275:120903. [PMID: 34102526 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cells tend to soften during cancer progression, suggesting that mechanical phenotyping could be used as a diagnostic or prognostic method. Here we investigate the cell mechanics of gliomas, brain tumors that originate from glial cells or glial progenitors. Using two microrheology techniques, a single-cell parallel plates rheometer to probe whole-cell mechanics and optical tweezers to probe intracellular rheology, we show that cell mechanics discriminates human glioma cells of different grades. When probed globally, grade IV glioblastoma cells are softer than grade III astrocytoma cells, while they are surprisingly stiffer at the intracellular level. We explain this difference between global and local intracellular behaviours by changes in the composition and spatial organization of the cytoskeleton, and by changes in nuclear mechanics. Our study highlights the need to combine rheology techniques for potential diagnostic or prognostic methods based on cancer cell mechanophenotyping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Alibert
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - David Pereira
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France; Laboratoire Matières et Systèmes Complexes, Université de Paris, CNRS, UMR7057, Université Paris-Diderot, 10 Rue Alice Domon et Léonie Duquet, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Nathan Lardier
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Sandrine Etienne-Manneville
- Cell Polarity, Migration and Cancer Unit, Institut Pasteur, UMR3691 CNRS, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Goud
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Atef Asnacios
- Laboratoire Matières et Systèmes Complexes, Université de Paris, CNRS, UMR7057, Université Paris-Diderot, 10 Rue Alice Domon et Léonie Duquet, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Manneville
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 144, 26 Rue D'Ulm, F-75005, Paris, France.
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171
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Roberts AB, Zhang J, Raj Singh V, Nikolić M, Moeendarbary E, Kamm RD, So PTC, Scarcelli G. Tumor cell nuclei soften during transendothelial migration. J Biomech 2021; 121:110400. [PMID: 33882444 PMCID: PMC8274349 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
During cancer metastasis, tumor cells undergo significant deformation in order to traverse through endothelial cell junctions in the walls of blood vessels. As cells pass through narrow gaps, smaller than the nuclear diameter, the spatial configuration of chromatin must change along with the distribution of nuclear enzymes. Nuclear stiffness is an important determinant of the ability of cells to undergo transendothelial migration, yet no studies have been conducted to assess whether tumor cell cytoskeletal or nuclear stiffness changes during this critical process in order to facilitate passage. To address this question, we employed two non-contact methods, Brillouin confocal microscopy (BCM) and confocal reflectance quantitative phase microscopy (QPM), to track the changes in mechanical properties of live, transmigrating tumor cells in an in vitro collagen gel platform. Using these two imaging modalities to study transmigrating MDA-MB-231, A549, and A375 cells, we found that both the cells and their nuclei soften upon extravasation and that the nuclear membranes remain soft for at least 24 h. These new data suggest that tumor cells adjust their mechanical properties in order to facilitate extravasation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anya B Roberts
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA
| | - Jitao Zhang
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park 20742, MD, USA
| | - Vijay Raj Singh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA; Laser Biomedical Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA
| | - Miloš Nikolić
- Maryland Biophysics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Emad Moeendarbary
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 7JE, UK
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA.
| | - Peter T C So
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA; Laser Biomedical Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, MA, USA.
| | - Giuliano Scarcelli
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park 20742, MD, USA; Maryland Biophysics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
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172
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Nguyen A, Brandt M, Muenker TM, Betz T. Multi-oscillation microrheology via acoustic force spectroscopy enables frequency-dependent measurements on endothelial cells at high-throughput. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:1929-1947. [PMID: 34008613 PMCID: PMC8130676 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc01135e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Active microrheology is one of the main methods to determine the mechanical properties of cells and tissue, and the modelling of these viscoelastic properties is under heavy debate with many competing approaches. Most experimental methods of active microrheology such as optical tweezers or atomic force microscopy based approaches rely on single cell measurements, and thus suffer from a low throughput. Here, we present a novel method for frequency-dependent microrheology on cells using acoustic forces which allows multiplexed measurements of several cells in parallel. Acoustic force spectroscopy (AFS) is used to generate multi-oscillatory forces in the range of pN-nN on particles attached to primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) cultivated inside a microfluidic chip. While the AFS was introduced as a single-molecule technique to measure mechanochemical properties of biomolecules, we exploit the AFS to measure the dynamic viscoelastic properties of cells exposed to different conditions, such as flow shear stresses or drug injections. By controlling the force and measuring the position of the particle, the complex shear modulus G*(ω) can be measured continuously over several hours. The resulting power-law shear moduli are consistent with fractional viscoelastic models. In our experiments we confirm a decrease in shear modulus after perturbing the actin cytoskeleton via cytochalasin B. This effect was reversible after washing out the drug. Additionally, we include critical information for the usage of the new method AFS as a measurement tool showing its capabilities and limitations and we find that for performing viscoelastic measurements with the AFS, a thorough calibration and careful data analysis is crucial, for which we provide protocols and guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred Nguyen
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
| | - Matthias Brandt
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
| | - Till M Muenker
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany. and Third Institute of Physics-Biophysics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Timo Betz
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany. and Third Institute of Physics-Biophysics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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173
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Elosegui-Artola A. The extracellular matrix viscoelasticity as a regulator of cell and tissue dynamics. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2021; 72:10-18. [PMID: 33993058 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix mechanical properties regulate processes in development, cancer, and fibrosis. Among the distinct mechanical properties, the vast majority of research has focused on the extracellular matrix's elasticity as the primary determinant of cell and tissue behavior. However, both cells and the extracellular matrix are not only elastic but also viscous. Despite viscoelasticity being a universal feature of living tissues, our knowledge of the influence of the extracellular matrix's viscoelasticity in cell behavior is limited. This mini-review describes some of the recent findings that have highlighted the role of the extracellular matrix's viscoelasticity in cell and tissue dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Elosegui-Artola
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA; Cell and Tissue Mechanobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK; Department of Physics, King's College London, London, UK; Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
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174
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Culturing Keratinocytes on Biomimetic Substrates Facilitates Improved Epidermal Assembly In Vitro. Cells 2021; 10:cells10051177. [PMID: 34066027 PMCID: PMC8151809 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanotransduction is defined as the ability of cells to sense mechanical stimuli from their surroundings and translate them into biochemical signals. Epidermal keratinocytes respond to mechanical cues by altering their proliferation, migration, and differentiation. In vitro cell culture, however, utilises tissue culture plastic, which is significantly stiffer than the in vivo environment. Current epidermal models fail to consider the effects of culturing keratinocytes on plastic prior to setting up three-dimensional cultures, so the impact of this non-physiological exposure on epidermal assembly is largely overlooked. In this study, primary keratinocytes cultured on plastic were compared with those grown on 4, 8, and 50 kPa stiff biomimetic hydrogels that have similar mechanical properties to skin. Our data show that keratinocytes cultured on biomimetic hydrogels exhibited major changes in cellular architecture, cell density, nuclear biomechanics, and mechanoprotein expression, such as specific Linker of Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complex constituents. Mechanical conditioning of keratinocytes on 50 kPa biomimetic hydrogels improved the thickness and organisation of 3D epidermal models. In summary, the current study demonstrates that the effects of extracellular mechanics on keratinocyte cell biology are significant and therefore should be harnessed in skin research to ensure the successful production of physiologically relevant skin models.
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175
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Microfluidic Assessment of Drug Effects on Physical Properties of Androgen Sensitive and Non-Sensitive Prostate Cancer Cells. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12050532. [PMID: 34067167 PMCID: PMC8151345 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The identification and treatment of androgen-independent prostate cancer are both challenging and significant. In this work, high-throughput deformability cytometry was employed to assess the effects of two anti-cancer drugs, docetaxel and enzalutamide, on androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells (LNCaP) and androgen-independent prostate cancer cells (PC-3), respectively. The quantified results show that PC-3 and LNCaP present not only different intrinsic physical properties but also different physical responses to the same anti-cancer drug. PC-3 cells possess greater stiffness and a smaller size than LNCaP cells. As the docetaxel concentration increases, PC-3 cells present an increase in stiffness and size, but LNCaP cells only present an increase in stiffness. As the enzalutamide concentration increases, PC-3 cells present no physical changes but LNCaP cells present changes in both cell size and deformation. These results demonstrated that cellular physical properties quantified by the deformability cytometry are effective indicators for identifying the androgen-independent prostate cancer cells from androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells and evaluating drug effects on these two types of prostate cancer.
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176
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A formalism for modelling traction forces and cell shape evolution during cell migration in various biomedical processes. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2021; 20:1459-1475. [PMID: 33893558 PMCID: PMC8298374 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-021-01456-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The phenomenological model for cell shape deformation and cell migration Chen (BMM 17:1429–1450, 2018), Vermolen and Gefen (BMM 12:301–323, 2012), is extended with the incorporation of cell traction forces and the evolution of cell equilibrium shapes as a result of cell differentiation. Plastic deformations of the extracellular matrix are modelled using morphoelasticity theory. The resulting partial differential differential equations are solved by the use of the finite element method. The paper treats various biological scenarios that entail cell migration and cell shape evolution. The experimental observations in Mak et al. (LC 13:340–348, 2013), where transmigration of cancer cells through narrow apertures is studied, are reproduced using a Monte Carlo framework.
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177
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Lin T, Wang Z, Wang W, Sui Y. A neural network-based algorithm for high-throughput characterisation of viscoelastic properties of flowing microcapsules. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:4027-4039. [PMID: 33480936 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm02121k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Microcapsules, consisting of a liquid droplet enclosed by a viscoelastic membrane, have a wide range of biomedical and pharmaceutical applications and also serve as a popular mechanical model for biological cells. In this study, we develop a novel high throughput approach, by combining a machine learning method with a high-fidelity mechanistic capsule model, to accurately predict the membrane elasticity and viscosity of microcapsules from their dynamic deformation when flowing in a branched microchannel. The machine learning method consists of a deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) connected by a long short-term memory (LSTM) network. We demonstrate that with a superior prediction accuracy the present hybrid DCNN-LSTM network can still be faster than a conventional inverse method by five orders of magnitude, and can process thousands of capsules per second. We also show that the hybrid network has fewer restrictions compared with a simple DCNN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Lin
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Zhen Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Wen Wang
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Yi Sui
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
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178
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Runel G, Lopez-Ramirez N, Chlasta J, Masse I. Biomechanical Properties of Cancer Cells. Cells 2021; 10:cells10040887. [PMID: 33924659 PMCID: PMC8069788 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the crucial role of the microenvironment has been highlighted, many studies have been focused on the role of biomechanics in cancer cell growth and the invasion of the surrounding environment. Despite the search in recent years for molecular biomarkers to try to classify and stratify cancers, much effort needs to be made to take account of morphological and nanomechanical parameters that could provide supplementary information concerning tissue complexity adaptation during cancer development. The biomechanical properties of cancer cells and their surrounding extracellular matrix have actually been proposed as promising biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. The present review first describes the main methods used to study the mechanical properties of cancer cells. Then, we address the nanomechanical description of cultured cancer cells and the crucial role of the cytoskeleton for biomechanics linked with cell morphology. Finally, we depict how studying interaction of tumor cells with their surrounding microenvironment is crucial to integrating biomechanical properties in our understanding of tumor growth and local invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaël Runel
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, CNRS-UMR5286, INSREM U1052, Université de Lyon, F-69008 Lyon, France; (G.R.); (N.L.-R.)
- BioMeca, F-69008 Lyon, France;
| | - Noémie Lopez-Ramirez
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, CNRS-UMR5286, INSREM U1052, Université de Lyon, F-69008 Lyon, France; (G.R.); (N.L.-R.)
| | | | - Ingrid Masse
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, CNRS-UMR5286, INSREM U1052, Université de Lyon, F-69008 Lyon, France; (G.R.); (N.L.-R.)
- Correspondence:
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179
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Rheinlaender J, Wirbel H, Schäffer TE. Spatial correlation of cell stiffness and traction forces in cancer cells measured with combined SICM and TFM. RSC Adv 2021; 11:13951-13956. [PMID: 35423943 PMCID: PMC8697701 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra01277k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanical properties of cancer cells at the single-cell and the subcellular level might be the key for answering long-standing questions in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. However, the subcellular distribution of two main mechanical properties, cell stiffness and traction forces, has been investigated only rarely and qualitatively yet. Here, we present the first direct combination of scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) and traction force microscopy (TFM), which we used to identify a correlation between the local stiffness and the local traction force density in living cells. We found a correlation in normal breast epithelial cells, but no correlation in cancerous breast epithelial cells. This indicates that the interplay between cell stiffness and traction forces is altered in cancer cells as compared to healthy cells, which might give new insight in the research field of cancer cell mechanobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Rheinlaender
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 10 72076 Tübingen Germany +49 7071 29 5093 +49 7071 29 76030
| | - Hannes Wirbel
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 10 72076 Tübingen Germany +49 7071 29 5093 +49 7071 29 76030
| | - Tilman E Schäffer
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 10 72076 Tübingen Germany +49 7071 29 5093 +49 7071 29 76030
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180
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Actin cytoskeletal structure and the statistical variations of the mechanical properties of non-tumorigenic breast and triple-negative breast cancer cells. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 119:104505. [PMID: 33857875 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.104505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents the results of a study of the actin cytoskeletal structures and the statistical variations in the actin fluorescence intensities and viscoelastic properties of non-tumorigenic breast cells and triple-negative breast cancer cells at different stages of tumor progression. The variation in the actin content of the cell cytoskeletal structures is shown to be consistent with the viscoelastic properties of the cell as it progresses from non-tumorigenic to more metastatic states. The corresponding viscoelastic properties of the nuclei and the cytoplasm (Young's moduli, viscosities, and relaxation times) of the cells are also measured using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and shear assay techniques. These properties are shown to exhibit statistical variations that are well characterized by normal distributions. The changes in the mean properties of individual cancer cells are tested using Fisher pairwise comparisons and the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The implications of the results are then discussed for the development of shear assay techniques and mechanical biomarkers for the detection of triple-negative breast cancer at different stages of tumor progression.
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181
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Yurtsever A, Yoshida T, Badami Behjat A, Araki Y, Hanayama R, Fukuma T. Structural and mechanical characteristics of exosomes from osteosarcoma cells explored by 3D-atomic force microscopy. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:6661-6677. [PMID: 33885545 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr09178b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes have recently gained interest as mediators of cell-to-cell communication and as potential biomarkers for cancer and other diseases. They also have potential as nanocarriers for drug delivery systems. Therefore, detailed structural, molecular, and biomechanical characterization of exosomes is of great importance for developing methods to detect and identify the changes associated with the presence of cancer and other diseases. Here, we employed three-dimensional atomic force microscopy (3D-AFM) to reveal the structural and nanomechanical properties of exosomes at high spatial resolution in physiologically relevant conditions. The substructural details of exosomes released from three different cell types were determined based on 3D-AFM force mapping. The resulting analysis revealed the presence of distinct local domains bulging out from the exosome surfaces, which were associated with the exosomal membrane proteins present on the outer surface. The nanomechanical properties of individual exosomes were determined from the 3D-force maps. We found a considerably high elastic modulus, ranging from 50 to 350 MPa, as compared to that obtained for synthetic liposomes. Moreover, malignancy-dependent changes in the exosome mechanical properties were revealed by comparing metastatic and nonmetastatic tumor cell-derived exosomes. We found a clear difference in their Young's modulus values, suggesting differences in their protein profiles and other exosomal contents. Exosomes derived from a highly aggressive and metastatic k-ras-activated human osteosarcoma (OS) cell line (143B) showed a higher Young's modulus than that derived from a nonaggressive and nonmetastatic k-ras-wildtype human OS cell line (HOS). The increased elastic modulus of the 143B cell-derived exosomes was ascribed to the presence of abundant specific proteins responsible for elastic fiber formation as determined by mass spectroscopy and confirmed by western blotting and ELISA. Therefore, we conclude that exosomes derived from metastatic tumor cells carry an exclusive protein content that differs from their nonmetastatic counterparts, and thus they exhibit different mechanical characteristics. Discrimination between metastatic and nonmetastatic malignant cell-derived exosomes would be of great importance for studying exosome biological functions and using them as diagnostic biomarkers for various tumor types. Our findings further suggest that metastatic tumor cells release exosomes that express increased levels of elastic fiber-associated proteins to preserve their softness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayhan Yurtsever
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-Nano LSI), Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
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182
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Friedman D, Simmonds P, Hale A, Bere L, Hodson NW, White MRH, Davis DM. Natural killer cell immune synapse formation and cytotoxicity are controlled by tension of the target interface. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:jcs258570. [PMID: 33712452 PMCID: PMC8077183 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.258570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells can kill infected or transformed cells via a lytic immune synapse. Diseased cells may exhibit altered mechanical properties but how this impacts NK cell responsiveness is unknown. We report that human NK cells were stimulated more effectively to secrete granzymes A and B, FasL (also known as FasLG), granulysin and IFNγ, by stiff (142 kPa) compared to soft (1 kPa) planar substrates. To create surrogate spherical targets of defined stiffness, sodium alginate was used to synthesise soft (9 kPa), medium (34 kPa) or stiff (254 kPa) cell-sized beads, coated with antibodies against activating receptor NKp30 (also known as NCR3) and the integrin LFA-1 (also known as ITGAL). Against stiff beads, NK cells showed increased degranulation. Polarisation of the microtubule-organising centre and lytic granules were impaired against soft targets, which instead resulted in the formation of unstable kinapses. Thus, by varying target stiffness to characterise the mechanosensitivity of immune synapses, we identify soft targets as a blind spot in NK cell recognition. This article has an associated First Person interview with the co-first authors of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Friedman
- The Lydia Becker Institute, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Core Technology Facility building, 46 Grafton Street, Manchester M13 9NT, United Kingdom
| | - Poppy Simmonds
- The Lydia Becker Institute, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Core Technology Facility building, 46 Grafton Street, Manchester M13 9NT, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Hale
- The Lydia Becker Institute, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Core Technology Facility building, 46 Grafton Street, Manchester M13 9NT, United Kingdom
| | - Leoma Bere
- The Lydia Becker Institute, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Core Technology Facility building, 46 Grafton Street, Manchester M13 9NT, United Kingdom
| | - Nigel W. Hodson
- BioAFM Facility, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Stopford Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Michael R. H. White
- Michael Smith Building, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel M. Davis
- The Lydia Becker Institute, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Core Technology Facility building, 46 Grafton Street, Manchester M13 9NT, United Kingdom
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183
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Cell Cytoskeleton and Stiffness Are Mechanical Indicators of Organotropism in Breast Cancer. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10040259. [PMID: 33805866 PMCID: PMC8064360 DOI: 10.3390/biology10040259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer cell dissemination exhibits organ preference or organotropism. Although the influence of intrinsic biochemical factors on organotropism has been intensely studied, little is known about the roles of mechanical properties of metastatic cancer cells. Our study suggests that there may be a correlation between cell cytoskeleton/stiffness and organotropism. We find that the cytoskeleton and stiffness of breast cancer cell subpopulations with different metastatic preference match the mechanics of the metastasized organs. The modification of cell cytoskeleton significantly influences the organotropism-related gene expression pattern and mechanoresponses on soft substrates which mimic brain tissue stiffness. These findings highlight the key role of cell cytoskeleton in specific organ metastasis, which may not only reflect but also impact the metastatic organ preference. Abstract Tumor metastasis involves the dissemination of tumor cells from the primary lesion to other organs and the subsequent formation of secondary tumors, which leads to the majority of cancer-related deaths. Clinical findings show that cancer cell dissemination is not random but exhibits organ preference or organotropism. While intrinsic biochemical factors of cancer cells have been extensively studied in organotropism, much less is known about the role of cell cytoskeleton and mechanics. Herein, we demonstrate that cell cytoskeleton and mechanics are correlated with organotropism. The result of cell stiffness measurements shows that breast cancer cells with bone tropism are much stiffer with enhanced F-actin, while tumor cells with brain tropism are softer with lower F-actin than their parental cells. The difference in cellular stiffness matches the difference in the rigidity of their metastasized organs. Further, disrupting the cytoskeleton of breast cancer cells with bone tropism not only elevates the expressions of brain metastasis-related genes but also increases cell spreading and proliferation on soft substrates mimicking the stiffness of brain tissue. Stabilizing the cytoskeleton of cancer cells with brain tropism upregulates bone metastasis-related genes while reduces the mechanoadaptation ability on soft substrates. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that cell cytoskeleton and biophysical properties of breast cancer subpopulations correlate with their metastatic preference in terms of gene expression pattern and mechanoadaptation ability, implying the potential role of cell cytoskeleton in organotropism.
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184
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Tello-Lafoz M, Srpan K, Sanchez EE, Hu J, Remsik J, Romin Y, Calò A, Hoen D, Bhanot U, Morris L, Boire A, Hsu KC, Massagué J, Huse M, Er EE. Cytotoxic lymphocytes target characteristic biophysical vulnerabilities in cancer. Immunity 2021; 54:1037-1054.e7. [PMID: 33756102 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immune cells identify and destroy tumors by recognizing cellular traits indicative of oncogenic transformation. In this study, we found that myocardin-related transcription factors (MRTFs), which promote migration and metastatic invasion, also sensitize cancer cells to the immune system. Melanoma and breast cancer cells with high MRTF expression were selectively eliminated by cytotoxic lymphocytes in mouse models of metastasis. This immunosurveillance phenotype was further enhanced by treatment with immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) antibodies. We also observed that high MRTF signaling in human melanoma is associated with ICB efficacy in patients. Using biophysical and functional assays, we showed that MRTF overexpression rigidified the filamentous actin cytoskeleton and that this mechanical change rendered mouse and human cancer cells more vulnerable to cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Collectively, these results suggest that immunosurveillance has a mechanical dimension, which we call mechanosurveillance, that is particularly relevant for the targeting of metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Tello-Lafoz
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Katja Srpan
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Elisa E Sanchez
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jing Hu
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jan Remsik
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yevgeniy Romin
- Molecular Cytology Core Facility, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Annalisa Calò
- Molecular Cytology Core Facility, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Douglas Hoen
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Umeshkumar Bhanot
- Precision Pathology Center, Department of Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Luc Morris
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adrienne Boire
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Katharine C Hsu
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joan Massagué
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Morgan Huse
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Ekrem Emrah Er
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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185
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Li Y, Liu X, Huang Q, Ohta AT, Arai T. Bubbles in microfluidics: an all-purpose tool for micromanipulation. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:1016-1035. [PMID: 33538756 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc01173h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, the integration of microfluidic devices and multiple actuation technologies at the microscale has greatly contributed to the progress of related fields. In particular, microbubbles are playing an increasingly important role in microfluidics because of their unique characteristics that lead to specific responses to different energy sources and gas-liquid interactions. Many effective and functional bubble-based micromanipulation strategies have been developed and improved, enabling various non-invasive, selective, and precise operations at the microscale. This review begins with a brief introduction of the morphological characteristics and formation of microbubbles. The theoretical foundations and working mechanisms of typical micromanipulations based on acoustic, thermodynamic, and chemical microbubbles in fluids are described. We critically review the extensive applications and the frontline advances of bubbles in microfluidics, including microflow patterns, position and orientation control, biomedical applications, and development of bubble-based microrobots. We lastly present an outlook to provide directions for the design and application of microbubble-based micromanipulation tools and attract the attention of relevant researchers to the enormous potential of microbubbles in microfluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyang Li
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.
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186
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Huang X, Torres-Castro K, Varhue W, Salahi A, Rasin A, Honrado C, Brown A, Guler J, Swami NS. Self-aligned sequential lateral field non-uniformities over channel depth for high throughput dielectrophoretic cell deflection. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:835-843. [PMID: 33532812 PMCID: PMC8019514 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc01211d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis (DEP) enables the separation of cells based on subtle subcellular phenotypic differences by controlling the frequency of the applied field. However, current electrode-based geometries extend over a limited depth of the sample channel, thereby reducing the throughput of the manipulated sample (sub-μL min-1 flow rates and <105 cells per mL). We present a flow through device with self-aligned sequential field non-uniformities extending laterally across the sample channel width (100 μm) that are created by metal patterned over the entire depth (50 μm) of the sample channel sidewall using a single lithography step. This enables single-cell streamlines to undergo progressive DEP deflection with minimal dependence on the cell starting position, its orientation versus the field and intercellular interactions. Phenotype-specific cell separation is validated (>μL min-1 flow and >106 cells per mL) using heterogeneous samples of healthy and glutaraldehyde-fixed red blood cells, with single-cell impedance cytometry showing that the DEP collected fractions are intact and exhibit electrical opacity differences consistent with their capacitance-based DEP crossover frequency. This geometry can address the vision of an "all electric" selective cell isolation and cytometry system for quantifying phenotypic heterogeneity of cellular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- XuHai Huang
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Karina Torres-Castro
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Walter Varhue
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Armita Salahi
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Ahmed Rasin
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Carlos Honrado
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA.
| | - Audrey Brown
- Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
| | | | - Nathan S Swami
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA. and Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
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187
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Modeling force application configurations and morphologies required for cancer cell invasion. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2021; 20:1187-1194. [PMID: 33683515 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-021-01441-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We show that cell-applied, normal mechanical stresses are required for cells to penetrate into soft substrates, matching experimental observations in invasive cancer cells, while in-plane traction forces alone reproduce observations in non-cancer/noninvasive cells. Mechanobiological interactions of cells with their microenvironment drive migration and cancer invasion. We have previously shown that invasive cancer cells forcefully and rapidly push into impenetrable, physiological stiffness gels and indent them to cell-scale depths (up to 10 μm); normal, noninvasive cells indent at most to 0.7 μm. Significantly indenting cells signpost increased cancer invasiveness and higher metastatic risk in vitro and in vivo, as verified experimentally in different cancer types, yet the underlying cell-applied, force magnitudes and configurations required to produce the cell-scale gel indentations have yet to be evaluated. Hence, we have developed finite element models of forces applied onto soft, impenetrable gels using experimental cell/gel morphologies, gel mechanics, and force magnitudes. We show that in-plane traction forces can only induce small-scale indentations in soft gels (< 0.7 μm), matching experiments with various single, normal cells. Addition of a normal force (on the scale of experimental traction forces) produced cell-scale indentations that matched observations in invasive cancer cells. We note that normal stresses (force and area) determine the indentation depth, while contact area size and morphology have a minor effect, explaining the origin of experimentally observed cell morphologies. We have thus revealed controlling features facilitating invasive indentations by single cancer cells, which will allow application of our model to complex problems, such as multicellular systems.
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188
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Wen M, Li C, Zhang M, Sun Y, Liu F, Cui X, Shan Y. Acridinium benzoates for ratiometric fluorescence imaging of cellular viscosity. Analyst 2021; 146:1538-1542. [PMID: 33522524 DOI: 10.1039/d0an02321c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A series of fluorescent molecular rotors, acridinium benzoates (Acr-A,B,C,D), were designed for ratiometrically monitoring cellular viscosity. High sensitivity to viscosity was observed in probe Acr-A with an insignificant steric effect in the acridinium nitrogen. Acr-A was employed to distinguish cancer cells from normal cells and track the dynamics of viscosity during cellular apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wen
- Department of Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.
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189
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Lee H, Bonin K, Guthold M. Human mammary epithelial cells in a mature, stratified epithelial layer flatten and stiffen compared to single and confluent cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1865:129891. [PMID: 33689830 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The epithelium forms a protective barrier against external biological, chemical and physical insults. So far, AFM-based, micro-mechanical measurements have only been performed on single cells and confluent cells, but not yet on cells in mature layers. METHODS Using a combination of atomic force, fluorescence and confocal microscopy, we determined the changes in stiffness, morphology and actin distribution of human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs) as they transition from single cells to confluency to a mature layer. RESULTS Single HMECs have a tall, round (planoconvex) morphology, have actin stress fibers at the base, have diffuse cortical actin, and have a stiffness of 1 kPa. Confluent HMECs start to become flatter, basal actin stress fibers start to disappear, and actin accumulates laterally where cells abut. Overall stiffness is still 1 kPa with two-fold higher stiffness in the abutting regions. As HMECs mature and form multilayered structures, cells on apical surfaces become flatter (apically more level), wider, and seven times stiffer (mean, 7 kPa) than single and confluent cells. The main drivers of these changes are actin filaments, as cells show strong actin accumulation in the regions where cells adjoin, and in the apical regions. CONCLUSIONS HMECs stiffen, flatten and redistribute actin upon transiting from single cells to mature, confluent layers. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Our findings advance the understanding of breast ductal morphogenesis and mechanical homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunsu Lee
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
| | - Keith Bonin
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
| | - Martin Guthold
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA.
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190
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The Mechanical Fingerprint of Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs) in Breast Cancer Patients. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13051119. [PMID: 33807790 PMCID: PMC7961579 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13051119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in the blood of cancer patients is a challenging issue, since they adapt to the biochemical and physical landscape of the bloodstream. We approached the issue of CTC identification on a biophysical level. For the first time, we recorded the mechanical deformation profiles of potential CTCs, which were isolated from the blood of breast cancer patients, at the force regime of the deforming blood flow. Mechanical fingerprints of CTCs were significantly different from healthy white blood cells. We used machine learning to further evaluate the differences and identify discrimination criteria. Our results suggest that mechanical characterization of CTCs at low forces is a promising path towards CTC detection. Abstract Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a potential predictive surrogate marker for disease monitoring. Due to the sparse knowledge about their phenotype and its changes during cancer progression and treatment response, CTC isolation remains challenging. Here we focused on the mechanical characterization of circulating non-hematopoietic cells from breast cancer patients to evaluate its utility for CTC detection. For proof of premise, we used healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), human MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cells and human HL-60 leukemia cells to create a CTC model system. For translational experiments CD45 negative cells—possible CTCs—were isolated from blood samples of patients with mamma carcinoma. Cells were mechanically characterized in the optical stretcher (OS). Active and passive cell mechanical data were related with physiological descriptors by a random forest (RF) classifier to identify cell type specific properties. Cancer cells were well distinguishable from PBMC in cell line tests. Analysis of clinical samples revealed that in PBMC the elliptic deformation was significantly increased compared to non-hematopoietic cells. Interestingly, non-hematopoietic cells showed significantly higher shape restoration. Based on Kelvin–Voigt modeling, the RF algorithm revealed that elliptic deformation and shape restoration were crucial parameters and that the OS discriminated non-hematopoietic cells from PBMC with an accuracy of 0.69, a sensitivity of 0.74, and specificity of 0.63. The CD45 negative cell population in the blood of breast cancer patients is mechanically distinguishable from healthy PBMC. Together with cell morphology, the mechanical fingerprint might be an appropriate tool for marker-free CTC detection.
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191
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Kalyan S, Torabi C, Khoo H, Sung HW, Choi SE, Wang W, Treutler B, Kim D, Hur SC. Inertial Microfluidics Enabling Clinical Research. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:257. [PMID: 33802356 PMCID: PMC7999476 DOI: 10.3390/mi12030257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fast and accurate interrogation of complex samples containing diseased cells or pathogens is important to make informed decisions on clinical and public health issues. Inertial microfluidics has been increasingly employed for such investigations to isolate target bioparticles from liquid samples with size and/or deformability-based manipulation. This phenomenon is especially useful for the clinic, owing to its rapid, label-free nature of target enrichment that enables further downstream assays. Inertial microfluidics leverages the principle of inertial focusing, which relies on the balance of inertial and viscous forces on particles to align them into size-dependent laminar streamlines. Several distinct microfluidic channel geometries (e.g., straight, curved, spiral, contraction-expansion array) have been optimized to achieve inertial focusing for a variety of purposes, including particle purification and enrichment, solution exchange, and particle alignment for on-chip assays. In this review, we will discuss how inertial microfluidics technology has contributed to improving accuracy of various assays to provide clinically relevant information. This comprehensive review expands upon studies examining both endogenous and exogenous targets from real-world samples, highlights notable hybrid devices with dual functions, and comments on the evolving outlook of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srivathsan Kalyan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (S.K.); (C.T.); (H.K.); (S.-E.C.)
| | - Corinna Torabi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (S.K.); (C.T.); (H.K.); (S.-E.C.)
| | - Harrison Khoo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (S.K.); (C.T.); (H.K.); (S.-E.C.)
| | - Hyun Woo Sung
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA;
| | - Sung-Eun Choi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (S.K.); (C.T.); (H.K.); (S.-E.C.)
| | - Wenzhao Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Benjamin Treutler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Dohyun Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Myongji University, Yongin-si 17508, Korea
| | - Soojung Claire Hur
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (S.K.); (C.T.); (H.K.); (S.-E.C.)
- Institute for NanoBioTechnology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University, 600 N Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, 401 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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192
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Graybill PM, Bollineni RK, Sheng Z, Davalos RV, Mirzaeifar R. A constriction channel analysis of astrocytoma stiffness and disease progression. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2021; 15:024103. [PMID: 33763160 PMCID: PMC7968935 DOI: 10.1063/5.0040283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Studies have demonstrated that cancer cells tend to have reduced stiffness (Young's modulus) compared to their healthy counterparts. The mechanical properties of primary brain cancer cells, however, have remained largely unstudied. To investigate whether the stiffness of primary brain cancer cells decreases as malignancy increases, we used a microfluidic constriction channel device to deform healthy astrocytes and astrocytoma cells of grade II, III, and IV and measured the entry time, transit time, and elongation. Calculating cell stiffness directly from the experimental measurements is not possible. To overcome this challenge, finite element simulations of the cell entry into the constriction channel were used to train a neural network to calculate the stiffness of the analyzed cells based on their experimentally measured diameter, entry time, and elongation in the channel. Our study provides the first calculation of stiffness for grades II and III astrocytoma and is the first to apply a neural network analysis to determine cell mechanical properties from a constriction channel device. Our results suggest that the stiffness of astrocytoma cells is not well-correlated with the cell grade. Furthermore, while other non-central-nervous-system cell types typically show reduced stiffness of malignant cells, we found that most astrocytoma cell lines had increased stiffness compared to healthy astrocytes, with lower-grade astrocytoma having higher stiffness values than grade IV glioblastoma. Differences in nucleus-to-cytoplasm ratio only partly explain differences in stiffness values. Although our study does have limitations, our results do not show a strong correlation of stiffness with cell grade, suggesting that other factors may play important roles in determining the invasive capability of astrocytoma. Future studies are warranted to further elucidate the mechanical properties of astrocytoma across various pathological grades.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - R. K. Bollineni
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Z. Sheng
- Department of Internal Medicine, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Virginia Tech Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Roanoke, Virginia 24016, USA
| | - R. V. Davalos
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
| | - R. Mirzaeifar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
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193
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Wang Z, Wang X, Zhang Y, Xu W, Han X. Principles and Applications of Single Particle Tracking in Cell Research. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2005133. [PMID: 33533163 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202005133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It is a tough challenge for many decades to decipher the complex relationships between cell behaviors and cellular physical properties. Single particle tracking (SPT) with high spatial and temporal resolution has been applied extensively in cell research to understand physicochemical properties of cells and their bio-functions by tracking endogenous or exogenous probes. This review describes the fundamental principles of SPT as well as its applications in intracellular mechanics, membrane dynamics, organelles distribution, and processes of internalization and transport. Finally, challenges and future directions of SPT are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Xuejing Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Heilongjiang Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150027, China
| | - Weili Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Xiaojun Han
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
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194
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Wang S, Ye T, Li G, Zhang X, Shi H. Margination and adhesion dynamics of tumor cells in a real microvascular network. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008746. [PMID: 33606686 PMCID: PMC7928530 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In tumor metastasis, the margination and adhesion of tumor cells are two critical and closely related steps, which may determine the destination where the tumor cells extravasate to. We performed a direct three-dimensional simulation on the behaviors of the tumor cells in a real microvascular network, by a hybrid method of the smoothed dissipative particle dynamics and immersed boundary method (SDPD-IBM). The tumor cells are found to adhere at the microvascular bifurcations more frequently, and there is a positive correlation between the adhesion of the tumor cells and the wall-directed force from the surrounding red blood cells (RBCs). The larger the wall-directed force is, the closer the tumor cells are marginated towards the wall, and the higher the probability of adhesion behavior happen is. A relatively low or high hematocrit can help to prevent the adhesion of tumor cells, and similarly, increasing the shear rate of blood flow can serve the same purpose. These results suggest that the tumor cells may be more likely to extravasate at the microvascular bifurcations if the blood flow is slow and the hematocrit is moderate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sitong Wang
- Department of Computational Mathematics, School of Mathematics, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ting Ye
- Department of Computational Mathematics, School of Mathematics, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Guansheng Li
- Department of Computational Mathematics, School of Mathematics, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xuejiao Zhang
- Department of Computational Mathematics, School of Mathematics, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Huixin Shi
- Department of Computational Mathematics, School of Mathematics, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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195
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Riehl BD, Kim E, Bouzid T, Lim JY. The Role of Microenvironmental Cues and Mechanical Loading Milieus in Breast Cancer Cell Progression and Metastasis. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 8:608526. [PMID: 33585411 PMCID: PMC7874074 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.608526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer can disrupt the microenvironments and mechanical homeostatic actions in multiple scales from large tissue modification to altered cellular signaling pathway in mechanotransduction. In this review, we highlight recent progresses in breast cancer cell mechanobiology focusing on cell-microenvironment interaction and mechanical loading regulation of cells. First, the effects of microenvironmental cues on breast cancer cell progression and metastasis will be reviewed with respect to substrate stiffness, chemical/topographic substrate patterning, and 2D vs. 3D cultures. Then, the role of mechanical loading situations such as tensile stretch, compression, and flow-induced shear will be discussed in relation to breast cancer cell mechanobiology and metastasis prevention. Ultimately, the substrate microenvironment and mechanical signal will work together to control cancer cell progression and metastasis. The discussions on breast cancer cell responsiveness to mechanical signals, from static substrate and dynamic loading, and the mechanotransduction pathways involved will facilitate interdisciplinary knowledge transfer, enabling further insights into prognostic markers, mechanically mediated metastasis pathways for therapeutic targets, and model systems required to advance cancer mechanobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon D Riehl
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - Eunju Kim
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - Tasneem Bouzid
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - Jung Yul Lim
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States.,Mary and Dick Holland Regenerative Medicine Program, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
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196
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Amos SE, Choi YS. The Cancer Microenvironment: Mechanical Challenges of the Metastatic Cascade. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:625859. [PMID: 33644019 PMCID: PMC7907606 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.625859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The metastatic cascade presents a significant challenge to patient survival in the fight against cancer. As metastatic cells disseminate and colonize a secondary site, stepwise exposure to microenvironment-specific mechanical stimuli influences and protects successful metastasis. Following cancerous transformation and associated cell recruitment, the tumor microenvironment (TME) becomes a mechanically complex niche, owing to changes in extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness and architecture. The ECM mechanically reprograms the cancer cell phenotype, priming cells for invasion. 2D and 3D hydrogel-based culture platforms approximate these environmental variables and permit investigations into tumor-dependent shifts in malignancy. Following TME modification, malignant cells must invade the local ECM, driven toward blood, and lymph vessels by sensing biochemical and biophysical gradients. Microfluidic chips recreate cancer-modified ECM tracks, empowering studies into modes of confined motility. Intravasation and extravasation consist of complex cancer-endothelial interactions that modify an otherwise submicron-scale migration. Perfused microfluidic platforms facilitate the physiological culture of endothelial cells and thus enhance the translatability of basic research into metastatic transendothelial migration. These platforms also shed light on the poorly understood circulating tumor cell, which defies adherent cell norms by surviving the shear stress of blood flow and avoiding anoikis. Metastatic cancers possess the plasticity to adapt to new mechanical conditions, permitting their invasiveness, and ensuring their survival against anomalous stimuli. Here, we review the cellular mechanics of metastasis in the context of current in vitro approaches. Advances that further expose the mechanisms underpinning the phenotypic fluidity of metastatic cancers remain central to the development of novel interventions targeting cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yu Suk Choi
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
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197
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Connolly S, McGourty K, Newport D. The influence of cell elastic modulus on inertial positions in Poiseuille microflows. Biophys J 2021; 120:855-865. [PMID: 33545102 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Microchannels are used as a transportation highway for suspended cells both in vivo and ex vivo. Lymphatic and cardiovascular systems transfer suspended cells through microchannels within the body, and microfluidic techniques such as lab-on-a-chip devices, flow cytometry, and CAR T-cell therapy utilize microchannels of similar sizes to analyze or separate suspended cells ex vivo. Understanding the forces that cells are subject to while traveling through these channels are important because certain applications exploit these cell properties for cell separation. This study investigated the influence that cytoskeletal impairment has on the inertial positions of circulating cells in laminar pipe flow. Two representative cancer cell lines were treated using cytochalasin D, and their inertial positions were investigated using particle streak imaging and compared between benign and metastatic cell lines. This resulted in a shift in inertial positions between benign and metastatic as well as treated and untreated cells. To determine and quantify the physical changes in the cells that resulted in this migration, staining and nanoindentation techniques were then used to determine the cells' size, circularity, and elastic modulus. It was found that the cells' exposure to cytochalasin D resulted in decreased elastic moduli of cells, with benign and metastatic cells showing decreases of 135 ± 91 and 130 ± 60 Pa, respectively, with no change in either size or shape. This caused benign, stiffer cancer cells to be more evenly distributed across the channel width than metastatic, deformable cancer cells; additionally, a decrease in the elastic moduli of both cell lines resulted in increased migration toward the channel center. These results indicate that the elastic modulus may play more of a part in the inertial migration of such cells than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinead Connolly
- School of Engineering, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Kieran McGourty
- School of Natural Sciences, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland; Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
| | - David Newport
- School of Engineering, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.
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198
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Zhang J, Scarcelli G. Mapping mechanical properties of biological materials via an add-on Brillouin module to confocal microscopes. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:1251-1275. [PMID: 33452504 PMCID: PMC8218248 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-020-00457-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Several techniques have been developed over the past few decades to assess the mechanical properties of biological samples, which has fueled a rapid growth in the fields of biophysics, bioengineering, and mechanobiology. In this context, Brillouin optical spectroscopy has long been known as an intriguing modality for noncontact material characterization. However, limited by speed and sample damage, it had not translated into a viable imaging modality for biomedically relevant materials. Recently, based on a novel spectroscopy strategy that substantially improves the speed of Brillouin measurement, confocal Brillouin microscopy has emerged as a unique complementary tool to traditional methods as it allows noncontact, nonperturbative, label-free measurements of material mechanical properties. The feasibility and potential of this innovative technique at both the cell and tissue level have been extensively demonstrated over the past decade. As Brillouin technology is rapidly recognized, a standard approach for building and operating Brillouin microscopes is required to facilitate the widespread adoption of this technology. In this protocol, we aim to establish a robust approach for instrumentation, and data acquisition and analysis. By carefully following this protocol, we expect that a Brillouin instrument can be built in 5-9 days by a person with basic optics knowledge and alignment experience; the data acquisition as well as postprocessing can be accomplished within 2-8 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitao Zhang
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Giuliano Scarcelli
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
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199
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Bakhshandeh S, Taïeb HM, Schlüßler R, Kim K, Beck T, Taubenberger A, Guck J, Cipitria A. Optical quantification of intracellular mass density and cell mechanics in 3D mechanical confinement. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:853-862. [PMID: 33232425 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm01556c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Biophysical properties of cells such as intracellular mass density and cell mechanics are known to be involved in a wide range of homeostatic functions and pathological alterations. An optical readout that can be used to quantify such properties is the refractive index (RI) distribution. It has been recently reported that the nucleus, initially presumed to be the organelle with the highest dry mass density (ρ) within the cell, has in fact a lower RI and ρ than its surrounding cytoplasm. These studies have either been conducted in suspended cells, or cells adhered on 2D substrates, neither of which reflects the situation in vivo where cells are surrounded by the extracellular matrix (ECM). To better approximate the 3D situation, we encapsulated cells in 3D covalently-crosslinked alginate hydrogels with varying stiffness, and imaged the 3D RI distribution of cells, using a combined optical diffraction tomography (ODT)-epifluorescence microscope. Unexpectedly, the nuclei of cells in 3D displayed a higher ρ than the cytoplasm, in contrast to 2D cultures. Using a Brillouin-epifluorescence microscope we subsequently showed that in addition to higher ρ, the nuclei also had a higher longitudinal modulus (M) and viscosity (η) compared to the cytoplasm. Furthermore, increasing the stiffness of the hydrogel resulted in higher M for both the nuclei and cytoplasm of cells in stiff 3D alginate compared to cells in compliant 3D alginate. The ability to quantify intracellular biophysical properties with non-invasive techniques will improve our understanding of biological processes such as dormancy, apoptosis, cell growth or stem cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadra Bakhshandeh
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany.
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Machine-Learning Provides Patient-Specific Prediction of Metastatic Risk Based on Innovative, Mechanobiology Assay. Ann Biomed Eng 2021; 49:1774-1783. [PMID: 33483841 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-020-02720-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer mortality is mostly related to metastasis. Metastasis is currently prognosed via histopathology, disease-statistics, or genetics; those are potentially inaccurate, not rapidly available and require known markers. We had developed a rapid (~ 2 h) mechanobiology-based approach to provide early prognosis of the clinical likelihood for metastasis. Specifically, invasive cell-subsets seeded on impenetrable, physiological-stiffness polyacrylamide gels forcefully indent the gels, while non-invasive/benign cells do not. The number of indenting cells and their attained depths, the mechanical invasiveness, accurately define the metastatic risk of tumors and cell-lines. Utilizing our experimental database, we compare the capacity of several machine learning models to predict the metastatic risk. Models underwent supervised training on individual experiments using classification from literature and commercial-sources for established cell-lines and clinical histopathology reports for tumor samples. We evaluated 2-class models, separating invasive/non-invasive (e.g. benign) samples, and obtained sensitivity and specificity of 0.92 and 1, respectively; this surpasses other works. We also introduce a novel approach, using 5-class models (i.e. normal, benign, cancer-metastatic-non/low/high) that provided average sensitivity and specificity of 0.69 and 0.91. Combining our rapid, mechanical invasiveness assay with machine learning classification can provide accurate and early prognosis of metastatic risk, to support choice of treatments and disease management.
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