Self-assembly of hyperbranched polymers and its biomedical applications

Cancer Theranostic Nanoparticles Self-Assembled from Amphiphilic Small Molecules with Equilibrium Shift-Induced Renal Clearance

Nano drug delivery systems have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy, whereas their uncertainly complete elimination from the body within specific timescales restricts their clinical translation. Compared with hepatic clearance of nanoparticles, renal excretion of small molecules is preferred to minimize the agent-induced toxicity. Herein, we construct in vivo renal-clearable nanoparticles, which are self-assembled from amphiphilic small molecules holding the capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and chemotherapy. The assembled nanoparticles can accumulate in tumor tissues for their nano-characteristics, while the small molecules dismantled from the nanoparticles can be efficiently cleared by kidneys. The renal-clearable nanoparticles exhibit excellent tumor-inhibition performance as well as low side effects and negligible chronic toxicity. These results demonstrate a potential strategy for small molecular nano drug delivery systems with obvious anticancer effect and low-toxic metabolism pathway for clinical applications.

Aminoflavone-loaded EGFR-targeted unimolecular micelle nanoparticles exhibit anti-cancer effects in triple negative breast cancer

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype of breast cancer for which there is no available targeted therapy. TNBC cases contribute disproportionately to breast cancer-related mortality, thus the need for novel and effective therapeutic methods is urgent. We have previously shown that a National Cancer Institute (NCI) investigational drug aminoflavone (AF) exhibits strong growth inhibitory effects in TNBC cells. However, in vivo pulmonary toxicity resulted in withdrawal or termination of several human clinical trials for AF. Herein we report the in vivo efficacy of a nanoformulation of AF that enhances the therapeutic index of AF in TNBC. We engineered a unique unimolecular micelle nanoparticle (NP) loaded with AF and conjugated with GE11, a 12 amino acid peptide targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), since EGFR amplification is frequently observed in TNBC tumors. These unimolecular micelles possessed excellent stability and preferentially released drug payload at endosomal pH levels rather than blood pH levels. Use of the GE11 targeting peptide resulted in enhanced cellular uptake and strong growth inhibitory effects in TNBC cells. Further, AF-loaded, GE11-conjugated (targeted) unimolecular micelle NPs significantly inhibit orthotopic TNBC tumor growth in a xenograft model, compared to treatment with AF-loaded, GE11-lacking (non-targeted) unimolecular micelle NPs or free AF. Interestingly, the animals treated with AF-loaded, targeted NPs had the highest plasma and tumor level of AF among different treatment groups yet exhibited no increase in plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity level or observable tissue damage at the time of sacrifice. Together, these results highlight AF-loaded, EGFR-targeted unimolecular micelle NPs as an effective therapeutic option for EGFR-overexpressing TNBC.

HBP Builder: A Tool to Generate Hyperbranched Polymers and Hyperbranched Multi-Arm Copolymers for Coarse-grained and Fully Atomistic Molecular Simulations

Computer simulation has been becoming a versatile tool that can investigate detailed information from the microscopic scale to the mesoscopic scale. However, the crucial first step of molecular simulation is model building, particularly for hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) and hyperbranched multi-arm copolymers (HBMCs) with complex and various topological structures. Unlike well-defined polymers, not only the molar weight of HBPs/HBMCs with polydispersity, but the HBPs/HBMCs with the same degree of polymerization (DP) and degree of branching (DB) also have many possible topological structures, thus making difficulties for user to build model in molecular simulation. In order to build a bridge between model building and molecular simulation of HBPs and HBMCs, we developed HBP Builder, a C language open source HBPs/HBMCs building toolkit. HBP Builder implements an automated protocol to build various coarse-grained and fully atomistic structures of HBPs/HBMCs according to user's specific requirements. Meanwhile, coarse-grained and fully atomistic output structures can be directly employed in popular simulation packages, including HOOMD, Tinker and Gromacs. Moreover, HBP Builder has an easy-to-use graphical user interface and the modular architecture, making it easy to extend and reuse it as a part of other program.

Tailor-Made Temperature-Sensitive Micelle for Targeted and On-Demand Release of Anticancer Drugs

The design of nanomedicines from the tuned architecture polymer is a leading object of immense research in recent years. Here, smart thermoresponsive micelles were prepared from novel architecture four-arm star block copolymers, namely, pentaerythritol polycaprolactone-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and pentaerythritol polycaprolactone-b-poly(N-vinylcaprolactam). The polymers were synthesized and tagged with folic acid (FA) to render them as efficient cancer cell targeting cargos. FA-conjugated block copolymers were self-assembled to a nearly spherical (ranging from 15 to 170 nm) polymeric micelle (FA-PM) with a sufficiently lower range of critical micelle concentration (0.59 × 10(-2) to 1.52 × 10(-2) mg/mL) suitable for performing as an efficient drug carrier. The blocks show lower critical solution temperature (LCST) ranging from 30 to 39 °C with high DOX-loading content (24.3%, w/w) as compared to that reported for a linear polymer in the contemporary literature. The temperature-induced reduction in size (57%) of the FA-PM enables a high rate of DOX release (78.57% after 24 h) at a temperature above LCST. The DOX release rate has also been tuned by on-demand administration of temperature. The in vitro biocompatibilities of the blank and DOX-loaded FA-PMs have been studied by the MTT assay. The cellular uptake study proves selective internalization of the FA-PM into cancerous cells (C6 glioma) compared that into normal cells (HaCaT). In vivo administration of the DOX-loaded FA-PMs into the C6 glioma rat tumor model resulted in significant accumulation in tumor sites, which drastically inhibited the tumor volume by ∼83.9% with respect to control without any significant systemic toxicity.

Polyester-Based, Biodegradable Core-Multishell Nanocarriers for the Transport of Hydrophobic Drugs

A water-soluble, core-multishell (CMS) nanocarrier based on a new hyperbranched polyester core building block was synthesized and characterized towards drug transport and degradation of the nanocarrier. The hydrophobic drug dexamethasone was encapsulated and the enzyme-mediated biodegradability was investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The new CMS nanocarrier can transport one molecule of dexamethasone and degrades within five days at a skin temperature of 32 °C to biocompatible fragments.

Aptamer-Functionalized and Backbone Redox-Responsive Hyperbranched Polymer for Targeted Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

A novel type of backbone redox-responsive hyperbranched poly(2-((2-(acryloyloxy)ethyl)disulfanyl)ethyl 4-cyano-4-(((propylthio)carbonothioyl)-thio)-pentanoate-co-poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (HPAEG) has been designed and prepared successfully via the combination of reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization and self-condensing vinyl polymerization (SCVP). Owing to the existence of surface vinyl groups, HPAEG could be efficiently functionalized by DNA aptamer AS1411 via Michael addition reaction to obtain an active tumor targeting drug delivery carrier (HPAEG-AS1411). The amphiphilic HPAEG-AS1411 could form nanoparticles by macromolecular self-assembly strategy. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay illustrated that HPAEG-AS1411 nanoparticles had low cytotoxicity to normal cell line. Flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) results demonstrated that HPAEG-AS1411 nanoparticles could be internalized into tumor cells via aptamer-mediated endocytosis. Compared with pure HPAEG nanoparticles, HPAEG-AS1411 nanoparticles displayed enhanced tumor cell uptake. When the HPAEG-AS1411 nanoparticles loaded with anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) were internalized into tumor cells, the disulfide bonds in the backbone of HPAEG-AS1411 were cleaved by glutathione (GSH) in the cytoplasm, so that DOX was released rapidly. Therefore, DOX-loaded HPAEG-AS1411 nanoparticles exhibited a high tumor cellular proliferation inhibition rate and low cytotoxicity to normal cells. This aptamer-functionalized and backbone redox-responsive hyperbranched polymer provides a promising platform for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy.

Dendritic Polymers for Theranostics

Dendritic polymers are highly branched polymers with controllable structures, which possess a large population of terminal functional groups, low solution or melt viscosity, and good solubility. Their size, degree of branching and functionality can be adjusted and controlled through the synthetic procedures. These tunable structures correspond to application-related properties, such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, stimuli-responsiveness and self-assembly ability, which are the key points for theranostic applications, including chemotherapeutic theranostics, biotherapeutic theranostics, phototherapeutic theranostics, radiotherapeutic theranostics and combined therapeutic theranostics. Up to now, significant progress has been made for the dendritic polymers in solving some of the fundamental and technical questions toward their theranostic applications. In this review, we briefly summarize how to control the structures of dendritic polymers, the theranostics-related properties derived from their structures and their theranostics-related applications.

Hyperbranched polyphosphates: synthesis, functionalization and biomedical applications

Hyperbranched polyphosphates (HBPPs) are newly emerged polymeric biomaterials with repeating phosphate bonds in a highly branched framework over the past 5 years. Due to the integration of the advantages of both hyperbranched polymers and polyphosphates, HBPPs are versatile in chemical structure, flexible in physicochemical properties, water soluble, biocompatible and biodegradable in biological features. On the basis of their excellent water solubility, biocompatibility, biodegradability and potential functionalization as well as their simple preparation in one-pot synthesis, HBPPs have fascinating biomedical applications, especially for drug delivery. In this tutorial review, the recent advances of HBPPs are summarized. HBPPs with different topological structures and various functionalities were synthesized via adjusting the side group of cyclic phosphate monomers, which have shown promising biomedical applications, for example, using as a macromolecular anticancer agent and constructing advanced drug delivery systems, including site-specific delivery systems, self-delivery systems, and stimuli-responsive delivery systems. Such progress may promote the further development of interdisciplinary research between polymer chemistry, material science and biomedicine.

Selenium-Platinum Coordination Dendrimers with Controlled Anti-Cancer Activity

Dendrimers are considered as good vectors for drug delivery in cancer treatment. However, most anticancer drugs are conjugated to the peripheral surface of dendrimers, sacrificing the advantages of monodispersity and stability belonging to dendrimers. Furthermore, dendrimers in current studies of cancer treatment are mostly used as vectors for drugs, whereas the anticancer activity of dendrimers on their own is less studied. Here we have prepared monodisperse selenium-platinum coordination dendrimers with a selenium-platinum core buried inside. Structures of the dendrimers were determined by various characterizations. The coordination dendrimers showed controlled anticancer activity by themselves, without loading additional drugs. The in vivo study further demonstrated their anticancer activity and low toxicity to normal tissues.

Hybrid Vesicles with Alterable Fully Covered Armors of Nanoparticles: Fabrication, Catalysis, and Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

This work reports on the facile preparation of hybrid polymer vesicles with alterable armors of metal nanoparticles by using a novel hyperbranched polymer vesicle as the templates. The vesicles were prepared through the aqueous self-assembly of a hyperbranched multiarm copolymers with many tertiary amino groups on the surface, which can electrostatically complexed or coordinated with metal ions like AuCl4(-), PtCl6(2-), and Ag(+) ions. Subsequently, the vesicles coated with metal ions can be in situ reduced into metal nanoparticles, through which a series of surface-engineered vesicles (Au@vesicles, Ag@vesicles, Pt@vesicles) with an advantage of fully covered metal nanoparticles on the surface could be readily prepared. The morphologies, structures, and formation mechanism of the as-prepared hybrid vesicles were carefully characterized, and the obtained hybrid vesicles also showed great potentials in catalysis and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) applications.

Multifunctional Phosphorescent Conjugated Polymer Dots for Hypoxia Imaging and Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer Cells

Molecular oxygen (O2) plays a key role in many physiological processes, and becomes a toxicant to kill cells when excited to 1O2. Intracellular O2 levels, or the degree of hypoxia, are always viewed as an indicator of cancers. Due to the highly efficient cancer therapy ability and low side effect, photodynamic therapy (PDT) becomes one of the most promising treatments for cancers. Herein, an early-stage diagnosis and therapy system is reported based on the phosphorescent conjugated polymer dots (Pdots) containing Pt(II) porphyrin as an oxygen-responsive phosphorescent group and 1O2 photosensitizer. Intracellular hypoxia detection has been investigated. Results show that cells treated with Pdots display longer lifetimes under hypoxic conditions, and time-resolved luminescence images exhibit a higher signal-to-noise ratio after gating off the short-lived background fluorescence. Quantification of O2 is realized by the ratiometric emission intensity of phosphorescence/fluorescence and the lifetime of phosphorescence. Additionally, the PDT efficiency of Pdots is estimated by flow cytometry, MTT cell viability assay, and in situ imaging of PDT induced cell death. Interestingly, Pdots exhibit a high PDT efficiency and would be promising in clinical applications.

Reversible Self-Assembly of Backbone-Thermoresponsive Long Chain Hyperbranched Poly(N-Isopropyl Acrylamide)

In this paper, we mainly described the reversible self-assembly of a backbone-thermoresponsive, long-chain, hyperbranched poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (LCHBPNIPAM) in aqueous solution. Here, we revealed a reversible self-assembly behavior of LCHBPNIPAM aqueous solution derived from temperature. By controlling the temperature of LCHBPNIPAM aqueous solution, we tune the morphology of the LCHBPNIPAM self-assemblies. When the solution temperature increased from the room temperature to the lower critical solution temperature of PNIPAM segments, LCHBPNIPAM self-assembled from multi-compartment vesicles into solid micelles. The morphology of LCHBPNIPAM self-assemblies changed from solid micelles to multi-compartment vesicles again when the temperature decreased back to the room temperature. The size presented, at first, an increase, and then a decrease, tendency in the heating-cooling process. The above thermally-triggered self-assembly behavior of LCHBPNIPAM aqueous solution was investigated by dynamic/static light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance in D₂O, and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. These results indicated that LCHBPNIPAM aqueous solution presents a reversible self-assembly process. The controlled release behaviors of doxorubicin from the vesicles and micelles formed by LCHBPNIPAM further proved the feasibility of these self-assemblies as the stimulus-responsive drug delivery system.

Linear-dendritic block copolymer for drug and gene delivery

Dendrimers as a new class of polymeric materials have a highly ordered branched structure, exact molecular weight, multivalency and available internal cavities, which make them extensively used in biology and drug-delivery. Concurrent with the development of dendrimers, much more attention is drawn to a novel block copolymer which combines linear chains with dendritic macromolecules, the linear-dendritic block copolymer (LDBC). Because of the different solubility of the contrasting regions, the amphiphilic LDBCs could self-assemble to form aggregates with special core-shell structures which exhibit excellent properties different from traditional micelles, such as lower critical micelle concentration, prolonged circulation in the bloodstream, better biocompatibility, and lower toxicity. The present review briefly describes the type of LDBC, the self-assembly behavior in solution, and the application in delivery system including the application as drug carriers and gene vectors. The interactions between block copolymers and drugs are also summarized to better understand the release mechanism of drugs from the linear-dendritic block copolymers.

Hyperbranched polymers from A2 + B3 strategy: recent advances in description and control of fine topology

Recent advances in the fine topology regulation of hyperbranched polymers from an A₂ + B₃ strategy were presented from the perspectives of topology description and architecture control.

Molecular dynamics simulation studies of hyperbranched polyglycerols and their encapsulation behaviors of small drug molecules

Computer simulation could disclose more details about the conformations of HPGs and their encapsulation behaviors of guest molecules.

Lower critical solution temperature (LCST) phase behaviour of an ionic liquid and its control by supramolecular host–guest interactions

Unique LCST phase behaviour of imidazolium-based ionic liquids is reported, which can be controlled by concentration, the choice of cation, anion and solvent, and by supramolecular complex formation. MD simulations provide insight into the molecular basis of this LCST phenomenon.

Synthesis and characterization of hyperbranched polyether imides based on 1,3,5-tris[4-(4′-aminophenoxy)phenoxy]benzene

A new triamine monomer 1,3,5-tris[4-(4′-aminophenoxy)phenoxy]benzene, was synthesized by a three step process using hydroquinone, 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene and 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene.

Amphiphilic drug–drug assembly via dual-responsive linkages for small-molecule anticancer drug delivery

Amphiphilic drug–drug assembly nanoparticles based on dual-responsive H-bonding-instructed disulfide bonds can release irinotecan and doxorubicin simultaneously in cancer cells for anticancer purposes.

Recent development of unimolecular micelles as functional materials and applications

Unimolecular micelles have high functionalities, encapsulation capabilities and site specific confinement abilities in various applications.

Investigation of functional selenium nanoparticles as potent antimicrobial agents against superbugs

Developing highly effective antibacterial agents is important for a wide range of applications. However, the emergence of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a public health threat. Many developed agents have limited practical application due to chemical instability, low biocompatibility, and poor long-term antibacterial efficiency. In the following study, we synthesize a synergistic nanocomposite by conjugating quercetin (Qu) and acetylcholine (Ach) to the surface of Se nanoparticles (Qu-Ach@SeNPs). Quercetin has been reported to exhibit a wide range of biological activities related to their antibacterial activity and acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter, which can combine with the receptor on the bacterial cell. Arrows indicate NPs and arrowheads indicate compromised cell walls. The study demonstrated how Qu-Ach@SeNPs exhibit a synergistically enhanced antibacterial performance against the multidrug-resistant superbugs (MDRs) compared to Qu@SeNPs and Ach@SeNPs alone. Qu-Ach@SeNPs are effective against MDRs, such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), at a low dose. The mechanistic studies showed that Qu-Ach@SeNPs attach to the bacterial cell wall, causing irreversible damage to the membrane, and thereby achieving a remarkable synergistic antibacterial effect to inhibit MRSA. The findings suggested that the synergistic properties of quercetin and acetylcholine enhance the antibacterial activity of SeNPs. In this way, Qu-Ach@SeNPs comprise a new class of inorganic nano-antibacterial agents that can be used as useful applications in biomedical devices.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The Qu-Ach@SeNPs have low cytotoxicity when tested on normal human cells in vitro. Qu-Ach@SeNPs are effective against MDRs, such as Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), at a low dose. Importantly, Qu-Ach@SeNPs showed no emergence of resistance. These results suggest that Qu-Ach@SeNPs have excellent antibacterial activities. These agents can serve as good antibacterial agents against superbugs. Our data suggest that these antibacterial agents may have widespread application in the field of medicine for combating infectious diseases caused by MDRs, as well as other infectious diseases.

Multifunctional hyperbranched polymers for CT/19F MRI bimodal molecular imaging

Multifunctional hyperbranched polymers containing iodine and fluorine were synthesised by reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerisation, and evaluated as novel contrast agents for CT/¹⁹F MRI bimodal molecular imaging.

Supramolecular Architectures of Dendritic Amphiphiles in Water

Dendritic molecules are an exciting research topic because of their highly branched architecture, multiple functional groups on the periphery, and very pertinent features for various applications. Self-assembling dendritic amphiphiles have produced different nanostructures with unique morphologies and properties. Since their self-assembly in water is greatly relevant for biomedical applications, researchers have been looking for a way to rationally design dendritic amphiphiles for the last few decades. We review here some recent developments from investigations on the self-assembly of dendritic amphiphiles into various nanostructures in water on the molecular level. The main content of the review is divided into sections according to the different nanostructure morphologies resulting from the dendritic amphiphiles' self-assembly. Finally, we conclude with some remarks that highlight the self-assembling features of these dendritic amphiphiles.

Dissipative particle dynamics simulation study on self-assembly of amphiphilic hyperbranched multiarm copolymers with different degrees of branching

Hyperbranched multiarm copolymers (HMCs) have shown great potential to be excellent precursors in self-assembly to form various supramolecular structures in all scales and dimensions in solution. However, theoretical studies on the self-assembly of HMCs, especially the self-assembly dynamics and mechanisms, have been greatly lagging behind the experimental progress. Herein, we investigate the effect of degree of branching (DB) on the self-assembly structures of HMCs by dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulation. Our simulation results demonstrate that the self-assembly morphologies of HMCs can be changed from spherical micelles, wormlike micelles, to vesicles with the increase of DBs, which are qualitatively consistent with the experimental observations. In addition, both the self-assembly mechanisms and the dynamic processes for the formation of these three aggregates have been systematically disclosed through the simulations. These self-assembly details are difficult to be shown by experiments and are very useful to fully understand the self-assembly behaviors of HMCs.

Effects of dendritic core-shell glycoarchitectures on primary mesenchymal stem cells and osteoblasts obtained from different human donors

The biological impact of novel nano-scaled drug delivery vehicles in highly topical therapies of bone diseases have to be investigated in vitro before starting in vivo trials. Highly desired features for these materials are a good cellular uptake, large transport capacity for drugs and a good bio-compatibility. Essentially the latter has to be addressed as first point on the agenda. We present a study on the biological interaction of maltose-modified poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI-Mal) on primary human mesenchymal stem cell, harvested from reaming debris (rdMSC) and osteoblasts obtained from four different male donors. PEI-Mal-nanoparticles with two different molecular weights of the PEI core (5000 g/mol for PEI-5k-Mal-B and 25,000 g/mol for PEI-25k-Mal-B) have been administered to both cell lines. As well dose as incubation-time dependent effects and interactions have been researched for concentrations between 1 μg/ml to 1 mg/ml and periods of 24 h up to 28 days. Studies conducted by different methods of microscopy as light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, transmission-electron-microscopy and quantitative assays (LDH and DC-protein) indicate as well a good cellular uptake of the nanoparticles as a particle- and concentration-dependent impact on the cellular macro- and micro-structure of the rdMSC samples. In all experiments PEI-5k-Mal-B exhibits a superior biocompatibility compared to PEI-25k-Mal-B. At higher concentrations PEI-25k-Mal-B is toxic and induces a directly observable mitochondrial damage. The alkaline phosphatase assay (ALP), has been conducted to check on the possible influence of nanoparticles on the differentiation capabilities of rdMSC to osteoblasts. In addition the production of mineralized matrix has been shown by von-Kossa stained samples. No influence of the nanoparticles on the ALP per cell has been detected. Additionally, for all experiments, results are strongly influenced by a large donor-to-donor variability of the four different rdMSC samples. To summarize, while featuring a good cellular uptake, PEI-5k-Mal-B induces only minimal adverse effects and features clearly superior biocompatibility compared to the larger PEI-25k-Mal-B.

Self-carried curcumin nanoparticles for in vitro and in vivo cancer therapy with real-time monitoring of drug release

The use of different nanocarriers for delivering hydrophobic pharmaceutical agents to tumor sites has garnered major attention. Despite the merits of these nanocarriers, further studies are needed to improve their drug loading capacities (which are typically <10%) and reduce their potential systemic toxicity. Therefore, the development of alternative self-carried nanodrug delivery strategies without using inert carriers is highly desirable. In this study, we developed a self-carried curcumin (Cur) nanodrug for highly effective cancer therapy in vitro and in vivo with real-time monitoring of drug release. With a biocompatible C18PMH-PEG functionalization, the Cur nanoparticles (NPs) showed excellent dispersibility and outstanding stability in physiological environments with drug loading capacities >78 wt%. Both confocal microscopy and flow cytometry confirmed the cellular fluorescence "OFF-ON" activation and real-time monitoring of the Cur molecule release. In vitro and in vivo experiments clearly show that the therapeutic efficacy of the PEGylated Cur NPs is considerably better than that of free Cur. This self-carried strategy with real-time monitoring of drug release may open a new way for simultaneous cancer therapy and monitoring.

Characterization of oligosaccharide-functionalized hyperbranched poly(ethylene imine) and their complexes with retinol in aqueous solution

Structure, internal density distribution, and size of hyperbranched poly(ethylene imine) (PEI) functionalized with various amounts of maltose (PEI-Mal) in phosphate buffer were studied by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The value of pH was varied in the range from 3 to 9. Virtually no effect of pH on the nanostructure was found in this interval. The SAXS results revealed a broad segmental radial density distribution, i.e. a "fluffy" globular structure rather than a distinct core-shell structure with a high-density compact core and a low-density corona. This suggests that the maltose units are rather evenly distributed both in the interior and on the surface of the species with a PEI-core of molar mass of 25,000g/mol. The DLS measurements showed that the overall size of the PEI-Mal derivatives increased as the number of maltose units in the PEI-Mal structures rises. The interaction of the hydrophobic model drug retinol with PEI or PEI-Mal derivatives was also investigated. The UV-visible spectroscopy results disclosed that the solubility of retinol in the phosphate buffer is very poor and it takes a very long time to solubilize retinol. Moreover, retinol induces aggregation of dendritic glycopolymers where the growth of aggregates occurs continuously over several days and then remains virtually constant.

Physicochemical, molecular, and biological properties of complexes formed between aminoglycoside antibiotics and some anionic copolymers of acrylic series: Part II

Physicochemical and molecular properties of complexes formed by aminoglycoside antibiotics, including neomycin, gentamicin, kanamycin, and amikacin, in the form of bases and carboxyl- or sulfo-comprising copolymers of acrylamide or N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide have been studied. The toxicity of complexes in vitro and their antimicrobial activity are matched to their behavior in solutions. Direct dependency of toxic and antibacterial properties of polymer complexes of aminoglycoside antibiotics on their molecular characteristics and stability opens up perspectives of targeting control over their antimicrobial activity by changing the microstructure of their polymer carrier chains.

Architecture, Assembly, and Emerging Applications of Branched Functional Polyelectrolytes and Poly(ionic liquid)s

Branched polyelectrolytes with cylindrical brush, dendritic, hyperbranched, grafted, and star architectures bearing ionizable functional groups possess complex and unique assembly behavior in solution at surfaces and interfaces as compared to their linear counterparts. This review summarizes the recent developments in the introduction of various architectures and understanding of the assembly behavior of branched polyelectrolytes with a focus on functional polyelectrolytes and poly(ionic liquid)s with responsive properties. The branched polyelectrolytes and poly(ionic liquid)s interact electrostatically with small molecules, linear polyelectrolytes, or other branched polyelectrolytes to form assemblies of hybrid nanoparticles, multilayer thin films, responsive microcapsules, and ion-conductive membranes. The branched structures lead to unconventional assemblies and complex hierarchical structures with responsive properties as summarized in this review. Finally, we discuss prospectives for emerging applications of branched polyelectrolytes and poly(ionic liquid)s for energy harvesting and storage, controlled delivery, chemical microreactors, adaptive surfaces, and ion-exchange membranes.

Substrate-anchored and degradation-sensitive anti-inflammatory coatings for implant materials

Implant materials need to be highly biocompatible to avoid inflammation in clinical practice. Although biodegradable polymeric implants can eliminate the need for a second surgical intervention to remove the implant materials, they may produce acidic degradation products in vivo and cause non-bacterial inflammation. Here we show the strategy of “substrate-anchored and degradation-sensitive coatings” for biodegradable implants. Using poly(lactic acid)/hydroxyapatite as an implant material model, we constructed a layer-by-layer coating using pH-sensitive star polymers and dendrimers loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug, which was immobilised through a hydroxyapatite-anchored layer. The multifunctional coating can effectively suppress the local inflammation caused by the degradation of implant materials for at least 8 weeks in vivo. Moreover, the substrate-anchored coating is able to modulate the degradation of the substrate in a more homogeneous manner. The “substrate-anchored and degradation-sensitive coating” strategy therefore exhibits potential for the design of various self-anti-inflammatory biodegradable implant materials.

Dendritic Glycopolymer as Drug Delivery System for Proteasome Inhibitor Bortezomib in a Calcium Phosphate Bone Cement: First Steps Toward a Local Therapy of Osteolytic Bone Lesions

Establishment of drug delivery system (DDS) in bone substitute materials for local treatment of bone defects still requires ambitious solutions for a retarded drug release. We present two novel DDS, a weakly cationic dendritic glycopolymer and a cationic polyelectrolyte complex, composed of dendritic glycopolymer and cellulose sulfate, for the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib. Both DDS are able to induce short-term retarded release of bortezomib from calcium phosphate bone cement in comparison to a burst-release of the drug from bone cement alone. Different release parameters have been evaluated to get a first insight into the release mechanism from bone cements. In addition, biocompatibility of the calcium phosphate cement, modified with the new DDS was investigated using human mesenchymal stromal cells.