The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles

Developmental fate of the mammalian myotome

The myotome is a segmented paraxial muscle present in all early vertebrate embryos, which in amniotes disappears in mid-embryogenesis, and is replaced by complex epaxial and hypaxial musculature. Little is known about how this transition occurs. Here, we describe the detailed morphogenesis of the epaxial muscles from the epaxial myotome, in rodent embryos. The results show there is no apoptosis of myotomal fibres during the transition, and that the epaxial muscles arise by translocation, re-orientation, and elongation of the myotomal myocytes followed by cleavage of the myotomal masses. Myotomal myocytes transit from a mononucleated to a multinucleated state just before onset of this transformation. Each newly-formed epaxial muscle anlagen includes populations of Pax3- and Pax7-positive muscle progenitors, with different distributions. Using transgenic mouse embryos bearing a GFP marker for Scleraxis, we show that tendon progenitors are tightly associated with the sides and ends of myotomal myocytes as they re-orient and elongate.

A role for FoxN3 in the development of cranial cartilages and muscles in Xenopus laevis (Amphibia: Anura: Pipidae) with special emphasis on the novel rostral cartilages

The origin of morphological novelties is a controversial topic in evolutionary developmental biology. The heads of anuran larvae have several unique structures, including the supra- and infrarostral cartilages, the specialised structure of the gill basket (used for filtration), and novel cranial muscle arrangements. FoxN3, a member of the forkhead/winged helix family of transcription factors, has been implicated as important for normal craniofacial development in the pipid anuran Xenopus laevis. We have investigated the effects of functional knockdown of FoxN3 (using antisense oligonucleotide morpholino) on the development of the larval head skeleton and the associated cranial muscles in X. laevis. Our data complement earlier studies and provide a more complete account of the requirement of FoxN3 in chondrocranium development. In addition, we analyse the effects of FoxN3 knockdown on cranial muscle development. We show that FoxN3 knockdown primarily affects the novel skeletal structures unique to anuran larvae, i.e. the rostralia or the fine structure of the gill apparatus. The articulation between the infrarostral and Meckel's cartilage is malformed and the filigreed processes of the gill basket do not develop. Because these features do not develop after FoxN3 knockdown, the head morphology resembles that in the less specialised larvae of salamanders. Furthermore, the development of all cartilages derived from the neural crest is delayed and cranial muscle fibre development incomplete. The cartilage precursors initially condense in their proper position but later differentiate incompletely; several visceral arch muscles start to differentiate at their origin but fail to extend toward their insertion. Our findings indicate that FoxN3 is essential for the development of novel cartilages such as the infrarostral and other cranial tissues derived from the neural crest and, indirectly, also for muscle morphogenesis.

Dicer activity in neural crest cells is essential for craniofacial organogenesis and pharyngeal arch artery morphogenesis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in regulating gene expression during numerous biological/pathological processes. Dicer encodes an RNase III endonuclease that is essential for generating most, if not all, functional miRNAs. In this work, we applied a conditional gene inactivation approach to examine the function of Dicer during neural crest cell (NCC) development. Mice with NCC-specific inactivation of Dicer died perinatally. Cranial and cardiac NCC migration into target tissues was not affected by Dicer disruption, but their subsequent development was disturbed. NCC derivatives and their associated mesoderm-derived cells displayed massive apoptosis, leading to severe abnormalities during craniofacial morphogenesis and organogenesis. In addition, the 4th pharyngeal arch artery (PAA) remodeling was affected, resulting in interrupted aortic arch artery type B (IAA-B) in mutant animals. Taken together, our results show that Dicer activity in NCCs is essential for craniofacial development and pharyngeal arch artery morphogenesis.

Pitx2 is an upstream activator of extraocular myogenesis and survival

The transcription factors required to initiate myogenesis in branchial arch- and somite-derived muscles are known, but the comparable upstream factors required during extraocular muscle development have not been identified. We show Pax7 is dispensable for extraocular muscle formation, whereas Pitx2 is cell-autonomously required to prevent apoptosis of the extraocular muscle primordia. The survival requirement for Pitx2 is stage-dependent and ends following stable activation of genes for the muscle regulatory factors (e.g. Myf5, MyoD), which is reduced in the absence of Pitx2. Further, PITX2 binds and activates transcription of the Myf5 and MyoD promoters, indicating these genes are direct targets. Collectively, these data demonstrate that PITX2 is required at several steps in the development of extraocular muscles, acting first as an anti-apoptotic factor in pre-myogenic mesoderm, and subsequently to activate the myogenic program in these cells. Thus, Pitx2 is the first demonstrated upstream activator of myogenesis in the extraocular muscles.

A comparative view of face perception

Face perception serves as the basis for much of human social exchange. Diverse information can be extracted about an individual from a single glance at their face, including their identity, emotional state, and direction of attention. Neuropsychological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments reveal a complex network of specialized areas in the human brain supporting these face-reading skills. Here we consider the evolutionary roots of human face perception by exploring the manner in which different animal species view and respond to faces. We focus on behavioral experiments collected from both primates and nonprimates, assessing the types of information that animals are able to extract from the faces of their conspecifics, human experimenters, and natural predators. These experiments reveal that faces are an important category of visual stimuli for animals in all major vertebrate taxa, possibly reflecting the early emergence of neural specialization for faces in vertebrate evolution. At the same time, some aspects of facial perception are only evident in primates and a few other social mammals, and may therefore have evolved to suit the needs of complex social communication. Because the human brain likely utilizes both primitive and recently evolved neural specializations for the processing of faces, comparative studies may hold the key to understanding how these parallel circuits emerged during human evolution.

Changes in growth-related kinases in head, neck and limb muscles with age

Sarcopenia coincides with declines in several systemic processes that signal through the MAP kinase and Akt-mTOR-p70S6k cascades typically associated with muscle growth. Effects of aging on these pathways have primarily been examined in limb muscles, which experience substantial activity and neural changes in addition to systemic hormonal and metabolic changes. Head and neck muscles are reported to undergo reduced sarcopenia and disuse with age relative to limb muscles, suggesting muscle activity may contribute to maintaining mass with age. However many head and neck muscles derive from embryonic branchial arches, rather than the somites from which limb muscles originate, suggesting that developmental origin may be important. This study compares the expression and phosphorylation of MAP kinase and mTOR networks in head, neck, tongue, and limb muscles from 8- and 26-month old F344 rats to test the hypothesis that physical activity and developmental origin contribute to preservation of muscle mass with age. Phosphorylation of p38 was exaggerated in aged branchial arch muscles. Phosphorylation of ERK and p70S6k T421/S424 declined with age only in the biceps brachii. Expression of p70S6k declined in all head and neck, tongue and limb muscles although no change in phosphorylation of p70S6k on T389 could be resolved. A systemic change that results in a loss of p70S6k protein expression may reduce the capacity to respond to acute hypertrophic stimuli, while the exaggerated p38 signaling in branchial arch muscles may reflect more active muscle remodeling.

The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway regulates Fgf signaling for early facial development

The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway has implications in early facial development; yet, its function and signaling mechanism remain poorly understood. We report here that the frontonasal and upper jaw primordia cannot be formed after conditional ablation of β-catenin with Foxg1-Cre mice in the facial ectoderm and the adjacent telencephalic neuroepithelium. Gene expression of several cell-survival and patterning factors, including Fgf8, Fgf3, and Fgf17, is dramatically diminished in the anterior neural ridge (ANR, a rostral signaling center) and/or the adjacent frontonasal ectoderm of the β-catenin conditional mutant mice. In addition, Shh expression is diminished in the ventral telencephalon of the mutants, while Tcfap2a expression is less affected in the facial primordia. Apoptosis occurs robustly in the rostral head tissues following inactivation of Fgf signaling in the conditional mutants. Consequently, the upper jaw, nasal, ocular and telencephalic structures are absent, but the tongue and mandible are relatively developed in the conditional mutants at birth. Using molecular biological approaches, we demonstrate that the Fgf8 gene is transcriptionally targeted by Wnt/β-catenin signaling during early facial and forebrain development. Furthermore, we show that conditional gain-of-function of β-catenin signaling causes drastic upregulation of Fgf8 mRNA in the ANR and the entire facial ectoderm, which also arrests facial and forebrain development. Taken together, our results suggest that canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling is required for early development of the mammalian face and related head structures, which mainly or partly acts through the initiation and modulation of balanced Fgf signaling activity.

Comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of the pectoral and forelimb musculature of tetrapods with special attention to extant limbed amphibians and reptiles

The main aim of the present work is to synthesize the information obtained from our dissections of the pectoral and forelimb muscles of representative members of the major extant taxa of limbed amphibians and reptiles and from our review of the literature, in order to provide an account of the comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of these muscles in the Tetrapoda. The pectoral and forelimb musculature of all these major taxa conform to a general pattern that seems to have been acquired very early in the evolutionary history of tetrapods. Although some muscles are missing in certain taxa, and a clear departure from this general pattern is obviously present in derived groups such as birds, the same overall configuration is easily distinguishable in these taxa. Among the most notable anatomical differences between the groups, one that seems to have relevant evolutionary and functional implications, concerns the distal insertion points of the forearm musculature. In tetrapods, the muscles of the radial and ulnar complexes of the forearm are pleisomorphically mainly inserted onto the radius/ulna or onto the more proximal carpal bones, but in mammals some of these muscles insert more distally onto bones such as the metacarpals. Interestingly, a similar trend towards a more distal insertion of these muscles is also found in some non-mammalian tetrapod taxa, such as some anurans (e.g. Phyllomedusa). This may be correlated with the acquisition of more subtle digital movement abilities in these latter taxa.

Pitx2 defines alternate pathways acting through MyoD during limb and somitic myogenesis

The MyoD gene is part of the core regulatory network that governs skeletal myogenesis and acts as an essential determinant of the myogenic cell fate. Although generic regulatory networks converging on this gene have been described, the specific mechanisms leading to MyoD expression in muscles of different ontology remain misunderstood. We now show that the homeobox gene Pitx2 is required for initial activation of the MyoD gene in limb muscle precursors through direct binding of Pitx2 to the MyoD core enhancer. Whereas Myf5 and Mrf4 are dispensable for limb muscle progenitor fate, inactivation of Myf5 and Mrf4 in Pitx2 mutants results in a drastic decrease of limb MyoD expression. Thus, Pitx2 and Myf5 define parallel genetic pathways for limb myogenesis. We show a similar dependence on Pitx2 and Myf5(Mrf4) in myotome, where MyoD expression is initially activated by Myf5 and Mrf4. In their absence, MyoD expression is eventually rescued by a Pax3-dependent mechanism. We now provide evidence that Pitx2 contributes to the rescue of MyoD expression and that it acts downstream of Pax3. We thus propose that myogenic differentiation of somite-derived muscle cells relies on two parallel genetic pathways, with the Pitx2 pathway being of primary importance for limb myogenesis but the Myf5 and Mrf4 pathway predominating in myotome. Muscle-specific wiring of regulatory networks composed of similar transcription factors thus underlies development of distinct skeletal muscles.

Clonal analysis reveals common lineage relationships between head muscles and second heart field derivatives in the mouse embryo

Head muscle progenitors in pharyngeal mesoderm are present in close proximity to cells of the second heart field and show overlapping patterns of gene expression. However, it is not clear whether a single progenitor cell gives rise to both heart and head muscles. We now show that this is the case, using a retrospective clonal analysis in which an nlaacZ sequence, converted to functional nlacZ after a rare intragenic recombination event, is targeted to the αc-actin gene, expressed in all developing skeletal and cardiac muscle. We distinguish two branchiomeric head muscle lineages, which segregate early, both of which also contribute to myocardium. The first gives rise to the temporalis and masseter muscles, which derive from the first branchial arch, and also to the extraocular muscles, thus demonstrating a contribution from paraxial as well as prechordal mesoderm to this anterior muscle group. Unexpectedly, this first lineage also contributes to myocardium of the right ventricle. The second lineage gives rise to muscles of facial expression, which derive from mesoderm of the second branchial arch. It also contributes to outflow tract myocardium at the base of the arteries. Further sublineages distinguish myocardium at the base of the aorta or pulmonary trunk, with a clonal relationship to right or left head muscles, respectively. We thus establish a lineage tree, which we correlate with genetic regulation, and demonstrate a clonal relationship linking groups of head muscles to different parts of the heart, reflecting the posterior movement of the arterial pole during pharyngeal morphogenesis.

Heterogeneity in the muscle satellite cell population

Satellite cells, the adult stem cells responsible for skeletal muscle regeneration, are defined by their location between the basal lamina and the fiber sarcolemma. Increasing evidence suggests that satellite cells represent a heterogeneous population of cells with distinct embryological origin and multiple levels of biochemical and functional diversity. This review focuses on the rich diversity of the satellite cell population based on studies across species. Ultimately, a more complete characterization of the heterogeneity of satellite cells will be essential to understand the functional significance in terms of muscle growth, homeostasis, tissue repair, and aging.

The occipital lateral plate mesoderm is a novel source for vertebrate neck musculature

In vertebrates, body musculature originates from somites, whereas head muscles originate from the cranial mesoderm. Neck muscles are located in the transition between these regions. We show that the chick occipital lateral plate mesoderm has myogenic capacity and gives rise to large muscles located in the neck and thorax. We present molecular and genetic evidence to show that these muscles not only have a unique origin, but additionally display a distinct temporal development, forming later than any other muscle group described to date. We further report that these muscles, found in the body of the animal, develop like head musculature rather than deploying the programme used by the trunk muscles. Using mouse genetics we reveal that these muscles are formed in trunk muscle mutants but are absent in head muscle mutants. In concordance with this conclusion, their connective tissue is neural crest in origin. Finally, we provide evidence that the mechanism by which these neck muscles develop is conserved in vertebrates.

Underdeveloped extraocular muscles in the naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber)

The extraocular muscles (EOM), the effector arm of the ocular motor system, have a unique embryological origin and phenotype. The naked mole-rat (NMR) is a subterranean rodent with an underdeveloped visual system. It has not been established if their ocular motor system is also less developed. The NMR is an ideal model to examine the potential codependence of oculomotor and visual system development and evolution. Our goal was to compare the structural features of NMR EOMs to those of the mouse, a similar sized rodent with a fully developed visual system. Perfusion-fixed whole orbits and EOMs were dissected from adult NMR and C57BL mice and examined by light and electron microscopy. NMR orbital anatomy showed smaller EOMs in roughly the same distribution around the eye as in mouse and surrounded by a very small Harderian gland. The NMR EOMs did not appear to have the two-layer fiber distribution seen in mouse EOMs; fibers were also significantly smaller (112.3 +/- 46.2 vs. 550.7 +/- 226 sq microm in mouse EOMs, *P < 0.05). Myofibrillar density was less in NMR EOMs, and triad and other membranous structures were rudimentary. Finally, mitochondrial volume density was significantly less in NMR EOMs than in mouse EOM (4.5% +/- 1.9 vs. 21.2% +/- 11.6, respectively, *P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that NMR EOMs are smaller and less organized than those in the mouse. The "simpler" EOM organization and structure in NMR may be explained by the poor visual ability of these rodents, initially demonstrated by their primitive visual system.

TGF-beta mediated FGF10 signaling in cranial neural crest cells controls development of myogenic progenitor cells through tissue-tissue interactions during tongue morphogenesis

Skeletal muscles are formed from two cell lineages, myogenic and fibroblastic. Mesoderm-derived myogenic progenitors form muscle cells whereas fibroblastic cells give rise to the supportive connective tissue of skeletal muscles, such as the tendons and perimysium. It remains unknown how myogenic and fibroblastic cell-cell interactions affect cell fate determination and the organization of skeletal muscle. In the present study, we investigated the functional significance of cell-cell interactions in regulating skeletal muscle development. Our study shows that cranial neural crest (CNC) cells give rise to the fibroblastic cells of the tongue skeletal muscle in mice. Loss of Tgfbr2 in CNC cells (Wnt1-Cre;Tgfbr2(flox/flox)) results in microglossia with reduced Scleraxis and Fgf10 expression as well as decreased myogenic cell proliferation, reduced cell number and disorganized tongue muscles. Furthermore, TGF-beta2 beads induced the expression of Scleraxis in tongue explant cultures. The addition of FGF10 rescued the muscle cell number in Wnt1-Cre;Tgfbr2(flox/flox) mice. Thus, TGF-beta induced FGF10 signaling has a critical function in regulating tissue-tissue interaction during tongue skeletal muscle development.

Wnt/Lef1 signaling acts via Pitx2 to regulate somite myogenesis

Wnt signaling has been implicated in somite, limb, and branchial arch myogenesis but the mechanisms and roles are not clear. We now show that Wnt signaling via Lef1 acts to regulate the number of premyogenic cells in somites but does not regulate myogenic initiation in the limb bud or maintenance in the first or second branchial arch. We have also analysed the function and regulation of a putative downstream transcriptional target of canonical Wnt signaling, Pitx2. We show that loss-of-function of Pitx2 decreases the number of myogenic cells in the somite, whereas overexpression increases myocyte number particularly in the epaxial region of the myotome. Increased numbers of mitotic cells were observed following overexpression of Pitx2 or an activated form of Lef1, suggesting an effect on cell proliferation. In addition, we show that Pitx2 expression is regulated by canonical Wnt signaling in the epaxial somite and second branchial arch, but not in the limb or the first branchial arch. These results suggest that Wnt/Lef1 signaling regulates epaxial myogenesis via Pitx2 but that this link is uncoupled in other regions of the body, emphasizing the unique molecular networks that control the development of various muscles in vertebrates.

Spatial and temporal analysis of gene expression during growth and fusion of the mouse facial prominences

Orofacial malformations resulting from genetic and/or environmental causes are frequent human birth defects yet their etiology is often unclear because of insufficient information concerning the molecular, cellular and morphogenetic processes responsible for normal facial development. We have, therefore, derived a comprehensive expression dataset for mouse orofacial development, interrogating three distinct regions – the mandibular, maxillary and frontonasal prominences. To capture the dynamic changes in the transcriptome during face formation, we sampled five time points between E10.5–E12.5, spanning the developmental period from establishment of the prominences to their fusion to form the mature facial platform. Seven independent biological replicates were used for each sample ensuring robustness and quality of the dataset. Here, we provide a general overview of the dataset, characterizing aspects of gene expression changes at both the spatial and temporal level. Considerable coordinate regulation occurs across the three prominences during this period of facial growth and morphogenesis, with a switch from expression of genes involved in cell proliferation to those associated with differentiation. An accompanying shift in the expression of polycomb and trithorax genes presumably maintains appropriate patterns of gene expression in precursor or differentiated cells, respectively. Superimposed on the many coordinated changes are prominence-specific differences in the expression of genes encoding transcription factors, extracellular matrix components, and signaling molecules. Thus, the elaboration of each prominence will be driven by particular combinations of transcription factors coupled with specific cell:cell and cell:matrix interactions. The dataset also reveals several prominence-specific genes not previously associated with orofacial development, a subset of which we externally validate. Several of these latter genes are components of bidirectional transcription units that likely share cis-acting sequences with well-characterized genes. Overall, our studies provide a valuable resource for probing orofacial development and a robust dataset for bioinformatic analysis of spatial and temporal gene expression changes during embryogenesis.

Muscle stem cells

Despite being mainly composed of highly differentiated contractile fibers, the adult skeletal muscle possesses the remarkable ability to regenerate, following injury. The cells that are responsible for this capacity are the satellite cells, a small population of adult stem cells positioned under the basal lamina of muscle fibers and that can give rise to both differentiated myogenic cells while maintaining a stem cell pool by a self-renewal mechanism. We will discuss here recent publications on the developmental origin of muscle stem cells, on the signaling pathways that affect their proliferation and differentiation, with reference to works on skeletal muscle formation in the embryo as well as the adult, using the mouse and chick as reference models.

Sarcomeric myosin expression in the tongue body of humans, macaques and rats

Expression of developmental and unconventional myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms in some adult head and neck muscles is thought to reflect specific contractile demands of muscle fibers active during kinematically complex movements. Mammalian tongue muscles are active during oromotor behaviors that encompass a wide range of tongue movement speeds and tongue shape changes (e.g. respiration, oral transport, swallowing, rejection), but the extent to which tongue muscles express developmental and unconventional MHC is not known. Quantitative PCR was used to determine the mRNA content of conventional MHC-beta, MHC-2a, MHC-2b and MHC-2x, the developmental isoforms embryonic MHC and neonatal MHC and the unconventional isoforms atrial/cardiac-alpha MHC (MHC-alpha), extraocular MHC, masseter MHC and slow tonic MHC in tongue body muscles of the rat, macaque and human. In all species, conventional MHC isoforms predominate. MHC-2b and MHC-2x account for 98% of total MHC mRNA in the rat. MHC-2a, MHC-2x and MHC-beta account for 94% of total MHC mRNA in humans and 96% of total MHC mRNA in macaque. With the exception of MHC-alpha in humans (5%), developmental and unconventional MHC mRNA represents less than 0.3% of total MHC mRNA. We conclude that in these species, there is limited expression of developmental and unconventional MHC and that diversity of tongue body muscle fiber contractile properties is achieved primarily by MHC-beta, MHC-2a, MHC-2x and MHC-2b. Whether expression of MHC-alpha mRNA in tongue is unique to humans or present in other hominoids awaits further investigation.

Muscle satellite cells are a functionally heterogeneous population in both somite-derived and branchiomeric muscles

Skeletal muscles of body and limb are derived from somites, but most head muscles originate from cranial mesoderm. The resident stem cells of muscle are satellite cells, which have the same embryonic origin as the muscle in which they reside. Here, we analysed satellite cells with a different ontology, comparing those of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) of the limb with satellite cells from the masseter of the head. Satellite cell-derived myoblasts from MAS and EDL muscles had distinct gene expression profiles and masseter cells usually proliferated more and differentiated later than those from EDL. When transplanted, however, masseter-derived satellite cells regenerated limb muscles as efficiently as those from EDL. Clonal analysis showed that functional properties differed markedly between satellite cells: ranging from clones that proliferated extensively and gave rise to both differentiated and self-renewed progeny, to others that divided minimally before differentiating completely. Generally, masseter-derived clones were larger and took longer to differentiate than those from EDL. This distribution in cell properties was preserved in both EDL-derived and masseter-derived satellite cells from old mice, although clones were generally less proliferative. Satellite cells, therefore, are a functionally heterogeneous population, with many occupants of the niche exhibiting stem cell characteristics in both somite-derived and branchiomeric muscles.

Skeletal muscle stem cells in developmental versus regenerative myogenesis

Tissue and organ regeneration proceed in a coordinated manner to restore proper function after trauma. Vertebrate skeletal muscle has a remarkable ability to regenerate after repeated and complete destruction of the tissue, yet limited information is available on how muscle stem and progenitor cells, and other nonmuscle cells, reestablish homeostasis after the regenerative process. The genetic pathways that regulate the establishment of skeletal muscle in the embryo have been studied extensively, and many of the genes that govern muscle stem cell maintenance and commitment are redeployed during adult homeostasis and regeneration. Therefore, correlates can be made between embryonic muscle development and postnatal regeneration. However, there are some important distinctions between prenatal development and regeneration - in the context of the cells, niche, anatomy and the regulatory genes employed. The similarities and distinctions between these two scenarios are the focus of this review.

Distinct and dynamic myogenic populations in the vertebrate embryo

Myogenic cells in the body of vertebrates derive from the dorsal somite, the dermomyotome, where multipotent cells are present. Regulation of cell fate choice is discussed, as is that of progenitor cell self-renewal once cells have entered the myogenic programme. Ongoing research on the formation of the first skeletal muscle, the myotome, is presented with emphasis on mechanisms controlling the early segregation of slow and fast muscle lineages that characterizes this process in the zebrafish embryo. Further insights into myogenic populations that contribute to trunk and limb development at different stages are summarized and the distinct regulatory networks that underlie the formation of head muscles are discussed.

The head and neck muscles of the Philippine colugo (Dermoptera: Cynocephalus volans), with a comparison to tree-shrews, primates, and other mammals

The colugos, or flying lemurs (Dermoptera), are arboreal gliding mammals that are commonly grouped with tree-shrews (Scandentia) and Primates in the superorder Euarchonta. However, little is known about the head and neck muscles of these gliding mammals. This raises difficulties for the discussion of not only the functional morphology and evolution of colugos, but also the origin, evolution, functional morphology, and phylogenetic relationships of the Euarchonta as a whole, and thus also of our own clade, the Primates. In this work, I describe the head and neck muscles of the colugo Cynocephalus volans, and compare these muscles with those of other mammals, either dissected by me or described in the literature. My observations and comparisons indicate that, with respect to the number of muscles, the plesiomorphic condition for euarchontans as well as for primates is more similar to that found in extant tree-shrews than in extant colugos. This is because various muscles that were probably plesiomorphically present in the euarchontan and primate clades, as, e.g., the stylohyoideus, mandibulo-auricularis, cleido-occipitalis, omohyoideus, and sternohyoideus, are not present as independent elements in extant colugos. These observations and comparisons also indicate that various laryngeal and facial muscles that are present in modern humans were absent in the last common ancestor of extant primates.

Distinct regulatory cascades govern extraocular and pharyngeal arch muscle progenitor cell fates

Genetic regulatory networks governing skeletal myogenesis in the body are well understood, yet their hierarchical relationships in the head remain unresolved. We show that either Myf5 or Mrf4 is necessary for initiating extraocular myogenesis. Whereas Mrf4 is dispensable for pharyngeal muscle progenitor fate, Tbx1 and Myf5 act synergistically for governing myogenesis in this location. As in the body, Myod acts epistatically to the initiating cascades in the head. Thus, complementary pathways, governed by Pax3 for body, and Tbx1 for pharyngeal muscles, but absent for extraocular muscles, activate the core myogenic network. These diverse muscle progenitors maintain their respective embryonic regulatory signatures in the adult. However, these signatures are not sufficient to ensure the specific muscle phenotypes, since the expected differentiated phenotype is not manifested when satellite cells are engrafted heterotopically. These findings identify novel genetic networks that may provide insights into myopathies which often affect only subsets of muscles.

Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells

Adult skeletal muscle possesses a remarkable regenerative capacity, due to the presence of satellite cells, adult muscle stem cells. We used fate-mapping techniques in avian and mouse models to show that trunk (Pax3(+)) and cranial (MesP1(+)) skeletal muscle and satellite cells derive from separate genetic lineages. Similar lineage heterogeneity is seen within the head musculature and satellite cells, due to their shared, heterogenic embryonic origins. Lineage tracing experiments with Isl1Cre mice demonstrated the robust contribution of Isl1(+) cells to distinct jaw muscle-derived satellite cells. Transplantation of myofiber-associated, Isl1-derived satellite cells into damaged limb muscle contributed to muscle regeneration. In vitro experiments demonstrated the cardiogenic nature of cranial- but not trunk-derived satellite cells. Finally, overexpression of Isl1 in the branchiomeric muscles of chick embryos inhibited skeletal muscle differentiation in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that this gene plays a role in the specification of cardiovascular and skeletal muscle stem cell progenitors.

Head muscles: aliens who came in from the cold?

Two complementary studies by Harel et al. and Sambasivan et al. published in this issue of Developmental Cell show the overwhelming diversity in the developmental programs and embryonic origins of distinct muscle groups and their associated muscle stem cells.

Developmental origins of species-specific muscle pattern

Vertebrate jaw muscle anatomy is conspicuously diverse but developmental processes that generate such variation remain relatively obscure. To identify mechanisms that produce species-specific jaw muscle pattern we conducted transplant experiments using Japanese quail and White Pekin duck, which exhibit considerably different jaw morphologies in association with their particular modes of feeding. Previous work indicates that cranial muscle formation requires interactions with adjacent skeletal and muscular connective tissues, which arise from neural crest mesenchyme. We transplanted neural crest mesenchyme from quail to duck embryos, to test if quail donor-derived skeletal and muscular connective tissues could confer species-specific identity to duck host jaw muscles. Our results show that duck host jaw muscles acquire quail-like shape and attachment sites due to the presence of quail donor neural crest-derived skeletal and muscular connective tissues. Further, we find that these species-specific transformations are preceded by spatiotemporal changes in expression of genes within skeletal and muscular connective tissues including Sox9, Runx2, Scx, and Tcf4, but not by alterations to histogenic or molecular programs underlying muscle differentiation or specification. Thus, neural crest mesenchyme plays an essential role in generating species-specific jaw muscle pattern and in promoting structural and functional integration of the musculoskeletal system during evolution.

The transcription factor Six1a plays an essential role in the craniofacial myogenesis of zebrafish

Transcription factor Six1a plays important roles in morphogenesis, organogenesis, and cell differentiation. However, the role of Six1a during zebrafish cranial muscle development is still unclear. Here, we demonstrated that Six1a was required for sternohyoideus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and all pharyngeal arch muscle development. Although Six1a was also necessary for myod and myogenin expression in head muscles, it did not affect myf5 expression in cranial muscles that originate from head mesoderm. Overexpression of myod enabled embryos to rescue all the defects in cranial muscles induced by injection of six1a-morpholino (MO), suggesting that myod is directly downstream of six1a in controlling craniofacial myogenesis. However, overexpression of six1a was unable to rescue arch muscle defects in the tbx1- and myf5-morphants, suggesting that six1a is only involved in myogenic maintenance, not its initiation, during arch muscle myogenesis. Although the craniofacial muscle defects caused by pax3-MO phenocopied those induced by six1a-MO, injection of six1a, myod or myf5 mRNA did not rescue the cranial muscle defects in pax3 morphants, suggesting that six1a and pax3 do not function in the same regulatory network. Therefore, we proposed four putative regulatory pathways to understand how six1a distinctly interacts with either myf5 or myod during zebrafish craniofacial muscle development.

Further characterisation of the molecular signature of quiescent and activated mouse muscle satellite cells

Satellite cells are the resident stem cells of adult skeletal muscle. To date though, there is a paucity of native markers that can be used to easily identify quiescent satellite cells, with Pax7 probably being the best that is currently available. Here we have further characterized a number of recently described satellite cell markers, and also describe novel ones. Caveolin-1, integrin α7 and the calcitonin receptor proved reliable markers for quiescent satellite cells, being expressed by all satellite cells identified with Pax7. These three markers remained expressed as satellite cells were activated and underwent proliferation. The nuclear envelope proteins lamin A/C and emerin, mutations in which underlie Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, were also expressed in both quiescent and proliferating satellite cells. Conversely, Jagged-1, a Notch ligand, was not expressed in quiescent satellite cells but was induced upon activation. These findings further contribute to defining the molecular signature of muscle satellite cells.

Murine retroviruses re-engineered for lineage tracing and expression of toxic genes in the developing chick embryo

We describe two replication incompetent retroviral vectors that co-express green fluorescent protein (GFP) and beta-galactosidase. These vectors incorporate either the avian reticuloendotheliosis (spleen necrosis virus; SNV) promoter or the chick beta-actin promoter, into the backbone of the murine leukemia (MLV) viral vector. The additional promoters drive transgene expression in avian tissue. The remainder of the vector is MLV-like, allowing high titer viral particle production by means of transient transfection. The SNV promoter produces high and early expression of introduced genes, enabling detection of the single copy integrated GFP gene in infected cells and their progeny in vivo. Substitution of the LacZ coding DNA with a relevant gene of interest will enable its co-expression with GFP, thus allowing visualization of the effect of specific and stable changes in gene expression throughout development. As the VSV-G pseudotyped viral vector is replication incompetent, changes in gene expression can be controlled temporally, by altering the timing of introduction.

Relationship between neural crest cells and cranial mesoderm during head muscle development

Background

In vertebrates, the skeletal elements of the jaw, together with the connective tissues and tendons, originate from neural crest cells, while the associated muscles derive mainly from cranial mesoderm. Previous studies have shown that neural crest cells migrate in close association with cranial mesoderm and then circumscribe but do not penetrate the core of muscle precursor cells of the branchial arches at early stages of development, thus defining a sharp boundary between neural crest cells and mesodermal muscle progenitor cells. Tendons constitute one of the neural crest derivatives likely to interact with muscle formation. However, head tendon formation has not been studied, nor have tendon and muscle interactions in the head.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Reinvestigation of the relationship between cranial neural crest cells and muscle precursor cells during development of the first branchial arch, using quail/chick chimeras and molecular markers revealed several novel features concerning the interface between neural crest cells and mesoderm. We observed that neural crest cells migrate into the cephalic mesoderm containing myogenic precursor cells, leading to the presence of neural crest cells inside the mesodermal core of the first branchial arch. We have also established that all the forming tendons associated with branchiomeric and eye muscles are of neural crest origin and express the Scleraxis marker in chick and mouse embryos. Moreover, analysis of Scleraxis expression in the absence of branchiomeric muscles in Tbx1^−/− mutant mice, showed that muscles are not necessary for the initiation of tendon formation but are required for further tendon development.

Conclusions/Significance

This results show that neural crest cells and muscle progenitor cells are more extensively mixed than previously believed during arch development. In addition, our results show that interactions between muscles and tendons during craniofacial development are similar to those observed in the limb, despite the distinct embryological origin of these cell types in the head.

Heart and craniofacial muscle development: a new developmental theme of distinct myogenic fields

Head muscle development has been studied less intensively than myogenesis in the trunk, although this situation is gradually changing, as embryological and genetic insights accumulate. This review focuses on novel studies of the origins, composition and evolution of distinct craniofacial muscles. Cellular and molecular parallels are drawn between cardiac and branchiomeric muscle developmental programs, both of which utilize multiple lineages with distinct developmental histories, and argue for the tissues' common evolutionary origin. In addition, there is increasing evidence that the specification of skeletal muscles in the head appears to be distinct from that operating in the trunk: considerable variation among the different craniofacial muscle groups is seen, in a manner resembling myogenic specification in lower organisms.

Expression of somite segmentation genes in amphioxus: a clock without a wavefront?

In the basal chordate amphioxus (Branchiostoma), somites extend the full length of the body. The anteriormost somites segment during the gastrula and neurula stages from dorsolateral grooves of the archenteron. The remaining ones pinch off, one at a time, from the tail bud. These posterior somites appear to be homologous to those of vertebrates, even though the latter pinch off from the anterior end of bands of presomitic mesoderm rather than directly from the tail bud. To gain insights into the evolution of mesodermal segmentation in chordates, we determined the expression of ten genes in nascent amphioxus somites. Five (Uncx4.1, NeuroD/atonal-related, IrxA, Pcdhdelta2-17/18, and Hey1) are expressed in stripes in the dorsolateral mesoderm at the gastrula stage and in the tail bud while three (Paraxis, Lcx, and Axin) are expressed in the posterior mesendoderm at the gastrula and neurula stages and in the tail bud at later stages. Expression of two genes (Pbx and OligA) suggests roles in the anterior somites that may be unrelated to initial segmentation. Together with previous data, our results indicate that, with the exception that Engrailed is only segmentally expressed in the anterior somites, the genetic mechanisms controlling formation of both the anterior and posterior somites are probably largely identical. Thus, the fundamental pathways for mesodermal segmentation involving Notch-Delta, Wnt/beta-catenin, and Fgf signaling were already in place in the common ancestor of amphioxus and vertebrates although budding of somites from bands of presomitic mesoderm exhibiting waves of expression of Notch, Wnt, and Fgf target genes was likely a vertebrate novelty. Given the conservation of segmentation gene expression between amphioxus and vertebrate somites, we propose that the clock mechanism may have been established in the basal chordate, while the wavefront evolved later in the vertebrate lineage.

Development and tissue origins of the mammalian cranial base

The vertebrate cranial base is a complex structure composed of bone, cartilage and other connective tissues underlying the brain; it is intimately connected with development of the face and cranial vault. Despite its central importance in craniofacial development, morphogenesis and tissue origins of the cranial base have not been studied in detail in the mouse, an important model organism. We describe here the location and time of appearance of the cartilages of the chondrocranium. We also examine the tissue origins of the mouse cranial base using a neural crest cell lineage cell marker, Wnt1-Cre/R26R, and a mesoderm lineage cell marker, Mesp1-Cre/R26R. The chondrocranium develops between E11 and E16 in the mouse, beginning with development of the caudal (occipital) chondrocranium, followed by chondrogenesis rostrally to form the nasal capsule, and finally fusion of these two parts via the midline central stem and the lateral struts of the vault cartilages. X-Gal staining of transgenic mice from E8.0 to 10 days post-natal showed that neural crest cells contribute to all of the cartilages that form the ethmoid, presphenoid, and basisphenoid bones with the exception of the hypochiasmatic cartilages. The basioccipital bone and non-squamous parts of the temporal bones are mesoderm derived. Therefore the prechordal head is mostly composed of neural crest-derived tissues, as predicted by the New Head Hypothesis. However, the anterior location of the mesoderm-derived hypochiasmatic cartilages, which are closely linked with the extra-ocular muscles, suggests that some tissues associated with the visual apparatus may have evolved independently of the rest of the "New Head".

From fish to modern humans--comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of the head and neck musculature

In a recent paper Diogo (2008) reported the results of the first part of an investigation of the comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of the head and neck muscles of osteichthyans (bony fish + tetrapods). That report mainly focused on actinopterygian fish, but also compared these fish with certain non-mammalian sarcopterygians. The present paper focuses mainly on sarcopterygians, and particularly on how the head and neck muscles have evolved during the transitions from sarcopterygian fish and non-mammalian tetrapods to monotreme and therian mammals, including modern humans. The data obtained from our dissections of the head and neck muscles of representative members of sarcopterygian fish, amphibians, reptiles, monotremes and therian mammals, such as rodents, tree-shrews, colugos and primates, including modern humans, are compared with the information available in the literature. Our observations and comparisons indicate that the number of mandibular and true branchial muscles (sensu this work) present in modern humans is smaller than that found in mammals such as tree-shrews, rats and monotremes, as well as in reptiles such as lizards. Regarding the pharyngeal musculature, there is an increase in the number of muscles at the time of the evolutionary transition leading to therian mammals, but there was no significant increase during the transition leading to the emergence of higher primates and modern humans. The number of hypobranchial muscles is relatively constant within the therian mammals we examined, although in this case modern humans have more muscles than other mammals. The number of laryngeal and facial muscles in modern humans is greater than that found in most other therian taxa. Interestingly, modern humans possess peculiar laryngeal and facial muscles that are not present in the majority of the other mammalian taxa; this seems to corroborate the crucial role played by vocal communication and by facial expressions in primate and especially in human evolution. It is hoped that by compiling, in one paper, data about the head and neck muscles of a wide range of sarcopterygians, the present work could be useful to comparative anatomists, evolutionary biologists and functional morphologists and to researchers working in other fields such as developmental biology, genetics and/or evolutionary developmental biology.

Adiponectin and adiponectin receptor genes are coexpressed during zebrafish embryogenesis and regulated by food deprivation

Adiponectin is an adipocytokine that plays important roles in glucose and lipid homeostasis. Adiponectin binds to two types of transmembrane receptors: Adiponectin receptor (AdipoR) type 1 and 2. We isolated and characterized the two adiponectin genes (adiponectin A and B) and the three adiponectin receptors in zebrafish. In adult, adiponectin A is only detected in the kidney while adiponectin B mRNAs are widely expressed and are detected in the liver, adipose tissue, muscle, and brain. The receptors are found in many tissues such as the brain, gut, liver, adipose tissue, kidney, and ovary. Interestingly, we detect embryonic synexpression of all genes in the pharyngeal region. We observed that adiponectin B expression in adult liver is reduced while the expression of the receptors is increased in fasted fish. These data indicate that the upstream members of the Adiponectin pathway have complex expression patterns and are regulated by food deprivation in zebrafish.

Evolutionary origins for social vocalization in a vertebrate hindbrain-spinal compartment

The macroevolutionary events leading to neural innovations for social communication, such as vocalization, are essentially unexplored. Many fish vocalize during female courtship and territorial defense, as do amphibians, birds, and mammals. Here, we map the neural circuitry for vocalization in larval fish and show that the vocal network develops in a segment-like region across the most caudal hindbrain and rostral spinal cord. Taxonomic analysis demonstrates a highly conserved pattern between fish and all major lineages of vocal tetrapods. We propose that the vocal basis for acoustic communication among vertebrates evolved from an ancestrally shared developmental compartment already present in the early fishes.

Visualizing the lateral somitic frontier in the Prx1Cre transgenic mouse

Changes in the organization of the musculoskeletal system have accounted for many evolutionary adaptations in the vertebrate body plan. The musculoskeletal system develops from two mesodermal populations: somitic mesoderm gives rise to the axial skeleton and all of the skeletal muscle of the body, and lateral plate mesoderm gives rise to the appendicular skeleton. The recognition of embryonic domains resulting from the dynamics of morphogenesis has inspired new terminology based on developmental criteria. Two mesodermal domains are defined, primaxial and abaxial. The primaxial domain includes musculoskeletal structures comprising just somitic cells. The abaxial domain contains somitic myoblasts in connective tissue derived from lateral plate mesoderm, as well as lateral plate-derived skeletal structures. The boundary between these two domains is the lateral somitic frontier. Recent studies have described the developmental relationship between these two domains in the chick. In the present study, we describe the labelling pattern in the body of the Prx1/Cre/Z/AP compound transgenic mouse. The enhancer employed in this transgenic leads to reporter expression in the postcranial, somatic lateral plate mesoderm. The boundary between labelled and unlabelled cell populations is described at embryonic day (E)13.5 and E15.5. We argue that the distribution of labelled cells is consistent with the somatic lateral plate lineage, and therefore provides an estimate of the position of the lateral somitic frontier. The role of the frontier in both development and evolution is discussed.

The facial expression musculature in primates and its evolutionary significance

Facial expression is a mode of close-proximity non-vocal communication used by primates and is produced by mimetic/facial musculature. Arguably, primates make the most-intricate facial displays and have some of the most-complex facial musculature of all mammals. Most of the earlier ideas of primate mimetic musculature, involving its function in facial displays and its evolution, were essentially linear "scala natural" models of increasing complexity. More-recent work has challenged these ideas, suggesting that ecological factors and social systems have played a much larger role in explaining the diversity of structures than previously believed. The present review synthesizes the evidence from gross muscular, microanatomical, behavioral and neurobiological studies in order to provide a preliminary analysis of the factors responsible for the evolution of primate facial musculature with comparisons to general mammals. In addition, the unique structure, function and evolution of human mimetic musculature are discussed, along with the potential influential roles of human speech and eye gaze.

Expression of multiple slow myosin heavy chain genes reveals a diversity of zebrafish slow twitch muscle fibres with differing requirements for Hedgehog and Prdm1 activity

The zebrafish embryo develops a series of anatomically distinct slow twitch muscle fibres that characteristically express genes encoding lineage-specific isoforms of sarcomeric proteins such as MyHC and troponin. We show here that different subsets of these slow fibres express distinct members of a tandem array of slow MyHC genes. The first slow twitch muscle fibres to differentiate, which are specified by the activity of the transcription factor Prdm1 (also called Ubo or Blimp1) in response to Hedgehog (Hh) signalling, express the smyhc1 gene. Subsequently, secondary slow twitch fibres differentiate in most cases independently of Hh activity. We find that although some of these later-forming fibres also express smyhc1, others express smyhc2 or smyhc3. We show that the smyhc1-positive fibres express the ubo (prdm1) gene and adopt fast twitch fibre characteristics in the absence of Prdm1 activity, whereas those that do not express smyhc1 can differentiate independently of Prdm1 function. Conversely, some smyhc2-expressing fibres, although independent of Prdm1 function, require Hh activity to form. The adult trunk slow fibres express smyhc2 and smyhc3, but lack smyhc1 expression. The different slow fibres in the craniofacial muscles variously express smyhc1, smyhc2 and smyhc3, and all differentiate independently of Prdm1.

Global transcriptional regulation of the locus encoding the skeletal muscle determination genes Mrf4 and Myf5

The linked Mrf4 and Myf5 genes encode two transcription factors essential for the determination and differentiation of skeletal muscle in the embryo. The locus is controlled by a multitude of interdigitated enhancers that activate gene expression at different times and in precisely defined progenitor cell populations. Manipulation of the enhancer-promoter composition of the locus reveals a novel mechanism for the regulation of such a gene cluster. Enhancers, promoters, and a new class of elements we call transcription balancing sequences, which can act as cryptic promoters, exist in a series of equilibria to ensure that enhancers and promoters together produce the highly dynamic and exquisitely specific expression patterns of the two genes. The proposed model depends upon nonproductive interactions between enhancers and both minimal and cryptic promoters, and is distinct from those developed for the beta-globin and Hox clusters. Moreover, it provides an explanation for the unexpected phenotypes of the three Mrf4 knockout alleles.

A Cre transgene active in developing endodermal organs, heart, limb, and extra-ocular muscle

Cre-mediated recombination, a method widely used in mice for tissue-specific inactivation of endogenous genes or activation of transgenes, is critically dependent on the availability of mouse lines in which Cre recombinase functions in the tissue of interest or its progenitors. Here we describe a transgenic mouse line, Osr1-cre, in which Cre is active from embryonic day (E)11.5 in a few specific tissues. These include the endoderm of the posterior foregut, midgut, hindgut, and developing urogenital system, the heart left atrium, extra-ocular muscle progenitors, and mesenchyme in particular regions of the limb. Furthermore, starting at E12.5, Cre functions in limb interdigital mesenchyme. Within the urogenital system, recombination appears to be virtually complete in the epithelium of the bladder and urethra just posterior to it by E14.5. In males, some of these urethral cells form the prostate. The spatiotemporal pattern of Cre activity in Osr1-cre makes it a unique resource among the lines available for Cre-mediated recombination experiments.