Graphene plasmonics for terahertz to mid-infrared applications

Pseudospin Dependent One-Way Transmission in Graphene-Based Topological Plasmonic Crystals

Originating from the investigation of condensed matter states, the concept of quantum Hall effect and quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE) has recently been expanded to other field of physics and engineering, e.g., photonics and phononics, giving rise to strikingly unconventional edge modes immune to scattering. Here, we present the plasmonic analog of QSHE in graphene plasmonic crystal (GPC) in mid-infrared frequencies. The band inversion occurs when deforming the honeycomb lattice GPCs, which further leads to the topological band gaps and pseudospin features of the edge states. By overlapping the band gaps with different topologies, we numerically simulated the pseudospin-dependent one-way propagation of edge states. The designed GPC may find potential applications in the fields of topological plasmonics and trigger the exploration of the technique of the pseudospin multiplexing in high-density nanophotonic integrated circuits.

Plasmonic Absorption Enhancement in Elliptical Graphene Arrays

In this paper, we come up with a wavelength tunable absorber which is made up of periodically elliptical graphene arrays in the far-infrared and terahertz regions. Through simulation, we find that we can increase the length of long axis of the ellipse, raise the incidence angles of TM- and TE-polarization (TM- and TE-polarization indicate the direction of the incident electric field along the direction of the x and the y axis, respectively.) within certain limits, and increase the chemical potential of graphene, so as to enhance the absorption of light in the elliptical graphene arrays. We also compare the absorption spectra of the original structure and the complementary structure, and find that the absorption of the original structure is higher than that of the complementary structure. In the end, we study the changes in the absorption rate of the double layer structure of the elliptical array with the increase in the thickness of SiO₂. The elliptical array structure can be applied to tunable spectral detectors, filters and sensors at far-infrared and terahertz wavelengths.

Broadband Tunable THz Absorption with Singular Graphene Metasurfaces

By exploiting singular spatial modulations of the graphene conductivity, we design a broadband, tunable THz absorber whose efficiency approaches the theoretical upper bound for a wide absorption band with a fractional bandwidth of 185%. Strong field enhancement is exhibited by the modes of this extended structure, which is able to excite a wealth of high-order surface plasmons, enabling deeply subwavelength focusing of incident THz radiation. Previous studies have shown that the conductivity can be modulated at GHz frequencies, which might lead to the development of efficient high-speed broadband switching by an atomically thin layer.

Tuning Infrared Plasmon Resonance of Black Phosphorene Nanoribbon with a Dielectric Interface

We report on the tunable edge-plasmon-enhanced absorption of phosphorene nanoribbons supported on a dielectric substrate. Monolayer anisotropic black phosphorous (phosphorene) nanoribbons are explored for light trapping and absorption enhancement on different dielectric substrates. We show that these phosphorene ribbons support infrared surface plasmons with high spatial confinement. The peak position and bandwidth of the calculated phosphorene absorption spectra are tunable with low loss over a wide wavelength range via the surrounding dielectric environment of the periodic nanoribbons. Simulation results show strong edge plasmon modes and enhanced absorption as well as a red-shift of the peak resonance wavelength. The periodic Fabry-Perot grating model was used to analytically evaluate the absorption resonance arising from the edge of the ribbons for comparison with the simulation. The results show promise for the promotion of phosphorene plasmons for both fundamental studies and potential applications in the infrared spectral range.

Quantum Control of Graphene Plasmon Excitation and Propagation at Heaviside Potential Steps

Quantum mechanical effects of single particles can affect the collective plasmon behaviors substantially. In this work, the quantum control of plasmon excitation and propagation in graphene is demonstrated by adopting the variable quantum transmission of carriers at Heaviside potential steps as a tuning knob. First, the plasmon reflection is revealed to be tunable within a broad range by varying the ratio γ between the carrier energy and potential height, which originates from the quantum mechanical effect of carrier propagation at potential steps. Moreover, the plasmon excitation by free-space photos can be regulated from fully suppressed to fully launched in graphene potential wells also through adjusting γ, which defines the degrees of the carrier confinement in the potential wells. These discovered quantum plasmon effects offer a unified quantum-mechanical solution toward ultimate control of both plasmon launching and propagating, which are indispensable processes in building plasmon circuitry.

Ultrafast Graphene Light Emitters

Ultrafast electrically driven nanoscale light sources are critical components in nanophotonics. Compound semiconductor-based light sources for the nanophotonic platforms have been extensively investigated over the past decades. However, monolithic ultrafast light sources with a small footprint remain a challenge. Here, we demonstrate electrically driven ultrafast graphene light emitters that achieve light pulse generation with up to 10 GHz bandwidth across a broad spectral range from the visible to the near-infrared. The fast response results from ultrafast charge-carrier dynamics in graphene and weak electron-acoustic phonon-mediated coupling between the electronic and lattice degrees of freedom. We also find that encapsulating graphene with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) layers strongly modifies the emission spectrum by changing the local optical density of states, thus providing up to 460% enhancement compared to the gray-body thermal radiation for a broad peak centered at 720 nm. Furthermore, the hBN encapsulation layers permit stable and bright visible thermal radiation with electronic temperatures up to 2000 K under ambient conditions as well as efficient ultrafast electronic cooling via near-field coupling to hybrid polaritonic modes under electrical excitation. These high-speed graphene light emitters provide a promising path for on-chip light sources for optical communications and other optoelectronic applications.

Strong coherent coupling between graphene surface plasmons and anisotropic black phosphorus localized surface plasmons

The anisotropic plasmons properties of black phosphorus allow for realizing direction-dependent plasmonics devices. Here, we theoretically investigated the hybridization between graphene surface plasmons (GSP) and anisotropic black phosphorus localized surface plasmons (BPLSP) in the strong coupling regime. By dynamically adjusting the Fermi level of graphene, we show that the strong coherent GSP-BPLSP coupling can be achieved in both armchair and zigzag directions, which is attributed to the anisotropic black phosphorus with different in-plane effective electron masses along the two crystal axes. The strong coupling is quantitatively described by calculating the dispersion of the hybrid modes using a coupled oscillator model. Mode splitting energy of 26.5 meV and 19 meV are determined for the GSP-BPLSP hybridization along armchair and zigzag direction, respectively. We also find that the coupling strength can be strongly affected by the distance between graphene sheet and black phosphorus nanoribbons. Our work may provide the building blocks to construct future highly compact anisotropic plasmonics devices based on two-dimensional materials at infrared and terahertz frequencies.

Polarization control using passive and active crossed graphene gratings

Graphene gratings provide a promising route towards the miniaturization of THz metasurfaces and other photonic devices, chiefly due to remarkable optical properties of graphene. In this paper, we propose novel graphene nanostructures for passive and active control of the polarization state of THz waves. The proposed devices are composed of two crossed graphene gratings separated by an insulator spacer. Because of specific linear and nonlinear properties of graphene, these optical metasurfaces can be utilized as ultrathin polarization converters operating in the THz frequency domain. In particular, our study shows that properly designed graphene polarizers can effectively select specific polarization states, their thickness being about a tenth of the operating wavelength and size more than 80× smaller than that of similar metallic devices. Equally important, we demonstrate that the nonlinear optical properties of graphene can be utilized to actively control the polarization state of generated higher harmonics.

Nonlinear Light Mixing by Graphene Plasmons

Graphene is known to possess strong optical nonlinearity which turned out to be suitable for creation of efficient saturable absorbers in mode locked fiber lasers. Nonlinear response of graphene can be further enhanced by the presence of graphene plasmons. Here, we report a novel nonlinear effect observed in nanostructured graphene which comes about due to excitation of graphene plasmons. We experimentally detect and theoretically explain enhanced mixing of near-infrared and mid-infrared light in arrays of graphene nanoribbons. Strong compression of light by graphene plasmons implies that the described effect of light mixing is nonlocal in nature and orders of magnitude larger than the conventional local graphene nonlinearity. Both second and third order nonlinear effects were observed in our experiments with the recalculated third-order nonlinearity coefficient reaching values of 4.5 × 10^-6 esu. The suggested effect could be used in variety of applications including nonlinear light modulators, light multiplexers, light logic, and sensing devices.

Mechanically reconfigurable architectured graphene for tunable plasmonic resonances

Graphene nanostructures with complex geometries have been widely explored for plasmonic applications, as their plasmonic resonances exhibit high spatial confinement and gate tunability. However, edge effects in graphene and the narrow range over which plasmonic resonances can be tuned have limited the use of graphene in optical and optoelectronic applications. Here we present a novel approach to achieve mechanically reconfigurable and strongly resonant plasmonic structures based on crumpled graphene. Our calculations show that mechanical reconfiguration of crumpled graphene structures enables broad spectral tunability for plasmonic resonances from mid- to near-infrared, acting as a new tuning knob combined with conventional electrostatic gating. Furthermore, a continuous sheet of crumpled graphene shows strong confinement of plasmons, with a high near-field intensity enhancement of ~1 × 10⁴. Finally, decay rates for a dipole emitter are significantly enhanced in the proximity of finite-area biaxially crumpled graphene flakes. Our findings indicate that crumpled graphene provides a platform to engineer graphene-based plasmonics through broadband manipulation of strong plasmonic resonances.

Hybrid graphene metasurfaces for high-speed mid-infrared light modulation and single-pixel imaging

During the past decades, major advances have been made in both the generation and detection of infrared light; however, its efficient wavefront manipulation and information processing still encounter great challenges. Efficient and fast optoelectronic modulators and spatial light modulators are required for mid-infrared imaging, sensing, security screening, communication and navigation, to name a few. However, their development remains elusive, and prevailing methods reported so far have suffered from drawbacks that significantly limit their practical applications. In this study, by leveraging graphene and metasurfaces, we demonstrate a high-performance free-space mid-infrared modulator operating at gigahertz speeds, low gate voltage and room temperature. We further pixelate the hybrid graphene metasurface to form a prototype spatial light modulator for high frame rate single-pixel imaging, suggesting orders of magnitude improvement over conventional liquid crystal or micromirror-based spatial light modulators. This work opens up the possibility of exploring wavefront engineering for infrared technologies for which fast temporal and spatial modulations are indispensable.

Time reflection and refraction of graphene plasmons at a temporal discontinuity

A dynamical change of material properties induces a special type of reflection and refraction at a temporal discontinuity. Here, we study the interaction of graphene plasmons with single and double temporal discontinuities or shocks, leading to controlled in-plane scattering. We analytically determine the Fresnel-like coefficients for graphene plasmons at these boundaries, and validate our results by rigorous numerical simulations. Temporally controlled doping of two-dimensional materials such as graphene thus leads to a new mechanism for planar and compact plasmonic devices.

Dual nonlinearity Controlling of Mode and Dispersion Properties in Graphene-Dielectric Plasmonic Waveguide

We study the mode and dispersion properties of graphene-dielectric nonlinear plasmonic waveguide considering the dual nonlinearity of dielectric and graphene. For TM polarization, the mode distribution, the permittivity distribution, and dispersion relation were obtained by numerically solving the Maxwell equations. Compared with the case considering only the nonlinearity of dielectric, the initial field intensity to excite plasmon modes reduces obviously when introducing the dual nonlinearity. In addition, the influence of dual nonlinearity on dispersion relation is discussed, and we find that the graphene's nonlinearity affects strongly the dispersion properties. The introduction of dual nonlinearity leads to the decrease of the initial field intensity, which has potential application in all-optical switches with low threshold.

Graphene-edge dielectrophoretic tweezers for trapping of biomolecules

The many unique properties of graphene, such as the tunable optical, electrical, and plasmonic response make it ideally suited for applications such as biosensing. As with other surface-based biosensors, however, the performance is limited by the diffusive transport of target molecules to the surface. Here we show that atomically sharp edges of monolayer graphene can generate singular electrical field gradients for trapping biomolecules via dielectrophoresis. Graphene-edge dielectrophoresis pushes the physical limit of gradient-force-based trapping by creating atomically sharp tweezers. We have fabricated locally backgated devices with an 8-nm-thick HfO₂ dielectric layer and chemical-vapor-deposited graphene to generate 10× higher gradient forces as compared to metal electrodes. We further demonstrate near-100% position-controlled particle trapping at voltages as low as 0.45 V with nanodiamonds, nanobeads, and DNA from bulk solution within seconds. This trapping scheme can be seamlessly integrated with sensors utilizing graphene as well as other two-dimensional materials.

The capability of positioning target molecules onto the edges of patterned graphene nanostructures is highly desirable. Here, the authors demonstrate that the atomically sharp edges of graphene can be used as dielectrophoretic tweezers for gradient-force-based trapping applications.

Plasmon modes of bilayer molybdenum disulfide: a density functional study

We explore the collective electronic excitations of bilayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) using density functional theory together with random phase approximation. The many-body dielectric function and electron energy-loss spectra are calculated using an ab initio based model involving material-realistic physical properties. The electron energy-loss function of the bilayer MoS₂ system is found to be sensitive to either electron or hole doping and this is due to the fact that the Kohn-Sham band dispersions are not symmetric for energies above and below the zero Fermi level. Three plasmon modes are predicted, a damped high-energy mode, one optical mode (in-phase mode) for which the plasmon dispersion exhibits [Formula: see text] in the long wavelength limit originating from low-energy electron scattering and finally a highly damped acoustic mode (out-of-phase mode).

Mid-infrared subwavelength modulator based on grating-assisted coupling of a hybrid plasmonic waveguide mode to a graphene plasmon

This work reports a mid-infrared modulator based on a hybrid plasmonic waveguide with graphene on a grating in its slot region. The modulator utilizes a graphene plasmon for electro-optic tuning in a more practical and effective way than graphene-plasmon-based waveguide devices studied up to now. The hybrid plasmonic waveguide can be easily and efficiently integrated with input and output photonic waveguides. It supports a hybrid plasmonic waveguide mode and a graphene-plasmon-based waveguide mode. Grating-assisted coupling of the former to the latter in it is demonstrated to work successfully even though the two modes have significantly different propagation constants and losses. Theoretical investigation of the modulator shows that the coupling via the grating of length 5.92 μm generates a deep rejection band at a wavelength of 8.014 μm in the transmission spectrum of the output photonic waveguide of the modulator. With the graphene chemical potential tuned between 0.6 eV and 0.65 eV, the transmission at the wavelength is modulated between -27 dB and -1.8 dB. The subwavelength modulator, which may have a large bandwidth and small energy consumption, is expected to play a key role in free-space communications and sensing requiring mid-infrared integrated photonics.

Ultra-sensitive near-infrared graphene photodetectors with nanopillar antennas

Graphene has been demonstrated as a candidate for optoelectronic devices due to its broad absorption spectrum and ultra-high carrier mobility. However, graphene is essentially transparent in visible and near-infrared regimes with an absorptivity of 2.3%, which largely limits its application in photodetection. Here, we show that metallic nanopillar antennas could improve light absorption in graphene detectors. The coupled antennas help to concentrate a free space electromagnetic wave around the nanopillars by localized surface plasmon resonance, strongly impacted by geometrical design. It is found that spectral selectivity can be realized by tuning key geometrical parameters such as period, radius, and height of the metallic nanopillar, leading to wavelength-tunable photodetectors within a broad range from 0.6 μm to 1.2 μm. With the optimized design, the detector exhibits an excellent photoresponsivity of 7 A W^-1 at a wavelength of 0.82 μm.

Tunable Mid IR focusing in InAs based semiconductor Hyperbolic Metamaterial

Noble Metals such as Gold and Silver demonstrated for mid IR metamaterials have suffered many obstacles such as: high losses and lack of tunability. The application of doped semiconductors has allowed overcoming the tunability restriction, besides, possessing lower losses as compared to metals. In addition, doped semiconductors have small magnitude of negative real permittivity which is required to realize mid IR Hyperbolic Metamaterials (HMMs). We theoretically demonstrate super focusing based on an all Semiconductor planar HMM using InAs heterostructure. By applying a single slit integrated with doped InAs/InAs HMM, incident light can be coupled to high propagation wave vectors of the HMM modes leading to sub diffraction focusing within the mid IR wave length range. Our proposed structure shows a wide controllable/ tunable operation by changing the doping concentration of InAs. As a consequence, focusing resolution can be tuned over the mid IR ranging from 4.64 μm to 19.57 μm with the maximum achieved resolution is up to 0.045λ at an operating wavelength of 19.57 μm. In addition, we show the effect of substrate refractive index on tuning and enhancing the focusing resolution. Our proposed HMM is an all single based material in which it will not suffer lattice mismatch restrictions during fabrication.

Role of vacancy sites and UV-ozone treatment on few layered MoS2 nanoflakes for toxic gas detection

Various issues like global warming and environmental pollutions have led to the research of toxic gas detection worldwide. In this work, we have tried to develop a molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) based gas sensor to detect toxic gases like ammonia and NO. MoS₂, an inorganic analog of graphene, has attracted lots of attention for many different applications recently. This paper reports the use of liquid exfoliated MoS₂ nanoflakes as the sensing layer in a handheld, resistive toxic gas sensor. The nanoflakes were exfoliated from MoS₂ bulk powder using a sonication based exfoliation technique at room temperature. The successful exfoliation of the nanoflakes was characterized using different techniques e.g., optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry. The characterization results showed that few-layered nanoflakes have successfully been exfoliated. The MoS₂ nanoflakes showed reasonable sensing towards ammonia and NO. In order to explore the effect of particle size on ammonia sensing, the MoS₂ flakes were also exfoliated using different sonication times. We also observed that various factors like presence of vacancy sites, ambient oxygen, humidity, different contact electrodes have significant effect on the sensing characteristics. In fact, the response of the sensing layer against 400 ppm of ammonia increased from 54.1% to ∼80% when it was UV-ozone treated. This work holds promises to developing cost-effective, reliable and highly sensitive MoS₂ based ammonia sensors.

Graphene metamaterial spatial light modulator for infrared single pixel imaging

High-resolution and hyperspectral imaging has long been a goal for multi-dimensional data fusion sensing applications - of interest for autonomous vehicles and environmental monitoring. In the long wave infrared regime this quest has been impeded by size, weight, power, and cost issues, especially as focal-plane array detector sizes increase. Here we propose and experimentally demonstrated a new approach based on a metamaterial graphene spatial light modulator (GSLM) for infrared single pixel imaging. A frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) imaging technique is designed and implemented, and relies entirely on the electronic reconfigurability of the GSLM. We compare our approach to the more common raster-scan method and directly show FDM image frame rates can be 64 times faster with no degradation of image quality. Our device and related imaging architecture are not restricted to the infrared regime, and may be scaled to other bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. The study presented here opens a new approach for fast and efficient single pixel imaging utilizing graphene metamaterials with novel acquisition strategies.

Intrinsic Plasmon-Phonon Interactions in Highly Doped Graphene: A Near-Field Imaging Study

As a two-dimensional semimetal, graphene offers clear advantages for plasmonic applications over conventional metals, such as stronger optical field confinement, in situ tunability, and relatively low intrinsic losses. However, the operational frequencies at which plasmons can be excited in graphene are limited by the Fermi energy E_F, which in practice can be controlled electrostatically only up to a few tenths of an electronvolt. Higher Fermi energies open the door to novel plasmonic devices with unprecedented capabilities, particularly at mid-infrared and shorter-wave infrared frequencies. In addition, this grants us a better understanding of the interaction physics of intrinsic graphene phonons with graphene plasmons. Here, we present FeCl₃-intercalated graphene as a new plasmonic material with high stability under environmental conditions and carrier concentrations corresponding to E_F > 1 eV. Near-field imaging of this highly doped form of graphene allows us to characterize plasmons, including their corresponding lifetimes, over a broad frequency range. For bilayer graphene, in contrast to the monolayer system, a phonon-induced dipole moment results in increased plasmon damping around the intrinsic phonon frequency. Strong coupling between intrinsic graphene phonons and plasmons is found, supported by ab initio calculations of the coupling strength, which are in good agreement with the experimental data.

Boundary element method for 2D materials and thin films

2D materials emerge as a viable platform for the control of light at the nanoscale. In this context the need has arisen for a fast and reliable tool capable of capturing their strictly 2D nature in 3D light scattering simulations. So far, 2D materials and their patterned structures (ribbons, discs, etc.) have been mostly treated as very thin films of subnanometer thickness with an effective dielectric function derived from their 2D optical conductivity. In this study an extension to the existing framework of the boundary element method (BEM) with 2D materials treated as a conductive interface between two media is presented. The testing of our enhanced method on problems with known analytical solutions reveals that for certain types of tasks the new modification is faster than the original BEM algorithm. Furthermore, the representation of 2D materials as an interface allows us to simulate problems in which their optical properties depend on spatial coordinates. Such spatial dependence can occur naturally or can be tailored artificially to attain new functional properties.

Tunable Goos-Hänchen shift from graphene ribbon array

The Goos-Hänchen (GH) shift of light beam incident on graphene ribbon array is investigated by Green's function method. Due to the resonance effects of leaky surface plasmons on ribbons, the zeroth-order reflection field shows both giant positive and negative GH shifts. By tuning the graphene Fermi level, we can control the shift conveniently. This effect is important to graphene-based metasurface and electro-optical devices.

Plasmons in Dimensionally Mismatched Coulomb Coupled Graphene Systems

We calculate the plasmon dispersion relation for Coulomb coupled metallic armchair graphene nanoribbons and doped monolayer graphene. The crossing of the plasmon curves, which occurs for uncoupled 1D and 2D systems, is split by the interlayer Coulomb coupling into a lower and an upper plasmon branch. The upper branch exhibits an unusual behavior with end points at finite q. Accordingly, the structure factor shows either a single or a double peak behavior, depending on the plasmon wavelength. The new plasmon structure is relevant to recent experiments, its properties can be controlled by varying the system parameters and be used in plasmonic applications.

Topologically protected edge states in graphene plasmonic crystals

A two-dimensional graphene plasmonic crystal composed of periodically arranged graphene nanodisks is proposed. We show that the band topology effect due to inversion symmetry broken in the proposed plasmonic crystals is obtained by tuning the chemical potential of graphene nanodisks. Utilizing this kind of plasmonic crystal, we constructed N-shaped channels and realized topologically edged transmission within the band gap. Furthermore, topologically protected exterior boundary propagation, which is immune to backscattering, was also achieved by modifying the chemical potential of graphene nanodisks. The proposed graphene plasmonic crystals with ultracompact size are subject only to intrinsic material loss, which may find potential applications in the fields of topological plasmonics and high density nanophotonic integrated systems.

Limits to the Optical Response of Graphene and Two-Dimensional Materials

Two-dimensional (2D) materials provide a platform for strong light-matter interactions, creating wide-ranging design opportunities via new-material discoveries and new methods for geometrical structuring. We derive general upper bounds to the strength of such light-matter interactions, given only the optical conductivity of the material, including spatial nonlocality, and otherwise independent of shape and configuration. Our material figure-of-merit shows that highly doped graphene is an optimal material at infrared frequencies, whereas single-atomic-layer silver is optimal in the visible. For quantities ranging from absorption and scattering to near-field spontaneous-emission enhancements and radiative heat transfer, we consider canonical geometrical structures and show that in certain cases the bounds can be approached, while in others there may be significant opportunity for design improvement. The bounds can encourage systematic improvements in the design of ultrathin broadband absorbers, 2D antennas, and near-field energy harvesters.

Imaging the Localized Plasmon Resonance Modes in Graphene Nanoribbons

We report a nanoinfrared (IR) imaging study of the localized plasmon resonance modes of graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) using a scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscope (s-SNOM). By comparing the imaging data of GNRs that are aligned parallel and perpendicular to the in-plane component of the excitation laser field, we observed symmetric and asymmetric plasmonic interference fringes, respectively. Theoretical analysis indicates that the asymmetric fringes are formed due to the interplay between the localized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) mode excited by the GNRs and the propagative surface plasmon polariton (SPP) mode launched by the s-SNOM tip. With rigorous simulations, we reproduce the observed fringe patterns and address quantitatively the role of the s-SNOM tip on both the SPR and SPP modes. Furthermore, we have seen real-space signatures of both the dipole and higher-order SPR modes by varying the ribbon width.

Analytical modeling of electron energy loss spectroscopy of graphene: Ab initio study versus extended hydrodynamic model

We present an analytical modeling of the electron energy loss (EEL) spectroscopy data for free-standing graphene obtained by scanning transmission electron microscope. The probability density for energy loss of fast electrons traversing graphene under normal incidence is evaluated using an optical approximation based on the conductivity of graphene given in the local, i.e., frequency-dependent form derived by both a two-dimensional, two-fluid extended hydrodynamic (eHD) model and an ab initio method. We compare the results for the real and imaginary parts of the optical conductivity in graphene obtained by these two methods. The calculated probability density is directly compared with the EEL spectra from three independent experiments and we find very good agreement, especially in the case of the eHD model. Furthermore, we point out that the subtraction of the zero-loss peak from the experimental EEL spectra has a strong influence on the analytical model for the EEL spectroscopy data.

Manipulating of Different-Polarized Reflected Waves with Graphene-based Plasmonic Metasurfaces in Terahertz Regime

A graphene-based plasmonic metasurface which can independently control different polarized electromagnetic waves with reasonably small losses in terahertz regime is proposed and demonstrated in this paper. This metasurface is composed of graphene based elements. Owing to anisotropic plasmonic resonance of the graphene-based elements, the reflected phases and magnitudes of orthogonally polarized waves can be independently controlled by varying dimensions of the element. Four types of graphene-based plasmonic metasurfaces with different reflected phases distributions are synthesized and simulated, exhibiting diverse functions such as polarized beam splitting, beam deflection, and linear-to-circular polarization conversion. The simulation results demonstrate excellent performances as theoretical expectation. The proposed graphene-based plasmonic metasurface can be applied to realize extremely light-weight, ultra-compact, and high-performances electromagnetic structures for diverse terahertz applications.

Plasmon-enhanced LT-GaAs/AlAs heterostructure photoconductive antennas for sub-bandgap terahertz generation

Photocurrent generation in low-temperature-grown GaAs (LT-GaAs) has been significantly improved by growing a thin AlAs isolation layer between the LT-GaAs layer and semi-insulating (SI)-GaAs substrate. The AlAs layer allows greater arsenic incorporation into the LT-GaAs layer, prevents current diffusion into the GaAs substrate, and provides optical back-reflection that enhances below bandgap terahertz generation. Our plasmon-enhanced LT-GaAs/AlAs photoconductive antennas provide 4.5 THz bandwidth and 75 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) under 50 mW of 1570 nm excitation, whereas the structure without the AlAs layer gives 3 THz bandwidth, 65 dB SNR for the same conditions.

Mid-infrared Plasmonic Circular Dichroism Generated by Graphene Nanodisk Assemblies

It is very interesting to bring plasmonic circular dichroism spectroscopy to the mid-infrared spectral interval, and there are two reasons for this. This spectral interval is very important for thermal bioimaging, and simultaneously, this spectral range includes vibrational lines of many chiral biomolecules. Here we demonstrate that graphene plasmons indeed offer such opportunity. In particular, we show that chiral graphene assemblies consisting of a few graphene nanodisks can generate strong circular dichroism (CD) in the mid-infrared interval. The CD signal is generated due to the plasmon-plasmon coupling between adjacent nanodisks in the specially designed chiral graphene assemblies. Because of the large dimension mismatch between the thickness of a graphene layer and the incoming light's wavelength, three-dimensional configurations with a total height of a few hundred nanometers are necessary to obtain a strong CD signal in the mid-infrared range. The mid-infrared CD strength is mainly governed by the total dimensions (total height and helix scaffold radius) of the graphene nanodisk assembly and by the plasmon-plasmon interaction strength between its constitutive nanodisks. Both positive and negative CD bands can be observed in the graphene assembly array. The frequency interval of the plasmonic CD spectra overlaps with the vibrational modes of some important biomolecules, such as DNA and many different peptides, giving rise to the possibility of enhancing the vibrational optical activity of these molecular species by attaching them to the graphene assemblies. Simultaneously the spectral range of chiral mid-infrared plasmons in our structures appears near the typical wavelength of the human-body thermal radiation, and therefore, our chiral metastructures can be potentially utilized as optical components in thermal imaging devices.

Enhanced polarization-sensitive terahertz emission from vertically grown graphene by a dynamical photon drag effect

Improving terahertz (THz) emission from graphene is a challenge for graphene-based THz photonics as graphene demonstrates a weak light-matter interaction. With a unique ultra-black surface structure, vertically grown graphene (VGG) is proposed to enhance the light-matter interaction and further enhance THz emission. Herein, enhanced THz radiation is observed by THz time-domain emission spectroscopy from VGG compared with single-layer graphene. The radiated THz amplitude shows a linear dependence on pump power, which demonstrates a second order nonlinear effect. Considering the symmetry of VGG on a substrate, we can exclude the optical rectification effect and photogalvanic effect (PGE) by the D_6h point group with centrosymmetry. Thus we analyze the transient photocurrent related to THz emission only by the photon drag effect (PDE). The polarization-sensitive THz radiation signals are wave-vector reliant and demonstrate cos 2φ and sin 2φ dependence on the polarization angles of the pump laser. This is consistent with the theoretical analysis of PDE. Our results show the enhanced, ultrafast, broadband THz radiation property of VGG, which paves the way for high performance THz emitters and THz detectors based on graphene materials.

Graphene plasmonics for surface enhancement near-infrared absorptivity

Monolayer graphene has poor absorption in the near-infrared region. Its layer is only as thick as a single atom so it cannot have a high absorptivity. In this paper, in order to form a hybrid system, the absorption characteristics of monolayer graphene covering a metal/dielectric/metal substrate has been theoretically analyzed. The magnetic polaritons in the metal/dielectric couple with the plasmonic resonance in the graphene to dramatically enhance the graphene absorptivity. This study analyzes the factors that enhance the absorptivity, including the geometric parameters and the relative positions of the graphene. The local electromagnetic field and the power dissipation density are illustrated to explain the underlying mechanisms further. These numerical results can provide potential application in the field of optical detection and optoelectronic devices.

Exchange, correlation, and scattering effects on surface plasmons in arm-chair graphene nanoribbons

Using Maxwell's equations for the incoming and outgoing electromagnetic field, in interaction with a metallic arm-chair graphene nanoribbon (AGNR), and the relationship between the density-density response function and the conductivity, we study surface plasmons (SPs) in a AGNR following the Lindhard, random-phase approximation (RPA), and Hubbard approaches. For transverse magnetic (TM) modes we obtain analytical dispersion relations (DRs) valid for q ≤ kF and assess their width dependence. In all approaches we include screening. In the long-wavelength limit q → 0 there is a small but noticeable difference between the DRs of the three approaches. In this limit the respective, scattering-free conductivities differ drastically from those obtained when scattering by impurities is included. We demonstrate that the SP field is proportional to the square of the quality factor Q. The reflection amplitude shows that metallic AGNRs do not support Brewster angles. In addition, AGNRs do not support transverse electric (TE) SPs.

Terahertz bistability and multistability in graphene/dielectric Fibonacci multilayer

Here, we benefit from the strong nonlinear response of graphene and the rich variety of resonances provided by a graphene/dielectric Fibonacci multilayer to realize bistability and multistability in the terahertz (THz) frequency range. Toward this pursuit, we employ the nonlinear transfer matrix method. We examine the suitability of resonances in the Fibonacci multilayer for the bi/multistability purposes and determine the proper working point. We report various switching up/down manners via single or stepwise jumps between states of the same or different contrasts upon increasing followed by decreasing the intensity of the incident wave. We show that graphene samples of high quality are preferred for bi/multistable switching in terms of reducing the switch-up/-down thresholds and widening the multistable region. We also explore the possibility of tuning the bi/multistable behavior via the frequency and angle of the incident wave as well as the graphene Fermi level. We envision precious applications in THz switching, realizing logic gates, and so on for this system.

Large-Scale Suspended Graphene Used as a Transparent Substrate for Infrared Spectroscopy

Due to weak interactions between micrometer-wavelength infrared (IR) light and nanosized samples, a high signal to noise ratio is a prerequisite in order to precisely characterize nanosized samples using IR spectroscopy. Traditional micrometer-thick window substrates, however, have considerable IR absorption which may introduce unavoidable deformations and interruptions to IR spectra of nanoscale samples. A promising alternative is the use of a suspended graphene substrate which has ultrahigh IR transmittance (>97.5%) as well as unique mechanical properties. Here, an effective method is presented for fabrication of suspended graphene over circular holes up to 150 µm in diameter to be utilized as a transparent substrate for IR spectroscopy. It is demonstrated that the suspended graphene has little impact on the measured IR spectra, an advantage which has led to the discovery of several missing vibrational modes of a 20 nm thick PEO film measured on a traditional CaF₂ substrate. This can provide a better understanding of molecules' fine structures and status of hanging bands. The unique optical properties of suspended graphene are determined to be superior to those of conventional IR window materials, giving this new substrate great potential as part of a new generation of IR transparent substrates, especially for use in examining nanoscale samples.

Minimum length modulator design with a graphene-based plasmonic waveguide

In this study, we simulated and analyzed a plasmonic waveguide modulator based on a single layer of graphene. It includes a graphene sheet, which sandwiches between two layers of silicon dioxide. Then, some gates are arranged on either side of the waveguide on a periodic structure. When an electric field is applied perpendicular to the waveguide plate, the Fermi level of graphene under the gates changes. Detailed analysis is performed by the method of lines based on Maxwell's equations along the propagation direction of the waveguide. Computation of the multi-gate device starts by examining the effect of the Fermi level. The transmission coefficient of the magnetic-field norms of the modulator is calculated by varying the parameters, such as Fermi level, length, gates number, and distance between the gates to achieve optimized design of the modulator device with very small dimensions. The results show that at higher Fermi levels, where the imaginary part of the effective index of the waveguide is close to zero, the reflection is dominant and absorption is low. Therefore, the modulator length becomes so long that it is more than one hundred nanometers. At lower Fermi levels, where the amount of the imaginary part of the effective index is significant, the absorption is dominant. At this range, a one-gate device is sufficient for modulation. Consequently, the designed minimum device length becomes equal to six nanometers for the ten-micrometer wavelength. Furthermore, the design is carried out in other wavelengths.

Double-layer graphene for enhanced tunable infrared plasmonics

Graphene is emerging as a promising material for photonic applications owing to its unique optoelectronic properties. Graphene supports tunable, long-lived and extremely confined plasmons that have great potential for applications such as biosensing and optical communications. However, in order to excite plasmonic resonances in graphene, this material requires a high doping level, which is challenging to achieve without degrading carrier mobility and stability. Here, we demonstrate that the infrared plasmonic response of a graphene multilayer stack is analogous to that of a highly doped single layer of graphene, preserving mobility and supporting plasmonic resonances with higher oscillator strength than previously explored single-layer devices. Particularly, we find that the optically equivalent carrier density in multilayer graphene is larger than the sum of those in the individual layers. Furthermore, electrostatic biasing in multilayer graphene is enhanced with respect to single layer due to the redistribution of carriers over different layers, thus extending the spectral tuning range of the plasmonic structure. The superior effective doping and improved tunability of multilayer graphene stacks should enable a plethora of future infrared plasmonic devices with high optical performance and wide tunability.

Hybrid single-mode laser based on graphene Bragg gratings on silicon

We exploit distributed optoelectronic properties enabled by graphene Bragg gratings (GBGs) to realize a hybrid single-mode laser on silicon. This hybrid laser achieves single-mode, continuous-wave operation at 1540 nm with a remarkable side-mode suppression ratio of 48 dB, benefitting from the coupling of the GBGs. These results suggest that graphene thin films can be used as an essential and cost-saving component for hybrid photonic integration on silicon.

Hexagonal Boron Nitride Self-Launches Hyperbolic Phonon Polaritons

Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) is a 2D material that supports traveling waves composed of material vibrations and light, and is attractive for nanoscale optical devices that function in the infrared. However, the only current method of launching these traveling waves requires the use of a metal nanostructure. Here, we show that the polaritonic waves can be launched into the 2D structure by folds within hBN, alone, taking advantage of the intrinsic material properties. Our findings suggest that structural continuity between the fold and hBN crystal is crucial for creating self-launched waves with a constant phase front. This approach offers a single material system to excite the polaritonic modes, and the approach is applicable to a broad range of 2D crystals and thus could be useful in future characterization.

Tunable Terahertz Deep Subwavelength Imaging Based on a Graphene Monolayer

The resolution of conventional terahertz (THz) imaging techniques is limited to about half wavelength, which is not fine enough for applications of biomedical sensing and nondestructive testing. To improve the resolution, a new superlens, constructed by a monolayer graphene sheet combining with a grating voltage gate, are proposed in this paper to achieve deep super-resolution imaging in the THz frequency range. The main idea is based on the Fabry-Perot resonance of graphene edge plasmon waves. By shaping the voltage gate into a radial pattern, magnified images of subwavelength targets can be obtained. With this approach, the finest resolution can achieve up to λ/150. Besides, the superlens can be conveniently tuned to work in a large frequency band ranging from 4.3 THz to 9 THz. The proposal could find potential applications in THz near-field imaging systems.

Terahertz and mid-infrared plasmons in three-dimensional nanoporous graphene

Two-dimensional (2D) graphene emerged as an outstanding material for plasmonic and photonic applications due to its charge-density tunability, high electron mobility, optical transparency and mechanical flexibility. Recently, novel fabrication processes have realised a three-dimensional (3D) nanoporous configuration of high-quality monolayer graphene which provides a third dimension to this material. In this work, we investigate the optical behaviour of nanoporous graphene by means of terahertz and infrared spectroscopy. We reveal the presence of intrinsic 2D Dirac plasmons in 3D nanoporous graphene disclosing strong plasmonic absorptions tunable from terahertz to mid-infrared via controllable doping level and porosity. In the far-field the spectral width of these absorptions is large enough to cover most of the mid-Infrared fingerprint region with a single plasmon excitation. The enhanced surface area of nanoporous structures combined with their broad band plasmon absorption could pave the way for novel and competitive nanoporous-graphene based plasmonic-sensors.

Recently, fabrication processes have realised three-dimensional nanoporous graphene. Here, the authors reveal two-dimensional Dirac plasmons in three-dimensional nanoporous graphene disclosing strong plasmonic absorptions tunable from terahertz to mid-infrared via controllable doping level and porosity.

Microwave Study of Field-Effect Devices Based on Graphene/Aluminum Nitride/Graphene Structures

Metallic gate electrodes are often employed to control the conductivity of graphene based field effect devices. The lack of transparency of such electrodes in many optical applications is a key limiting factor. We demonstrate a working concept of a double layer graphene field effect device that utilizes a thin film of sputtered aluminum nitride as dielectric gate material. For this system, we show that the graphene resistance can be modified by a voltage between the two graphene layers. We study how a second gate voltage applied to the silicon back gate modifies the measured microwave transport data at around 8.7 GHz. As confirmed by numerical simulations based on the Boltzmann equation, this system resembles a parallel circuit of two graphene layers with different intrinsic doping levels. The obtained experimental results indicate that the graphene-aluminum nitride-graphene device concept presents a promising technology platform for terahertz- to- optical devices as well as radio-frequency acoustic devices where piezoelectricity in aluminum nitride can also be exploited.

Self-Assembled Three-Dimensional Graphene-Based Polyhedrons Inducing Volumetric Light Confinement

The ability to transform two-dimensional (2D) materials into a three-dimensional (3D) structure while preserving their unique inherent properties might offer great enticing opportunities in the development of diverse applications for next generation micro/nanodevices. Here, a self-assembly process is introduced for building free-standing 3D, micro/nanoscale, hollow, polyhedral structures configured with a few layers of graphene-based materials: graphene and graphene oxide. The 3D structures have been further modified with surface patterning, realized through the inclusion of metal patterns on their 3D surfaces. The 3D geometry leads to a nontrivial spatial distribution of strong electric fields (volumetric light confinement) induced by 3D plasmon hybridization on the surface of the graphene forming the 3D structures. Due to coupling in all directions, resulting in 3D plasmon hybridization, the 3D closed box graphene generates a highly confined electric field within as well as outside of the cubes. Moreover, since the uniform coupling reduces the decay of the field enhancement away from the surface, the confined electric field inside of the 3D structure shows two orders of magnitude higher than that of 2D graphene before transformation into the 3D structure. Therefore, these structures might be used for detection of target substances (not limited to only the graphene surfaces, but using the entire volume formed by the 3D graphene-based structure) in sensor applications.

Electrically controlled terahertz magneto-optical phenomena in continuous and patterned graphene

The magnetic circular dichroism and the Faraday rotation are the fundamental phenomena of great practical importance arising from the breaking of the time reversal symmetry by a magnetic field. In most materials, the strength and the sign of these effects can be only controlled by the field value and its orientation. Furthermore, the terahertz range is lacking materials having the ability to affect the polarization state of the light in a non-reciprocal manner. Here we demonstrate, using broadband terahertz magneto-electro-optical spectroscopy, that in graphene both the magnetic circular dichroism and the Faraday rotation can be modulated in intensity, tuned in frequency and, importantly, inverted using only electrostatic doping at a fixed magnetic field. In addition, we observe strong magneto-plasmonic resonances in a patterned array of graphene antidots, which potentially allows exploiting these magneto-optical phenomena in a broad THz range.

Time reversal symmetry breaking gives rise to magnetic circular dichroism and Faraday rotation in graphene. The authors use terahertz magneto-electro-optical spectroscopy to demonstrate that electrostatic doping at a fixed magnetic field allows inversion of magnetic circular dichroism and Faraday rotation.

Femtosecond photo-switching of interface polaritons in black phosphorus heterostructures

The possibility of hybridizing collective electronic motion with mid-infrared light to form surface polaritons has made van der Waals layered materials a versatile platform for extreme light confinement and tailored nanophotonics. Graphene and its heterostructures have attracted particular attention because the absence of an energy gap allows plasmon polaritons to be tuned continuously. Here, we introduce black phosphorus as a promising new material in surface polaritonics that features key advantages for ultrafast switching. Unlike graphene, black phosphorus is a van der Waals bonded semiconductor, which enables high-contrast interband excitation of electron-hole pairs by ultrashort near-infrared pulses. Here, we design a SiO₂/black phosphorus/SiO₂ heterostructure in which the surface phonon modes of the SiO₂ layers hybridize with surface plasmon modes in black phosphorus that can be activated by photo-induced interband excitation. Within the Reststrahlen band of SiO₂, the hybrid interface polariton assumes surface-phonon-like properties, with a well-defined frequency and momentum and excellent coherence. During the lifetime of the photogenerated electron-hole plasma, coherent hybrid polariton waves can be launched by a broadband mid-infrared pulse coupled to the tip of a scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscopy set-up. The scattered radiation allows us to trace the new hybrid mode in time, energy and space. We find that the surface mode can be activated within ∼50 fs and disappears within 5 ps, as the electron-hole pairs in black phosphorus recombine. The excellent switching contrast and switching speed, the coherence properties and the constant wavelength of this transient mode make it a promising candidate for ultrafast nanophotonic devices.