201
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Schmader T, Johns M, Forbes C. An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychol Rev 2008. [PMID: 18426293 DOI: 10.1037/0033–295x.115.2.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Schmader
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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202
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Abstract
Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni Schmader
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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203
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Chartrand TL, Fitzsimons GM, Fitzsimons GJ. Automatic Effects of Anthropomorphized Objects on Behavior. SOCIAL COGNITION 2008. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2008.26.2.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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204
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When women can’t do math: The interplay of self-construal, group identification, and stereotypic performance standards. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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205
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Kay AC, Wheeler SC, Smeesters D. The situated person: Effects of construct accessibility on situation construals and interpersonal perception. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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206
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Schelling HR, Martin M. Einstellungen zum eigenen Altern: Eine Alters- oder eine Ressourcenfrage? Z Gerontol Geriatr 2008; 41:38-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s00391-007-0451-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2007] [Accepted: 03/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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207
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Birgegard A, Sohlberg S. Persistent effects of subliminal stimulation: sex differences and the effectiveness of debriefing. Scand J Psychol 2008; 49:19-29. [PMID: 18190399 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00623.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Persistent and non-trivial effects of unconscious stimuli have been reported (Sohlberg & Birgegard, 2003). This raises the ethical question of whether informing participants about such stimuli effectively returns them to a normal state. Two experiments (sex-mixed, N = 70 and 118) tested two kinds of debriefing to participants following subliminal (tachistoscopic) attachment-related or control stimulation. Measures were the Beck Depression Inventory, Structural Analysis of Social Behavior, and Retrospective Attachment. Results showed persistent effects. Simple debriefing about the stimulus was effective in preventing these, while more elaborate debriefing also describing the effects and mechanisms for them was less effective. Persistent effects were also strongly related to participant sex, but debriefing effects were similar in men and women with regard to the purpose of debriefing. The findings have implications for ethical recommendations for subliminal research, and suggest that this unexplored area requires more attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Birgegard
- Resource Center for Eating Disorders, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge and Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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208
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Rudman LA, Phelan JE. Backlash effects for disconfirming gender stereotypes in organizations. RESEARCH IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riob.2008.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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209
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Lowery BS, Eisenberger NI, Hardin CD, Sinclair S. Long-term Effects of Subliminal Priming on Academic Performance. BASIC AND APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/01973530701331718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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210
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Chatard A, Guimond S, Selimbegovic L. “How good are you in math?” The effect of gender stereotypes on students’ recollection of their school marks. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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211
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Kiefer AK, Sekaquaptewa D. Implicit stereotypes and women’s math performance: How implicit gender-math stereotypes influence women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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212
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Neuville E, Croizet JC. Can salience of gender identity impair math performance among 7–8 years old girls? The moderating role of task difficulty. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03173428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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213
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214
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Behavioral cues to others’ motivation and goal pursuits: The perception of effort facilitates goal inference and contagion. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2006.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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215
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Gordijn EH, Stapel DA. Behavioural effects of automatic interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2007; 45:717-29. [PMID: 17393877 DOI: 10.1348/014466605x79589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Does information about other people automatically affect one's own behaviour as a function of the salience of interpersonal or intergroup contexts? Study I revealed that exposure to an intelligent comparison target led to worse performance than exposure to an unintelligent target when an interpersonal context was salient (contrast) whereas the opposite effect was found when an intergroup context was salient. Study 2 showed better performance after exposure to an intelligent in-group target and worse performance when the in-group target was unintelligent (assimilation), whereas opposite effects were found when the target was an out-group member or when no intergroup context was salient. Finally, Study 3 showed better performance after exposure to a group of intelligent targets and worse performance after exposure to a group of unintelligent targets suggesting assimilation; opposite effects were found when the group consisted of out-group targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernestine H Gordijn
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.
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216
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Marx DM, Stapel DA. Distinguishing stereotype threat from priming effects: on the role of the social self and threat-based concerns. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 91:243-54. [PMID: 16881762 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It has been argued that priming negative stereotypic traits is sufficient to cause stereotype threat. The present research challenges this assumption by highlighting the role of the social self and targets' concerns about confirming a negative group-based stereotype. Specifically, in 3 experiments the authors demonstrate that stereotype threat adversely affects the test performance and threat-based concerns of targets (but not nontargets) because only targets' social self is linked to the negative group stereotype. Trait priming, however, harms the test performance of both targets and nontargets but has no effect on their threat-based concerns because trait priming does not require such a link between the social self and the group stereotype. Moreover, the authors show that merely increasing the accessibility of the social self in nonthreatening situations leads to the underperformance of targets but has no meaningful effect on nontargets' test performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Marx
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
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217
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218
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Beilock SL, Jellison WA, Rydell RJ, McConnell AR, Carr TH. On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: can skills that don't rely heavily on working memory still be threatened? PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2006; 32:1059-71. [PMID: 16861310 DOI: 10.1177/0146167206288489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recent work suggests that stereotype threat (ST) harms performance by reducing available working memory capacity. Is this the only mechanism by which ST can occur? Three experiments examined ST's impact on expert golf putting, which is not harmed when working memory is reduced but is hurt when attention is allocated to proceduralized processes that normally run outside working memory. Experiment 1 showed that well learned golf putting is susceptible to ST. Experiments 2 and 3 demonstrated that giving expert golfers a secondary task eliminates ST-induced impairment. Distracting attention away from the stereotype-related behavior eliminates the harmful impact of negative stereotype activation. These results are consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking under pressure, which suggest that performance degradation can occur when too much attention is allocated to processes that usually run more automatically. Thus, ST alters information processing in multiple ways, inducing performance decrements for different reasons in different tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sian L Beilock
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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219
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It depends on your perspective: The role of self-relevance in stereotype-based underperformance. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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220
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Scott KA, Brown DJ. Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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221
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222
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A Study of the Logic of Empirical Arguments in Psychological Research: “The Automaticity of Social Behavior” as a Case Study. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.10.3.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This article describes the logical structure of one type of empirical argument commonly used in psychological research. A characteristic flaw in its application is identified and illustrated with an analysis of a number of experiments. Intraindividual as well as social factors that contribute to the flaw's occurrence are discussed. The operation of the social factor is explored with an analysis of citation patterns in the literature. The citation analysis reveals the degree to which the flaw goes unnoticed, in deference to building a consensus of support for broad theoretical claims. The article closes with an outline of the decisions involved in choosing a research strategy and indicates the epistemic consequences of these choices.
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223
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Steele JR, Ambady N. “Math is Hard!” The effect of gender priming on women’s attitudes. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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224
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O'Brien LT, Hummert ML. Memory Performance of Late Middle–Aged Adults: Contrasting Self–Stereotyping and Stereotype Threat Accounts of Assimilation to Age Stereotypes. SOCIAL COGNITION 2006. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2006.24.3.338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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225
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Wicherts JM, Dolan CV, Hessen DJ. Stereotype threat and group differences in test performance: a question of measurement invariance. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 89:696-716. [PMID: 16351363 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Studies into the effects of stereotype threat (ST) on test performance have shed new light on race and sex differences in achievement and intelligence test scores. In this article, the authors relate ST theory to the psychometric concept of measurement invariance and show that ST effects may be viewed as a source of measurement bias. As such, ST effects are detectable by means of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. This enables research into the generalizability of ST effects to real-life or high-stakes testing. The modeling approach is described in detail and applied to 3 experiments in which the amount of ST for minorities and women was manipulated. Results indicate that ST results in measurement bias of intelligence and mathematics tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelte M Wicherts
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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226
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Jonas KJ, Sassenberg K. Knowing how to react: Automatic response priming from social categories. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 90:709-21. [PMID: 16737369 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Four studies tested whether social category primes did not only prime descriptions, behaviors of this respective group, and general behavioral tendencies but also specific behavioral responses toward this group. The activation (Studies 1-3) and the accomplishment of such response behavior (Study 4) were found. Study 2 showed that the activation of response behavior was based on dynamic and, thus, directional representations: Social category primes activated response behavior, but response behavior primes did not activate social category targets. Furthermore, the effect was specified by the mind-set that was operating when the social category was activated: Response behavior was activated in a differentiation mind-set but not in a similarity mind-set (Study 3). The research extends behavioral priming by adding a specific response behavior perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai J Jonas
- Department of Social Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
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227
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Intergroup Beliefs: Investigations From the Social Side. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38005-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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228
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229
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Lesko AC, Corpus JH. Discounting the Difficult: How High Math-Identified Women Respond to Stereotype Threat. SEX ROLES 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-005-8873-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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230
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Abstract
Three studies demonstrate that stereotypic movements activate the corresponding stereotype. In Study 1, participants who were unobtrusively induced to move in the portly manner that is stereotypic of overweight people subsequently ascribed more overweight-stereotypic characteristics to an ambiguous target person than did control participants. In Study 2, participants who were unobtrusively induced to move in the slow manner that is stereotypic of elderly people subsequently ascribed more elderly-stereotypic characteristics to a target than did control participants. In Study 3, participants who were induced to move slowly were faster than control participants to respond to elderly-stereotypic words in a lexical decision task. Using three different movement inductions, two different stereotypes, and two classic measures of stereotype activation, these studies converge in demonstrating that stereotypes may be activated by stereotypic movements.
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231
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Sinclair S, Hardin CD, Lowery BS. Self-stereotyping in the context of multiple social identities. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 90:529-42. [PMID: 16649853 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This research examines self-stereotyping in the context of multiple social identities and shows that self-stereotyping is a function of stereotyped expectancies held in particular relationships. Participants reported how others evaluated their math and verbal ability and how they viewed their own ability when their gender or ethnicity was salient. Asian American women (Experiment 1) and European Americans (Experiment 2) exhibited knowledge of stereotyped social expectancies and corresponding self-stereotyping associated with their more salient identity. African Americans (Experiment 3) exhibited some knowledge of stereotyped social expectancies but no corresponding self-stereotyping. Correlational evidence and a 4th experiment suggest that self-stereotyping is mediated by the degree to which close others are perceived to endorse stereotypes as applicable to the self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey Sinclair
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA.
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232
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Bartholow BD, Dickter CL, Sestir MA. Stereotype activation and control of race bias: Cognitive control of inhibition and its impairment by alcohol. J Pers Soc Psychol 2006; 90:272-87. [PMID: 16536651 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments tested the hypothesis that alcohol increases race-biased responding via impairment of self-regulatory cognitive control. Participants consumed either a placebo or alcohol and then made speeded responses to stereotypic trait words presented after White and Black face primes while behavioral and event-related brain potential (ERP) data were recorded. Alcohol did not affect stereotype activation in either experiment. Experiment 2 showed that alcohol significantly impaired the ability to inhibit race-biased responses but did not reliably influence control of counterstereotypic responses. This disinhibition appears driven by impairment of regulative cognitive control, as indexed by amplitude of the negative slow wave ERP component. These findings suggest that controlling racial bias can be a function of effective implementation of basic self-regulatory processes in addition to the motivational processes identified in other research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce D Bartholow
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA.
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233
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Aarts H, Chartrand TL, Custers R, Danner U, Dik G, Jefferis VE, Cheng CM. Social Stereotypes and Automatic Goal Pursuit. SOCIAL COGNITION 2005. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2005.23.6.465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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234
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Gringart E, Helmes E, Speelman CP. Exploring Attitudes Toward Older Workers Among Australian Employers. J Aging Soc Policy 2005; 17:85-103. [PMID: 16219595 DOI: 10.1300/j031v17n03_05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Research suggests that negative stereotyping is at the heart of age discrimination in not hiring older workers. As the aging of the population creates pressures to maintain older adults in the work force, it is important to gain knowledge of such stereotyping. A random sample of 128 hiring decision-makers across Australian industries responded to a questionnaire that was specifically developed to assess attitudes toward older workers. Results showed systematic negative stereotyping: Respondents indicated that they were unlikely to hire older workers. The likelihood of hiring significantly correlated with employers' attitudes. Specific attributes for which older workers were seen as inferior compared to younger workers included trainability, adaptability, creativity, and interest in new technology. The findings could inform policymakers and be utilized to develop interventions aimed to reduce hiring discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Gringart
- School of Psychology, Edith Cowan University, 100 Joondaluap Drive, Jonndaluap, Western Australia.
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235
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Keller J, Bless H. When negative expectancies turn into negative performance: The role of ease of retrieval. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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236
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Lieberman MD. Principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition: an introduction for the special issue on social cognitive neuroscience. Neuroimage 2005; 28:745-56. [PMID: 16112586 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2005] [Accepted: 07/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This article introduces the special issue of NeuroImage focused on social cognitive neuroscience. Social psychology has a rich history of making sense of the often paradoxical aspects of social cognition and the social world. This article reviews the principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition and behavior that have been examined by social psychologists for decades. Five principles of social cognition and behavior are reviewed including: (1) the power of the situation over behavior, (2) blindness for situational influences, (3) social perception and self-perception are constructive processes, (4) blindness for the constructed nature of social and self-perception, and (5) self-processes are social. Four processes of social cognition are reviewed including: (1) cognitive architecture; (2) automaticity and control; (3) motivated reasoning; and (4) accessibility, frames, and expectations. Finally, five areas of social cognition that contain enduring puzzles are described including (1) the self, (2) attitudes, (3) reflective social cognition, (4) automatic social cognition, and (5) social motives. In several of the areas of study reviewed, cognitive neuroscience is well positioned to make important contributions to these research traditions either by allowing for new tests of hypotheses or by allowing for unobtrusive measurement of social cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Lieberman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA.
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237
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Jost JT, Kay AC. Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 88:498-509. [PMID: 15740442 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 348] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Many have suggested that complementary gender stereotypes of men as agentic (but not communal) and women as communal (but not agentic) serve to increase system justification, but direct experimental support has been lacking. The authors exposed people to specific types of gender-related beliefs and subsequently asked them to complete measures of gender-specific or diffuse system justification. In Studies 1 and 2, activating (a) communal or complementary (communal + agentic) gender stereotypes or (b) benevolent or complementary (benevolent + hostile) sexist items increased support for the status quo among women. In Study 3, activating stereotypes of men as agentic also increased system justification among men and women, but only when women's characteristics were associated with higher status. Results suggest that complementary stereotypes psychologically offset the one-sided advantage of any single group and contribute to an image of society in which everyone benefits through a balanced dispersion of benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Jost
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.
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238
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Rasinski KA, Visser PS, Zagatsky M, Rickett EM. Using implicit goal priming to improve the quality of self-report data. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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239
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Galinsky AD, Ku G, Wang CS. Perspective-Taking and Self-Other Overlap: Fostering Social Bonds and Facilitating Social Coordination. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2005. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430205051060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 459] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The present article offers a conceptual model for how the cognitive processes associated with perspective-taking facilitate social coordination and foster social bonds. We suggest that the benefits of perspective-taking accrue through an increased self-other overlap in cognitive representations and discuss the implications of this perspective-taking induced self-other overlap for stereotyping and prejudice. Whereas perspective-taking decreases stereotyping of others (through application of the self to the other), it increases stereotypicality of one’s own behavior (through inclusion of the other in the self). To promote social bonds, perspective-takers utilize information, including stereotypes, to coordinate their behavior with others. The discussion focuses on the implications, both positive and negative, of this self-other overlap for social relationships and discusses how conceptualizing perspective-taking, as geared toward supporting specific social bonds, provides a framework for understanding why the effects of perspective-taking are typically target-specific and do not activate a general helping mind-set. Through its attempts to secure social bonds, perspective-taking can be an engine of social harmony, but can also reveal a dark side, one full of ironic consequences.
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240
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Abstract
This chapter addresses the psychological effects of social stigma. Stigma directly affects the stigmatized via mechanisms of discrimination, expectancy confirmation, and automatic stereotype activation, and indirectly via threats to personal and social identity. We review and organize recent theory and empirical research within an identity threat model of stigma. This model posits that situational cues, collective representations of one's stigma status, and personal beliefs and motives shape appraisals of the significance of stigma-relevant situations for well-being. Identity threat results when stigma-relevant stressors are appraised as potentially harmful to one's social identity and as exceeding one's coping resources. Identity threat creates involuntary stress responses and motivates attempts at threat reduction through coping strategies. Stress responses and coping efforts affect important outcomes such as self-esteem, academic achievement, and health. Identity threat perspectives help to explain the tremendous variability across people, groups, and situations in responses to stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Major
- Department of Psychology, University of California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93105, USA.
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DeMarree KG, Wheeler SC, Petty RE. Priming a New Identity: Self-Monitoring Moderates the Effects of Nonself Primes on Self-Judgments and Behavior. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 89:657-71. [PMID: 16351360 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
When a construct is primed, people often act in construct-consistent ways. Several accounts for this effect have been offered, including ideomotor theory and a social functional perspective. The authors tested an additional perspective, the Active-Self account, whereby primes can temporarily alter self-perceptions. In Study 1, non-African American participants reported feeling more aggressive on an implicit measure following an African American prime. In Study 2, participants reported feeling luckier on an implicit measure following a number 7 (vs. 13) prime. In both studies, these effects were obtained only for low self-monitors, who are more likely to change self-conceptions in response to diagnostic self-information and to use their internal states in guiding behavior. Study 3 showed that low self-monitors also show larger behavioral effects of primes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth G DeMarree
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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244
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Custers R, Aarts H. Beyond priming effects: The role of positive affect and discrepancies in implicit processes of motivation and goal pursuit. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1080/10463280500435919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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245
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Abstract
Much research has indicated that aging is accompanied by decrements in memory performance across a wide variety of tasks and situations. A dominant perspective is that these age differences reflect normative changes in the integrity and efficiency of the information-processing system. Contextual perspectives of development, however, argue for consideration of a broader constellation of factors as determinants of both intraindividual change and interindividual variation in memory functioning. The validity of the contextual perspective in characterizing the relationship between aging and memory is examined through a review of studies exploring a variety of alternative mechanisms associated with age differences in performance. It is concluded that a more multidimensional approach to the study of aging and memory is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Hess
- Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801, USA.
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246
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Vescio TK, Gervais SJ, Snyder M, Hoover A. Power and the Creation of Patronizing Environments: The Stereotype-Based Behaviors of the Powerful and Their Effects on Female Performance in Masculine Domains. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 88:658-72. [PMID: 15796666 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This work tested the following hypothesis: When powerful men stereotype their female subordinates in masculine domains, they behave in patronizing ways that affect the performance of their subordinates. Experiment 1 examined the stereotyping tendencies and patronizing behaviors of the powerful. Findings revealed that powerful men who stereotyped their female subordinates (i.e., those who were weakness focused) gave female subordinates few valued resources but much praise. In Experiment 2, low-power participants received resources (valued or devalued positions) and praise (high or low) from a powerful man. Subordinates who were assigned to a devalued position but received high praise (i.e., the patronizing behavior mirrored from Experiment 1) were angry. However, men performed better in the anger-inspiring situation, whereas women performed worse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa K Vescio
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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247
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Davies PG, Spencer SJ, Steele CM. Clearing the Air: Identity Safety Moderates the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women's Leadership Aspirations. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 88:276-87. [PMID: 15841859 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Exposing participants to gender-stereotypic TV commercials designed to elicit the female stereotype, the present research explored whether vulnerability to stereotype threat could persuade women to avoid leadership roles in favor of nonthreatening subordinate roles. Study 1 confirmed that exposure to the stereotypic commercials undermined women's aspirations on a subsequent leadership task. Study 2 established that varying the identity safety of the leadership task moderated whether activation of the female stereotype mediated the effect of the commercials on women's aspirations. Creating an identity-safe environment eliminated vulnerability to stereotype threat despite exposure to threatening situational cues that primed stigmatized social identities and their corresponding stereotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul G Davies
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 4643 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA.
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248
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Marx DM, Stapel DA, Muller D. We Can Do It: The Interplay of Construal Orientation and Social Comparisons Under Threat. J Pers Soc Psychol 2005; 88:432-46. [PMID: 15740438 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The authors investigated how a collective self-construal orientation in combination with positive social comparisons "turns off" the negative effects of stereotype threat. Specifically, Experiment 1 demonstrated that stereotype threat led to increased accessibility of participants' collective self ("we"). Experiment 2 showed that this feeling of "we-ness" in the stereotype threat condition centered on the participants' stereotyped group membership and not on other important social groups (e.g., students). Experiment 3 indicated that in threat situations, when participants' collective self is accessible, positive social comparison information led to improved math test performance and less concern, whereas in nonthreat situations, when the collective self is less accessible, positive comparison information led to worse test performance and more concern. Our final experiment revealed that under stereotype threat, only those comparison targets who are competent in the relevant domain (math), rather than in domains unrelated to math (athletics), enhanced participants' math test performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Marx
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Suhr JA, Gunstad J. Further exploration of the effect of "diagnosis threat" on cognitive performance in individuals with mild head injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11:23-9. [PMID: 15686605 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617705050010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2003] [Revised: 06/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The present study further explored the phenomenon of "diagnosis threat" (Suhr & Gunstad, 2002), by examining the potential explanatory roles of anxiety, effort, and depression. Individuals with mild head injury history were randomly assigned to receive either neutral instructions (controls, N = 25) or to have attention called to their head injury history as a reason for invitation into the study (diagnosis threat, N = 28). Depression was measured at baseline. Following the neuropsychological battery, ratings of effort, test pressure, and state anxiety were completed. The diagnosis threat group performed worse than controls on attention/working memory, psychomotor speed, and memory tasks, but not on measures of executive functioning, post-test anxiety, or effort. Effort, anxiety and depression were not related to cognitive performance, nor did depression interact with expectations in explaining group differences in performance. Results provide further support for the "diagnosis threat" effect, but offer no support for effort, anxiety, or depression explanations for diminished performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Suhr
- Department of Psychology, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, USA.
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250
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Vorauer JD, Turpie CA. Disruptive effects of vigilance on dominant group members' treatment of outgroup members: choking versus shining under pressure. J Pers Soc Psychol 2004; 87:384-99. [PMID: 15382987 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Three studies examined the hypothesis that evaluative concerns exert a disruptive effect on intimacy-building behaviors exhibited by dominant group members in intergroup interaction. The authors predicted that although evaluative concerns would lead individuals with a negative baseline response to outgroup members to shine (i.e., to exhibit warmer, more friendly behavior), such concerns would have a contrary, choking, effect on individuals with a more positive baseline response. Results were generally consistent with these hypotheses across 3 different operationalizations of evaluative concerns and regardless of whether individuals' orientation toward outgroup members was assessed in terms of prejudiced racial attitudes or racial ingroup identification. Implications for lower status group members' experience of intergroup interaction and for the prejudice-reduction process are considered.
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