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Abstract
Combined with TCR stimuli, extracellular cytokine signals initiate the differentiation of naive CD4(+) T cells into specialized effector T-helper (Th) and regulatory T (Treg) cell subsets. The lineage specification and commitment process occurs through the combinatorial action of multiple transcription factors (TFs) and epigenetic mechanisms that drive lineage-specific gene expression programs. In this article, we review recent studies on the transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of distinct Th cell lineages. Moreover, we review current study linking immune disease-associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms with distal regulatory elements and their potential role in the disease etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash K Tripathi
- Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi UniversityTurku, Finland
- National Doctoral Programme in Informational and
Structural BiologyTurku, Finland
- Turku Doctoral Programme of Molecular Medicine (TuDMM),
University of TurkuTurku, Finland
| | - Riitta Lahesmaa
- Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi UniversityTurku, Finland
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202
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Deng XM, Yan SX, Wei W. IL-21 acts as a promising therapeutic target in systemic lupus erythematosus by regulating plasma cell differentiation. Cell Mol Immunol 2014; 12:31-9. [PMID: 25088225 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2014.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasma cells, which secrete auto-antibodies, are considered to be the arch-criminal of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, but there are many cytokines involved in inducing the differentiation of B-cell subsets into plasma cells. Here, we emphasize IL-21, which has emerged as the most potent inducer of plasma cell differentiation. In this review, we focused on the promoting effects of IL-21 on plasma cell differentiation and discuss how these effects contribute to B cell-mediated autoimmune disease.
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203
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Pallikkuth S, Pahwa S. Interleukin-21 and T follicular helper cells in HIV infection: research focus and future perspectives. Immunol Res 2014; 57:279-91. [PMID: 24242760 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-013-8457-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-21 is a member of the γ chain-receptor cytokine family along with IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15. The effects of IL-21 are pleiotropic, owing to the broad cellular distribution of the IL-21 receptor. IL-21 is secreted by activated CD4 T cells and natural killer T cells. Within CD4 T cells, its secretion is restricted mainly to T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and Th17 cells to a lesser extent. Our research focus has been on the role of IL-21 and more recently of Tfh in immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. This review focuses on first the influence of IL-21 in regulation of T cell, B cell, and NK cell responses and its immunotherapeutic potential in viral infections and as a vaccine adjuvant. Second, we discuss the pivotal role of Tfh in generation of antibody responses in HIV-infected persons in studies using influenza vaccines as a probe. Lastly, we review data supporting ability of HIV to infect Tfh and the role of these cells as reservoirs for HIV and their contribution to viral persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Pallikkuth
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1580 NW 10th Avenue, BCRI 712, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
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204
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Memory B cells contribute to rapid Bcl6 expression by memory follicular helper T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:11792-7. [PMID: 25071203 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1404671111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In primary humoral responses, B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) is a master regulator of follicular helper T (TFH) cell differentiation; however, its activation mechanisms and role in memory responses remain unclear. Here we demonstrate that survival of CXCR5(+) TFH memory cells, and thus subsequent recall antibody response, require Bcl6 expression. Furthermore, we show that, upon rechallenge with soluble antigen Bcl6 in memory TFH cells is rapidly induced in a dendritic cell-independent manner and that peptide:class II complexes (pMHC) on cognate memory B cells significantly contribute to this induction. Given the previous evidence that antigen-specific B cells residing in the follicles acquire antigens within minutes of injection, our results suggest that memory B cells present antigens to the cognate TFH memory cells, thereby contributing to rapid Bcl6 reexpression and differentiation of the TFH memory cells during humoral memory responses.
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205
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Schaefer JS, Montufar-Solis D, Klein JR. A role for IL-10 in the transcriptional regulation of Roquin-1. Gene 2014; 549:134-40. [PMID: 25062971 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.07.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Roquin-1, a RING finger E3 ubiquitin ligase, functions as a modulator of inflammation; however, nothing is known about how Rc3h1 expression is regulated. Here, we describe an opposing relationship between Roquin-1 and the IL-17 proinflammatory cytokine by demonstrating that enforced expression of Rc3h1 restricts Il17a expression, and that exposure of T cells to IL-10, a cytokine with immunosuppressive activity, increases Rc3h1 expression. Luciferase reporter assays conducted using eight transcription factor plasmids (STAT1, STAT3, STAT5, GATA2, c-Rel, IKZF1, IKZF2, and IKZF3) demonstrated that STAT1, STAT3, GATA2, and c-Rel increased Rc3h1 promoter activity, whereas IKZF2 decreased activity. Gene expression of those five transcription factors increased in T cells exposed to IL-10. Transcription factor-specific siRNAs suppressed the IL-10 effect on Rc3h1 transcription. These findings identify a role for IL-10 in regulating Rc3h1 transcription, and they have implications for understanding how Roquin-1 controls the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy S Schaefer
- Department of Diagnostic and Biomedical Sciences, School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - Dina Montufar-Solis
- Department of Diagnostic and Biomedical Sciences, School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - John R Klein
- Department of Diagnostic and Biomedical Sciences, School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA.
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206
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Toll-like receptor 9 signaling acts on multiple elements of the germinal center to enhance antibody responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E3224-33. [PMID: 25053813 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1323985111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated important roles of nucleic acid-sensing Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in promoting protective antibody responses against several viruses. To dissect how recognition of nucleic acids by TLRs enhances germinal center (GC) responses, mice selectively deleted for myeloid differentiation primary-response protein 88 (MyD88) in B cells or dendritic cells (DCs) were immunized with a haptenated protein antigen bound to a TLR9 ligand. TLR9 signaling in DCs led to greater numbers of follicular helper T (TFH) cells and GC B cells, and accelerated production of broad-affinity antihapten IgG. In addition to modulating GC selection by increasing inducible costimulator (ICOS) expression on TFH cells and reducing the number of follicular regulatory T cells, MyD88-dependent signaling in B cells enhanced GC output by augmenting a class switch to IgG2a, affinity maturation, and the memory antibody response. Thus, attachment of a TLR9 ligand to an oligovalent antigen acted on DCs and B cells to coordinate changes in the T-cell compartment and also promoted B cell-intrinsic effects that ultimately programmed a more potent GC response.
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207
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Schmitt N, Bentebibel SE, Ueno H. Phenotype and functions of memory Tfh cells in human blood. Trends Immunol 2014; 35:436-42. [PMID: 24998903 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Our understanding of the origin and functions of human blood CXCR5(+) CD4(+) T cells found in human blood has changed dramatically in the past years. These cells are currently considered to represent a circulating memory compartment of T follicular helper (Tfh) lineage cells. Recent studies have shown that blood memory Tfh cells are composed of phenotypically and functionally distinct subsets. Here, we review the current understanding of human blood memory Tfh cells and the subsets within this compartment. We present a strategy to define these subsets based on cell surface profiles. Finally, we discuss how increased understanding of the biology of blood memory Tfh cells may contribute insight into the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and the mode of action of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Schmitt
- Baylor Institute for Immunology Research, Baylor Research Institute, 3434 Live Oak, Dallas, TX, 75204, USA
| | - Salah-Eddine Bentebibel
- Baylor Institute for Immunology Research, Baylor Research Institute, 3434 Live Oak, Dallas, TX, 75204, USA; Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Hideki Ueno
- Baylor Institute for Immunology Research, Baylor Research Institute, 3434 Live Oak, Dallas, TX, 75204, USA.
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208
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Moriyama S, Takahashi N, Green JA, Hori S, Kubo M, Cyster JG, Okada T. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 is critical for follicular helper T cell retention in germinal centers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 211:1297-305. [PMID: 24913235 PMCID: PMC4076581 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20131666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
S1PR2 and CXCR5 cooperatively regulate localization of Tfh cells in GCs to support GC responses. Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells access the B cell follicle to promote antibody responses and are particularly important for germinal center (GC) reactions. However, the molecular mechanisms of how Tfh cells are physically associated with GCs are incompletely understood. We report that the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) gene is highly expressed in a subpopulation of Tfh cells that localizes in GCs. S1PR2-deficient Tfh cells exhibited reduced accumulation in GCs due to their impaired retention. T cells deficient in both S1PR2 and CXCR5 were ineffective in supporting GC responses compared with T cells deficient only in CXCR5. These results suggest that S1PR2 and CXCR5 cooperatively regulate localization of Tfh cells in GCs to support GC responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saya Moriyama
- Laboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, JapanLaboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Noriko Takahashi
- Laboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Jesse A Green
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Shohei Hori
- Laboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Masato Kubo
- Laboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan Division of Molecular Pathology, Research Institute for Biomedical Science, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba 278-0022, Japan
| | - Jason G Cyster
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143 Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Takaharu Okada
- Laboratory for Tissue Dynamics, Laboratory for Lymphocyte Differentiation, Laboratory for Immune Homeostasis, and Laboratory for Cytokine Regulation, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama, Saitama 332-0012, Japan Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan
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209
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Kim C, Jay DC, Williams MA. Dynamic functional modulation of CD4+ T cell recall responses is dependent on the inflammatory environment of the secondary stimulus. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004137. [PMID: 24854337 PMCID: PMC4031222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The parameters that modulate the functional capacity of secondary Th1 effector cells are poorly understood. In this study, we employ a serial adoptive transfer model system to show that the functional differentiation and secondary memory potential of secondary CD4+ effector T cells are dependent on the inflammatory environment of the secondary challenge. Adoptive transfer of TCR transgenic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Glycoprotein-specific SMARTA memory cells into LCMV-immune hosts, followed by secondary challenge with Listeria monocytogenes recombinantly expressing a portion of the LCMV Glycoprotein (Lm-gp61), resulted in the rapid emergence of SMARTA secondary effector cells with heightened functional avidity (as measured by their ability to make IFNγ in response to ex vivo restimulation with decreasing concentrations of peptide), limited contraction after pathogen clearance and stable maintenance secondary memory T cell populations. In contrast, transfer of SMARTA memory cells into naïve hosts prior to secondary Lm-gp61 challenge, which resulted in a more extended infectious period, resulted in poor functional avidity, increased death during the contraction phase and poor maintenance of secondary memory T cell populations. The modulation of functional avidity during the secondary Th1 response was independent of differences in antigen load or persistence. Instead, the inflammatory environment strongly influenced the function of the secondary Th1 response, as inhibition of IL-12 or IFN-I activity respectively reduced or increased the functional avidity of secondary SMARTA effector cells following rechallenge in a naïve secondary hosts. Our findings demonstrate that secondary effector T cells exhibit inflammation-dependent differences in functional avidity and memory potential, and have direct bearing on the design of strategies aimed at boosting memory T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chulwoo Kim
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - David C. Jay
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Matthew A. Williams
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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210
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Edelmann SL, Heissmeyer V. Tfh cell differentiation: missing Stat3 uncovers interferons' interference. Immunity 2014; 40:307-9. [PMID: 24656041 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Viral infection induces a number of cytokines that shape T cell responses. In this issue of Immunity, Ray et al. (2014) describe how CD4(+) T cells decide on T follicular helper (Tfh) or T helper 1 (Th1) cell skewed gene expression during acute viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Edelmann
- Institute for Immunology, Ludwig-Maximillians-University, Goethestrasse 31, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute of Molecular Immunology, Research Unit of Molecular Immune Regulation, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Marchioninistrasse 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Vigo Heissmeyer
- Institute for Immunology, Ludwig-Maximillians-University, Goethestrasse 31, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute of Molecular Immunology, Research Unit of Molecular Immune Regulation, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Marchioninistrasse 25, 81377 Munich, Germany.
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211
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Increased T follicular helper cells and germinal center B cells are required for cGVHD and bronchiolitis obliterans. Blood 2014; 123:3988-98. [PMID: 24820310 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2014-03-562231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Having shown that germinal center (GC) formation and immunoglobulin deposition are required for multiorgan system cGVHD and associated bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) in a murine model, we hypothesized that T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are necessary for cGVHD by supporting GC formation and maintenance. We show that increased frequency of Tfh cells correlated with increased GC B cells, cGVHD, and BOS. Although administering a highly depletionary anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (mAb) to mice with established cGVHD resulted in peripheral B-cell depletion, B cells remained in the lung, and BOS was not reversed. BOS could be treated by eliminating production of interleukin-21 (IL-21) by donor T cells or IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) signaling of donor B cells. Development of BOS was dependent upon T cells expressing the chemokine receptor CXCR5 to facilitate T-cell trafficking to secondary lymphoid organ follicles. Blocking mAbs for IL-21/IL-21R, inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS)/ICOS ligand, and CD40L/CD40 hindered GC formation and cGVHD. These data provide novel insights into cGVHD pathogenesis, indicate a role for Tfh cells in these processes, and suggest a new line of therapy using mAbs targeting Tfh cells to reverse cGVHD.
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212
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Chen X, Yang X, Li Y, Zhu J, Zhou S, Xu Z, He L, Xue X, Zhang W, Dong X, Wu H, Li CJ, Hsu HT, Kong W, Liu F, Tripathi PB, Yu MS, Chang J, Zhou L, Su C. Follicular helper T cells promote liver pathology in mice during Schistosoma japonicum infection. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004097. [PMID: 24788758 PMCID: PMC4006917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Following Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) infection, granulomatous responses are induced by parasite eggs trapped in host organs, particular in the liver, during the acute stage of disease. While excessive liver granulomatous responses can lead to more severe fibrosis and circulatory impairment in chronically infected host. However, the exact mechanism of hepatic granuloma formation has remained obscure. In this study, we for the first time showed that follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are recruited to the liver to upregulate hepatic granuloma formation and liver injury in S. japonicum-infected mice, and identified a novel function of macrophages in Tfh cell induction. In addition, our results showed that the generation of Tfh cells driven by macrophages is dependent on cell–cell contact and the level of inducible costimulator ligand (ICOSL) on macrophages which is regulated by CD40–CD40L signaling. Our findings uncovered a previously unappreciated role for Tfh cells in liver pathology caused by S. japonicum infection in mice. Schistosomiasis is a chronic helminthic disease that affects approximately 200 million people. After S. japonicum infection, parasite eggs are trapped in host liver and granulomas are induced to form around eggs. Severe granuloma subsequently results in serious liver fibrosis and circulatory impairment chronically. It is important to fully elucidate the mechanism of the granuloma formation. Here, we show that Tfh cells play a novel role of promoting the hepatic granuloma formation and liver injury, and identified a novel function of macrophages in Tfh cells induction in S. japonicum-infected mouse model. In addition, we show that the generation of Tfh cells driven by macrophages is cell–cell contact dependent and regulated by CD40-CD40L signaling. Our findings revealed a novel role and mechanism of macrophages in Tfh cell generation and the liver pathogenesis in S. japonicum-infected mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Xiaowei Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Jifeng Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Sha Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Lei He
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Xue Xue
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoxiao Dong
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Henry Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Carrie J. Li
- Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Hsiang-Ting Hsu
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Wenjun Kong
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Prem B. Tripathi
- Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Michelle S. Yu
- Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Jason Chang
- Department of General Surgery, Kaiser LAMC, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Liang Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Chuan Su
- Department of Pathogen Biology & Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
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213
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Abortive T follicular helper development is associated with a defective humoral response in Leishmania infantum-infected macaques. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004096. [PMID: 24763747 PMCID: PMC4005728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania infantum causes a chronic infectious disease named visceral leishmaniasis (VL). We employed a non-human primate model to monitor immune parameters over time and gain new insights into the disease. Rhesus macaques were infected with L. infantum and the T helper and B cell immunological profiles characterized during acute and chronic phases of infection. Parasite detection in visceral compartments during the acute phase was associated with differentiation of effector memory CD4 T cells and increased levels of Th1 transcripts. At the chronic phase, parasites colonized novel lymphoid niches concomitant with increased expression of IL10. Despite the occurrence of hypergammaglobulinemia, the production of parasite-specific IgG was poor, being confined to the acute phase and positively correlated with the frequency of an activated memory splenic B cell population. We noticed the expansion of a splenic CD4 T cell population expressing CXCR5 and Bcl-6 during acute infection that was associated with the differentiation of the activated memory B cell population. Moreover, the number of splenic germinal centers peaked at one month after infection, hence paralleling the production of specific IgG. However, at chronic infection these populations contracted impacting the production of parasite-specific IgG. Our study provides new insights into the immune events taking place in a physiologically relevant host and a mechanistic basis for the inefficient humoral response during VL.
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214
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Spolski R, Leonard WJ. Interleukin-21: a double-edged sword with therapeutic potential. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2014; 13:379-95. [PMID: 24751819 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 is a cytokine with broad pleiotropic actions that affect the differentiation and function of lymphoid and myeloid cells. Since its discovery in 2000, a tremendous amount has been learned about its biological actions and the molecular mechanisms controlling IL-21-mediated cellular responses. IL-21 regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses, and it not only has key roles in antitumour and antiviral responses but also exerts major effects on inflammatory responses that promote the development of autoimmune diseases and inflammatory disorders. Numerous studies have shown that enhancing or inhibiting the action of IL-21 has therapeutic effects in animal models of a wide range of diseases, and various clinical trials are underway. The current challenge is to understand how to specifically modulate the actions of IL-21 in the context of each specific immune response or pathological situation. In this Review, we provide an overview of the basic biology of IL-21 and discuss how this information has been - and can be - exploited therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Spolski
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Warren J Leonard
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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215
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Thorborn G, Young GR, Kassiotis G. Effective T helper cell responses against retroviruses: are all clonotypes equal? J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:27-37. [PMID: 24737804 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.2ri0613-347r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The critical importance of CD4(+) T cells in coordinating innate and adaptive immune responses is evidenced by the susceptibility to various pathogenic and opportunistic infections that arises from primary or acquired CD4(+) T cell immunodeficiency, such as following HIV-1 infection. However, despite the clearly defined roles of cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells and antibodies in host protection from retroviruses, the ability of CD4(+) T cells to exert a similar function remains unclear. Recent studies in various settings have drawn attention to the complexity of the T cell response within and between individuals. Distinct TCR clonotypes within an individual differ substantially in their response to the same epitope. Functionally similar, "public" TCR clonotypes can also dominate the response of different individuals. TCR affinity for antigen directly influences expansion and differentiation of responding T cells, also likely affecting their ultimate protective capacity. With this increasing understanding of the parameters that determine the magnitude and effector type of the T cell response, we are now better equipped to address the protective capacity against retroviruses of CD4(+) T cell clonotypes induced by natural infection or vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - George R Young
- Divisions of Immunoregulation and Virology, Medical Research Council National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - George Kassiotis
- Divisions of Immunoregulation and Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
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216
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Abstract
CD4(+) T cells are key cells of the adaptive immune system that use T cell antigen receptors to recognize peptides that are generated in endosomes or phagosomes and displayed on the host cell surface bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules. These T cells participate in immune responses that protect hosts from microbes such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Leishmania major, and Salmonella enterica, which have evolved to live in the phagosomes of macrophages and dendritic cells. Here, we review studies indicating that CD4(+) T cells control phagosomal infections asymptomatically in most individuals by secreting cytokines that activate the microbicidal activities of infected phagocytes but in a way that inhibits the pathogen but does not eliminate it. Indeed, we make the case that localized, controlled, persistent infection is necessary to maintain large numbers of CD4(+) effector T cells in a state of activation needed to eradicate systemic and more pathogenic forms of the infection. Finally, we posit that current vaccines for phagosomal infections fail because they do not produce this "periodic reminder" form of CD4(+) T cell-mediated immune control.
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217
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Yao Y, Yang W, Yang YQ, Ma HD, Lu FT, Li L, Tao YY, Tsuneyama K, Zhang W, Friedman S, Gershwin ME, Lian ZX. Distinct from its canonical effects, deletion of IL-12p40 induces cholangitis and fibrosis in interleukin-2Rα(-/-) mice. J Autoimmun 2014; 51:99-108. [PMID: 24651036 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The IL-12 family modulates T cell mediated autoimmune diseases and GWAS in PBC have suggested a critical role of IL-12 and its subunits in modulating portal inflammation. We have taken advantage of an aggressive model of portal inflammation and colitis in IL-2Rα(-/-) mice to study the specific role of IL-12 and, in particular, the immunobiology of p40(-/-)IL-2Rα(-/-) mice. Colonies of IL-2Rα(+/-), IL-2Rα(-/-) and p40(-/-)IL-2Rα(-/-) mice were studied for the natural history of immunopathology in liver and colon using histology and immunohistochemistry. Further, to focus on mechanisms, liver, spleen and mesenteric lymph node flow cytometry was employed to identify specific phenotypes; cytokine analysis on inflammatory cell populations was compared between groups. Finally, Real-Time PCR was used to focus on the genes involved in hepatic fibrosis. Surprisingly, p40(-/-)IL-2Rα(-/-) mice manifest more severe portal inflammation and bile duct damage, including signs of portal hypertension and liver fibrosis, but a significant reduction in colitis. Indeed, p40(-/-)IL-2Rα(-/-) mice reveal a profound hepatic CD8(+) T cell infiltrate, whose major component are effector memory cells as well as enhanced hepatic Th1 but reduced Th17 responses. These observations were confirmed by Real-Time PCR analysis of fibrosis-related genes in the liver. Distinct from its canonical effects, IL-12p40 plays a critical role in autoimmune cholangitis, including hepatic fibrosis. These data take on striking significance for any proposed human trials that modulate the IL-12p40 pathway in human PBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Yao
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Yan-Qing Yang
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Hong-Di Ma
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Fang-Ting Lu
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Liang Li
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Yan-Yan Tao
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Koichi Tsuneyama
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science for Research, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
| | - Weici Zhang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Scott Friedman
- Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Zhe-Xiong Lian
- Liver Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China; Innovation Center for Cell Biology, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China.
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218
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Willis SN, Good-Jacobson KL, Curtis J, Light A, Tellier J, Shi W, Smyth GK, Tarlinton DM, Belz GT, Corcoran LM, Kallies A, Nutt SL. Transcription factor IRF4 regulates germinal center cell formation through a B cell-intrinsic mechanism. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:3200-6. [PMID: 24591370 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In response to antigenic stimulation, mature B cells interact with follicular helper T cells in specialized structures called germinal centers (GCs), which leads to the development of memory B cells and Ab-secreting plasma cells. The transcription factor IFN regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is essential for the formation of follicular helper T cells and thus GCs, although whether IRF4 plays a distinct role in GC B cells remains contentious. RNAseq analysis on ex vivo-derived mouse B cell populations showed that Irf4 was lowly expressed in naive B cells, highly expressed in plasma cells, but absent from GC B cells. In this study, we used conditional deletion of Irf4 in mature B cells as well as wild-type and Irf4-deficient mixed bone marrow chimeric mice to investigate how and where IRF4 plays its essential role in GC formation. Strikingly, GC formation was severely impaired in mice in which Irf4 was conditionally deleted in mature B cells, after immunization with protein Ags or infection with Leishmania major. This effect was evident as early as day 5 following immunization, before the development of GCs, indicating that Irf4 was required for the development of early GC B cells. This defect was B cell intrinsic because Irf4-deficient B cells in chimeric mice failed to participate in the GC in response to L. major or influenza virus infection. Taken together, these data demonstrate a B cell-intrinsic requirement for IRF4 for not only the development of Ab secreting plasma cells but also for GC formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon N Willis
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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219
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Qi H, Liu D, Ma W, Wang Y, Yan H. Bcl-6 controlled TFH polarization and memory: the known unknowns. Curr Opin Immunol 2014; 28:34-41. [PMID: 24583637 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2014.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Upon antigenic activation in vivo, naïve CD4 T cells can differentiate into one of several helper (Th) subsets under the control of lineage-specifying transcription factors to tailor immune responses against different types of pathogens. Follicular T-helper (TFH) cells are a recently defined subset that is controlled by Bcl-6 and specializes in promoting B cell-mediated humoral immunity. TFH cells exhibit unique spatiotemporal and functional features, but it is not settled as to how Bcl-6 promotes the TFH development, how TFH cells relate to other Th subsets, and how TFH cells relate to memory. Here we review recent advances and crucial gaps in our understanding of Bcl-6-controlled TFH development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Qi
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China.
| | - Dan Liu
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Weiwei Ma
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Yifeng Wang
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Hu Yan
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
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220
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Moens L, Tangye SG. Cytokine-Mediated Regulation of Plasma Cell Generation: IL-21 Takes Center Stage. Front Immunol 2014; 5:65. [PMID: 24600453 PMCID: PMC3927127 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During our life, we are surrounded by continuous threats from a diverse range of invading pathogens. Our immune system has evolved multiple mechanisms to efficiently deal with these threats so as to prevent them from causing disease. Terminal differentiation of mature B cells into plasma cells (PC) – the antibody (Ab) secreting cells of the immune system – is critical for the generation of protective and long-lived humoral immune responses. Indeed, efficient production of antigen (Ag)-specific Ab by activated B cells underlies the success of most currently available vaccines. The mature B-cell pool is composed of several subsets, distinguished from one according to size, surface marker expression, location, and Ag exposure, and they all have the capacity to differentiate into PCs. For a B-cell to acquire the capacity to produce Abs, it must undergo an extensive differentiation process driven by changes in gene expression. Two broad categories of Ags exist that cause B-cell activation and differentiation: T cell dependent (TD) or T cell independent (TI). In addition to the B-cell subset and nature of the Ag, it is important to consider the cytokine environment that can also influence how B-cell differentiation is achieved. Thus, while many cytokines can induce Ab-secretion by B cells after activation with mimics of TD and TI stimuli in vitro, they can have different efficacies and specificities, and can often preferentially induce production of one particular Ig isotype over another. Here, we will provide an overview of in vitro studies (mouse and human origin) that evaluated the role of different cytokines in inducing the differentiation of distinct B-cell subsets to the PC lineage. We will place particular emphasis on IL-21, which has emerged as the most potent inducer of terminal B-cell differentiation in humans. We will also focus on the role of IL-21 and defects in B-cell function and how these contribute to human immunopathologies such as primary immunodeficiencies and B-cell mediated autoimmune conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Moens
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
| | - Stuart G Tangye
- Immunology and Immunodeficiency Group, Immunology Research Program, Garvan Institute of Medical Research , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia ; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales , Darlinghurst, NSW , Australia
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221
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Misumi I, Whitmire JK. B cell depletion curtails CD4+ T cell memory and reduces protection against disseminating virus infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2014; 192:1597-608. [PMID: 24453250 PMCID: PMC3925510 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Dynamic interactions between CD4(+) T cells and B cells are needed for humoral immunity and CD4(+) T cell memory. It is not known whether B cells are needed early on to induce the formation of memory precursor cells or are needed later to sustain memory cells. In this study, primary and memory CD4(+) T cells responses were followed in wild-type mice that were depleted of mature B cells by anti-CD20 before or different times after acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection. The Ab treatment led to a 1000-fold reduction in B cell number that lasted 6 wk. Primary virus-specific CD4(+) Th1 cells were generated in B cell-depleted mice; however, there was a decrease in the CD4(+)Ly6C(lo)Tbet(+) memory precursor population and a corresponding 4-fold reduction in CD4(+) memory cell number. Memory T cells showed impaired cytokine production when they formed without B cells. B cell depletion had no effect on established memory populations. During disseminating virus infection, B cell depletion led to sustained weight loss and functional exhaustion of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, and prevented mice from resolving the infection. Thus, B cells contribute to the establishment and survival of memory CD4(+) T cells post-acute infection and play an essential role in immune protection against disseminating virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ichiro Misumi
- Department of Genetics, UNC-Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Jason K. Whitmire
- Department of Genetics, UNC-Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, UNC-Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
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222
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Kara EE, Comerford I, Fenix KA, Bastow CR, Gregor CE, McKenzie DR, McColl SR. Tailored immune responses: novel effector helper T cell subsets in protective immunity. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003905. [PMID: 24586147 PMCID: PMC3930558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Differentiation of naïve CD4⁺ cells into functionally distinct effector helper T cell subsets, characterised by distinct "cytokine signatures," is a cardinal strategy employed by the mammalian immune system to efficiently deal with the rapidly evolving array of pathogenic microorganisms encountered by the host. Since the T(H)1/T(H)2 paradigm was first described by Mosmann and Coffman, research in the field of helper T cell biology has grown exponentially with seven functionally unique subsets having now been described. In this review, recent insights into the molecular mechanisms that govern differentiation and function of effector helper T cell subsets will be discussed in the context of microbial infections, with a focus on how these different helper T cell subsets orchestrate immune responses tailored to combat the nature of the pathogenic threat encountered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ervin E. Kara
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Iain Comerford
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Kevin A. Fenix
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Cameron R. Bastow
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Carly E. Gregor
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Duncan R. McKenzie
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Shaun R. McColl
- School of Molecular & Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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223
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Boswell KL, Paris R, Boritz E, Ambrozak D, Yamamoto T, Darko S, Wloka K, Wheatley A, Narpala S, McDermott A, Roederer M, Haubrich R, Connors M, Ake J, Douek DC, Kim J, Petrovas C, Koup RA. Loss of circulating CD4 T cells with B cell helper function during chronic HIV infection. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003853. [PMID: 24497824 PMCID: PMC3911819 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between follicular T helper cells (TFH) and B cells in the lymph nodes and spleen has a major impact on the development of antigen-specific B cell responses during infection or vaccination. Recent studies described a functional equivalent of these cells among circulating CD4 T cells, referred to as peripheral TFH cells. Here, we characterize the phenotype and in vitro B cell helper activity of peripheral TFH populations, as well as the effect of HIV infection on these populations. In co-culture experiments we confirmed CXCR5+ cells from HIV-uninfected donors provide help to B cells and more specifically, we identified a CCR7(high)CXCR5(high)CCR6(high)PD-1(high) CD4 T cell population that secretes IL-21 and enhances isotype-switched immunoglobulin production. This population is significantly decreased in treatment-naïve, HIV-infected individuals and can be recovered after anti-retroviral therapy. We found impaired immunoglobulin production in co-cultures from HIV-infected individuals and found no correlation between the frequency of peripheral TFH cells and memory B cells, or with neutralization activity in untreated HIV infection in our cohort. Furthermore, we found that within the peripheral TFH population, the expression level of TFH-associated genes more closely resembles a memory, non-TFH population, as opposed to a TFH population. Overall, our data identify a heterogeneous population of circulating CD4 T cells that provides in vitro help to B cells, and challenges the origin of these cells as memory TFH cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin L. Boswell
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert Paris
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- United States Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eli Boritz
- Human Immunology Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - David Ambrozak
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Takuya Yamamoto
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sam Darko
- Human Immunology Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kaska Wloka
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adam Wheatley
- Immunology Core Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sandeep Narpala
- Immunology Core Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adrian McDermott
- Immunology Core Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mario Roederer
- ImmunoTechnology Section, Vaccine Research Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Richard Haubrich
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Antiviral Research Center, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Mark Connors
- HIV-Specific Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immunoregulation, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Julie Ake
- United States Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel C. Douek
- Human Immunology Section, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jerome Kim
- United States Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Constantinos Petrovas
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Richard A. Koup
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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Attridge K, Kenefeck R, Wardzinski L, Qureshi OS, Wang CJ, Manzotti C, Okkenhaug K, Walker LSK. IL-21 promotes CD4 T cell responses by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent upregulation of CD86 on B cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:2195-201. [PMID: 24470500 PMCID: PMC3932810 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1302082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The cytokine IL-21 is a potent immune modulator with diverse mechanisms of action on multiple cell types. IL-21 is in clinical use to promote tumor rejection and is an emerging target for neutralization in the setting of autoimmunity. Despite its clinical potential, the biological actions of IL-21 are not yet fully understood and the full range of effects of this pleiotropic cytokine are still being uncovered. In this study, we identify a novel role for IL-21 as an inducer of the costimulatory ligand CD86 on B lymphocytes. CD86 provides critical signals through T cell–expressed CD28 that promote T cell activation in response to Ag engagement. Expression levels of CD86 are tightly regulated in vivo, being actively decreased by regulatory T cells and increased in response to pathogen-derived signals. In this study, we demonstrate that IL-21 can trigger potent and sustained CD86 upregulation through a STAT3 and PI3K-dependent mechanism. We show that elevated CD86 expression has functional consequences for the magnitude of CD4 T cell responses both in vitro and in vivo. These data pinpoint CD86 upregulation as an additional mechanism by which IL-21 can elicit immunomodulatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kesley Attridge
- Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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225
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Kobayashi T, Iijima K, Checkel JL, Kita H. IL-1 family cytokines drive Th2 and Th17 cells to innocuous airborne antigens. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2014; 49:989-98. [PMID: 23837489 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2012-0444oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergic asthma is commonly thought to result from dysregulated airway inflammatory responses to ubiquitous environmental antigens mediated by CD4(+) T cells polarized to a Th2 or Th17 cell. However, the mechanisms involved in the development of these T-cell responses remain unknown. This study examines the effects of IL-1 family cytokines, such as IL-33 and IL-1β, on the development of antigen-specific Th2 and Th17 cells in the airway. We administered IL-1 family cytokines and model antigens, such as ovalbumin, into the airways of naive BALB/c mice, and examined the cellular and humoral immune responses. To investigate the immunologic mechanisms, we used IL-4 green fluorescent protein reporter mice and mice deficient in the Il4 gene. Innocuous antigens, such as endotoxin-free ovalbumin and short ragweed extract, did not sensitize naive mice when administered through the airways. However, when mice were exposed to the same antigens with IL-1β or IL-33, they developed IgE antibodies. In particular, IL-33 induced robust and long-lasting Th2 cells that produced a large quantity of IL-5 and IL-13 and asthma-like airway pathology. IL-1β induced Th17 cells. In naive, nonsensitized animals, IL-33 stimulated endogenous IL-4 expression by CD4(+) T cells, which was critical for the polarization of CD4(+) T cells to the Th2 type. In the absence of IL-4, mice developed Th17 cells and neutrophilic airway inflammation. In conclusion, IL-1 family cytokines possess a potent adjuvant activity to promote both Th2 and Th17 cells to innocuous airborne antigens, and they may play fundamental roles in the immunopathology of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Kobayashi
- 1 Department of Medicine and Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic Rochester, Rochester, Minnesota
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226
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Xin N, Fu L, Shao Z, Guo M, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Dou C, Zheng S, Shen X, Yao Y, Wang J, Wang J, Cui G, Liu Y, Geng D, Xiao C, Zhang Z, Dong R. RNA interference targeting Bcl-6 ameliorates experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis in mice. Mol Cell Neurosci 2013; 58:85-94. [PMID: 24361642 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are dedicated to providing help to B cells and are strongly associated with antibody-mediated autoimmune disease. B cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl-6) is a key transcription factor of Tfh cells, and IL-21 is known to be a critical cytokine produced by Tfh cells. We silenced Bcl-6 gene expression using RNA interference (RNAi) delivered by a lentiviral vector, to evaluate the therapeutic role of Bcl-6 short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) in experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG). Our data demonstrate that CD4(+)CXCR5(+)PD-1(+) Tfh cells, Bcl-6 and IL-21 were significantly increased in EAMG mice, compared with controls. In addition, we found that frequencies of Tfh cells were positively correlated with the levels of serum anti-AChR Ab. In-vivo transduction of lenti-siRNA-Bcl6 ameliorates the severity of ongoing EAMG with decreased Tfh cells, Bcl-6 and IL-21 expression, and leads to decreased anti-AChR antibody levels. Furthermore, we found that siRNA knockdown of Bcl-6 expression increases the expression of Th1(IFN-γ, T-bet) and Th2 markers (IL-4 and GATA3), but failed to alter the expression of Th17-related markers (RORγt, IL-17) and Treg markers (FoxP3). Our study suggests that Tfh cells contribute to the antibody production and could be one of the most important T cell subsets responsible for development and progression of EAMG or MG. Bcl-6 provides a promising therapeutic target for immunotherapy not only for MG, but also for other antibody-mediated autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Xin
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Linlin Fu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Lab of Infection and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhen Shao
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mingfeng Guo
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiuying Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Changxin Dou
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuangshuang Zheng
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xia Shen
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Yuanhu Yao
- Department of Radiation Therapy, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinhua Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guiyun Cui
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yonghai Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Deqin Geng
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chenghua Xiao
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zunsheng Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ruiguo Dong
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
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227
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Futatsugi-Yumikura S, Matsushita K, Fukuoka A, Takahashi S, Yamamoto N, Yonehara S, Nakanishi K, Yoshimoto T. Pathogenic Th2-type follicular helper T cells contribute to the development of lupus in Fas-deficient mice. Int Immunol 2013; 26:221-31. [DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxt070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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228
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Bindea G, Mlecnik B, Tosolini M, Kirilovsky A, Waldner M, Obenauf AC, Angell H, Fredriksen T, Lafontaine L, Berger A, Bruneval P, Fridman WH, Becker C, Pagès F, Speicher MR, Trajanoski Z, Galon J. Spatiotemporal dynamics of intratumoral immune cells reveal the immune landscape in human cancer. Immunity 2013; 39:782-95. [PMID: 24138885 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2559] [Impact Index Per Article: 232.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The complex interactions between tumors and their microenvironment remain to be elucidated. Combining large-scale approaches, we examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of 28 different immune cell types (immunome) infiltrating tumors. We found that the immune infiltrate composition changed at each tumor stage and that particular cells had a major impact on survival. Densities of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and innate cells increased, whereas most T cell densities decreased along with tumor progression. The number of B cells, which are key players in the core immune network and are associated with prolonged survival, increased at a late stage and showed a dual effect on recurrence and tumor progression. The immune control relevance was demonstrated in three endoscopic orthotopic colon-cancer mouse models. Genomic instability of the chemokine CXCL13 was a mechanism associated with Tfh and B cell infiltration. CXCL13 and IL21 were pivotal factors for the Tfh/B cell axis correlating with survival. This integrative study reveals the immune landscape in human colorectal cancer and the major hallmarks of the microenvironment associated with tumor progression and recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Bindea
- INSERM U872, Laboratory of Integrative Cancer Immunology, Paris 75006, France; Université Paris Descartes, Paris 75006, France; Cordeliers Research Centre, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 6, Paris 75006, France
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229
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He J, Tsai LM, Leong YA, Hu X, Ma CS, Chevalier N, Sun X, Vandenberg K, Rockman S, Ding Y, Zhu L, Wei W, Wang C, Karnowski A, Belz GT, Ghali JR, Cook MC, Riminton DS, Veillette A, Schwartzberg PL, Mackay F, Brink R, Tangye SG, Vinuesa CG, Mackay CR, Li Z, Yu D. Circulating precursor CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) CXCR5⁺ CD4⁺ T cells indicate Tfh cell activity and promote antibody responses upon antigen reexposure. Immunity 2013; 39:770-81. [PMID: 24138884 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Follicular B helper T (Tfh) cells support high affinity and long-term antibody responses. Here we found that within circulating CXCR5⁺ CD4⁺ T cells in humans and mice, the CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) subset has a partial Tfh effector phenotype, whereas CCR7(hi)PD-1(lo) cells have a resting phenotype. The circulating CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) subset was indicative of active Tfh differentiation in lymphoid organs and correlated with clinical indices in autoimmune diseases. Thus the CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) subset provides a biomarker to monitor protective antibody responses during infection or vaccination and pathogenic antibody responses in autoimmune diseases. Differentiation of both CCR7(hi)PD-1(lo) and CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) subsets required ICOS and BCL6, but not SAP, suggesting that circulating CXCR5⁺ helper T cells are primarily generated before germinal centers. Upon antigen reencounter, CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) CXCR5⁺ precursors rapidly differentiate into mature Tfh cells to promote antibody responses. Therefore, circulating CCR7(lo)PD-1(hi) CXCR5⁺ CD4⁺ T cells are generated during active Tfh differentiation and represent a new mechanism of immunological early memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing He
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing 100044, China
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230
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Tellier J, Nutt SL. The unique features of follicular T cell subsets. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:4771-84. [PMID: 23852544 PMCID: PMC11113495 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1420-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The germinal center (GC) reaction is critical for humoral immunity, but also contributes adversely to a variety of autoimmune diseases. While the major protective function of GCs is mediated by plasma cells and memory B cells, follicular helper T (TFH) cells represent a specialized T cell subset that provides essential help to the antigen-specific B cells in the form of membrane-bound ligands and secreted factors such as IL-21. Recent studies have revealed that TFH cells are capable of considerable functional diversity as well as possessing the ability to form memory cells. The molecular basis of this plasticity and heterogeneity is only now emerging. It has also become apparent that several other populations of follicular T cells exist, including natural killer T cells and regulatory T cells. In this review we will discuss the function of follicular T cells and interaction of these populations within the GC response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Tellier
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia,
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231
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Kim C, Wilson T, Fischer KF, Williams MA. Sustained interactions between T cell receptors and antigens promote the differentiation of CD4⁺ memory T cells. Immunity 2013; 39:508-20. [PMID: 24054329 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
During CD4⁺ T cell activation, T cell receptor (TCR) signals impact T cell fate, including recruitment, expansion, differentiation, trafficking, and survival. To determine the impact of TCR signals on the fate decision of activated CD4⁺ T cells to become end-stage effector or long-lived memory T helper 1 (Th1) cells, we devised a deep-sequencing-based approach that allowed us to track the evolution of TCR repertoires after acute infection. The transition of effector Th1 cells into the memory pool was associated with a significant decrease in repertoire diversity, and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II tetramer off rate, but not tetramer avidity, was a key predictive factor in the representation of individual clonal T cell populations at the memory stage. We conclude that stable and sustained interactions with antigens during the development of Th1 responses to acute infection are a determinative factor in promoting the differentiation of Th1 memory cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chulwoo Kim
- Department of Pathology, Division of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84121, USA
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232
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Xu X, Shi Y, Cai Y, Zhang Q, Yang F, Chen H, Gu Y, Zhang M, Yu L, Yang T. Inhibition of increased circulating Tfh cell by anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody in patients with type 1 diabetes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e79858. [PMID: 24278195 PMCID: PMC3835920 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells exert an important role in autoimmune diseases. Whether it might be involved in type 1 diabetes (T1D) is unknown. Our aim was to investigate the role of Tfh cells in patients with T1D and the effect of anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) on Tfh cells from T1D patients. Patients and Methods Fifty-four patients with T1D and 37 healthy controls were enrolled in the current study. 20 of those patients were treated with rituximab. The frequencies of circulating CD4+CXCR5+ICOS+T cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. The serum autoantibodies were detected by radioligand assay. The levels of IL-21, IL-6 and BCL-6 were assessed using ELISA and/or real-time PCR. Results Increased frequencies of circulating Tfh cells together with enhanced expression of IL-21 were detected in patients. The correlation between the frequencies of circulating Tfh cells and the serum autoantibodies or C-peptide level was comfirmed. After rituximab therapy, follow-up analysis demonstrated that the frequencies of circulating Tfh cell and serum IA2A were decreased. The levels of IL-21, IL-6 and Bcl-6 mRNA were decreased after treatment. Furthermore, beta cell function in 10 of 20 patients was improved. Conclusions These data indicate Tfh cells may participate in the T1D-relatede immune responses and B cells might play a role in the development of Tfh responses in the disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yun Shi
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yun Cai
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qingqing Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Heng Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yong Gu
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Mei Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Liping. Yu
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Tao Yang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
- * E-mail:
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233
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Follicular helper T‐cell memory: establishing new frontiers during antibody response. Immunol Cell Biol 2013; 92:57-63. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2013.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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234
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Geginat J, Paroni M, Facciotti F, Gruarin P, Kastirr I, Caprioli F, Pagani M, Abrignani. S. The CD4-centered universe of human T cell subsets. Semin Immunol 2013; 25:252-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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235
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Qi H, Chen X, Chu C, Lu P, Xu H, Yan J. Follicular T‐helper cells: controlled localization and cellular interactions. Immunol Cell Biol 2013; 92:28-33. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2013.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Revised: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hai Qi
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xin Chen
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Coco Chu
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Peiwen Lu
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Heping Xu
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jiacong Yan
- Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences, Laboratory of Dynamic Immunobiology, School of Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua UniversityBeijingChina
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236
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Weinmann AS. Regulatory mechanisms that control T-follicular helper and T-helper 1 cell flexibility. Immunol Cell Biol 2013; 92:34-9. [PMID: 24080769 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2013.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Following antigenic stimulation, CD4(+) T cells have the potential to differentiate into a number of specialized effector cell subtypes. To date, much progress has been made in defining the basic molecular mechanisms that regulate initial helper T-cell differentiation decisions. Emerging research in the field is now uncovering more complexity in the series of events that control helper T-cell commitment decisions than was previously appreciated. During the commitment process, helper T cells need to integrate both signals derived from the T-cell receptor and from the surrounding microenvironment. These external signals are then translated into internal changes in gene expression potential to ultimately define the functional characteristics of the cell. In this review, this topic will be discussed from the perspective of T-follicular helper (Tfh) and T-helper type 1 (Th1) cell differentiation. The focus will be on examining how the cytokine environment is perceived by signaling through signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) family proteins to initiate fate choices. The activities of STAT proteins are then in turn translated into changes in the molecular balance between B-cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl-6) and T-box expressed in T cells (T-bet), the helper T-cell lineage-specifying transcription factors that regulate Tfh and Th1 effector cell differentiation, respectively. Collectively, the knowledge of the molecular pathways that regulate Tfh and Th1 commitment have provided insight into the relationship between these two specialized helper T-cell subtypes and the potential for flexibility in their gene programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S Weinmann
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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237
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Jeker LT, Bluestone JA. MicroRNA regulation of T-cell differentiation and function. Immunol Rev 2013; 253:65-81. [PMID: 23550639 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as key controllers of T-cell differentiation and function. Their expression is dynamically regulated by extracellular signals such as costimulation and cytokine signals. miRNAs set thresholds for gene expression and optimize protein concentrations of genetic networks. Absence of individual miRNAs can lead to severe immune dysfunction. In this study, we review emerging principles and provide examples of important functions exerted by miRNAs. Although our understanding of miRNA function in T-cell differentiation is still rudimentary, the available evidence leaves no doubt that these small post-transcriptional regulators are indispensable for proper functioning of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas T Jeker
- Diabetes Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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238
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Liu SM, King C. IL-21–Producing Th Cells in Immunity and Autoimmunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:3501-6. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1301454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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239
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Yu H, Zhang J, Fu R, Liu H, Wang H, Ding K, Wang Y, Li L, Wang H, Shao Z. Increased frequency of bone marrow T follicular helper cells in patients with immune-related pancytopenia. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:730450. [PMID: 24069044 PMCID: PMC3771269 DOI: 10.1155/2013/730450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Immune-related pancytopenia (IRP) is one kind of bone marrow failure diseases which is related to autoantibodies. Autoantibodies have been detected on the membrane of various bone marrow (BM) hemopoietic cells by BM mononuclear-cell-Coombs test or flow cytometric analysis. There are autoantibodies in the BM supernatant of IRP patients, which can target several antigens on hematopoietic cells membranes by western blot. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are the true helper cells for Ab responses, which represent one of the most numerous and important subsets of effector T cells. Dysregulation of Tfh cell function or expression of Tfh cell-associated molecules could contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Currently, there are no studies regarding the role of Tfh cells in IRP patients. The percentages of Tfh cells, Tfh-related molecules ICOS, CD40L, IL-21, and Bcl-6 in BM were investigated in 90 patients with IRP, and 25 healthy controls. We observed that there exist increased quantity and hyperfunction of Tfh cells in IRP, and the results were correlated with patient characteristics. It was indicated that dysregulated Tfh cells might be involved in the pathogenesis of IRP and that inhibition of Tfh cells effector molecules might provide opportunities for new therapeutic approaches to IRP and even other human autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yu
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Jiangbo Zhang
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Rong Fu
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Huaquan Wang
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Kai Ding
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Yihao Wang
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Lijuan Li
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Honglei Wang
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Zonghong Shao
- Department of Hematology, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Street, Heping District, Tianjin 300052, China
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240
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Ding Y, Li J, Wu Q, Yang P, Luo B, Xie S, Druey KM, Zajac AJ, Hsu HC, Mountz JD. IL-17RA is essential for optimal localization of follicular Th cells in the germinal center light zone to promote autoantibody-producing B cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:1614-24. [PMID: 23858031 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs) provide a microenvironment that promotes and regulates the interactions of B cells with follicular Th (TFH) cells. In this study, we show that there are significantly higher frequencies of CXCR5(+)ICOS(+) TFH cells in autoimmune BXD2 mice, and these cells express both IL-21R and IL-17RA. Although IL-17 and IL-21 are both important for the formation of spontaneous GCs and development of pathogenic autoantibodies, IL-21, but not IL-17, is required for the proper development of TFH cells in BXD2 mice. The total numbers of TFH cells and their ability to induce B cell responses in vitro were not affected by a deficiency of IL-17RA in BXD2-Il17ra(-/-) mice, the majority of CXCR5(+) TFH cells from BXD2-Il17ra(-/-) mice were, however, not localized in the GC light zone (LZ). Interruption of IL-17 signaling, either acutely by AdIL-17R:Fc or chronically by Il17ra(-/-), disrupted TFH-B interactions and abrogated the generation of autoantibody-forming B cells in BXD2 mice. IL-17 upregulated the expression of regulator of G-protein signaling 16 (RGS16) to promote the ability of TFH to form conjugates with B cells, which was abolished in TFH cells from BXD2-Rgs16(-/-) mice. The results suggests that IL-17 is an extrinsic stop signal that it acts on postdifferentiated IL-17RA(+) TFH to enable its interaction with responder B cells in the LZ niche. These data suggest a novel concept that TFH differentiation and its stabilization in the LZ are two separate checkpoints and that IL-21 and IL-17 act at each checkpoint to enable pathogenic GC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanna Ding
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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241
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Shi S, Seki S, Matano T, Yamamoto H. IL-21-producer CD4+ T cell kinetics during primary simian immunodeficiency virus infection. Microbes Infect 2013; 15:697-707. [PMID: 23791954 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2013.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
IL-21 signaling is important for T cell and B cell-mediated clearance of chronic viral infections. While non-cognate follicular helper CD4+ T cells (TFH) are indicated to be pivotal in providing IL-21-mediated help to activated B cells within germinal centers, how this signaling may be disrupted in early AIDS virus infection is not clear. In this study, we assessed the lineage and kinetics of peripheral blood IL-21-producing CD4+ T cells in primary simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of rhesus macaques. After SIV challenge, antigen-nonspecific IL-21 production was observed in Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells with Th1 dominance. While IL-21+ Th2 and IL-21+ Th17 showed variable kinetics, an increase in total IL-21+ CD4+ T cells and IL-21+ Th1 from week 3 to week 8 was observed, preceding plasma SIV-specific IgG development from week 5 to week 12. SIV Gag-specific IL-21+ CD4+ T cells detectable at week 2 were decreased in frequencies at week 5. Results imply that kinetics of IL-21+ CD4+ T cells comprised of multiple lineages, potentially targeted by SIV with a bias of existing frequencies during their precursor stage, associate with availability of cooperative B-cell help provided through a proportionate precursor pool developing into TFH and subsequent anti-SIV antibody responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoi Shi
- AIDS Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashi-Murayama City, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan; The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
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242
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Bunting KL, Melnick AM. New effector functions and regulatory mechanisms of BCL6 in normal and malignant lymphocytes. Curr Opin Immunol 2013; 25:339-46. [PMID: 23725655 PMCID: PMC4075446 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The BCL6 oncogenic repressor is a master regulator of humoral immunity and B-cell lymphoma survival. Whereas much research has focused on its regulation and function in germinal center B-cells, its role in other mature lymphoid cell compartments is less clear. A novel role for BCL6 in follicular T helper cell development was recently uncovered. The latest discoveries reveal that BCL6 is also an important regulator of other specialized helper T-cell subsets within germinal centers, pre-germinal center events, and peripheral T-cell effector functions. Here, we review newly discovered roles for BCL6 in lymphocyte subsets residing within and outside of germinal centers, and discuss their implications with respect to the molecular mechanisms of BCL6 regulation and potential links to B and T-cell lymphomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Bunting
- Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
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243
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McKinstry KK, Dutton RW, Swain SL, Strutt TM. Memory CD4 T cell-mediated immunity against influenza A virus: more than a little helpful. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2013; 61:341-53. [PMID: 23708562 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-013-0236-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent observations have uncovered multiple pathways whereby CD4 T cells can contribute to protective immune responses against microbial threats. Incorporating the generation of memory CD4 T cells into vaccine strategies thus presents an attractive approach toward improving immunity against several important human pathogens, especially those against which antibody responses alone are inadequate to confer long-term immunity. Here, we review how memory CD4 T cells provide protection against influenza viruses. We discuss the complexities of protective memory CD4 T cell responses observed in animal models and the potential challenges of translating these observations into the clinic. Specifically, we concentrate on how better understanding of organ-specific heterogeneity of responding cells and defining multiple correlates of protection might improve vaccine-generated memory CD4 T cells to better protect against seasonal, and more importantly, pandemic influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kai McKinstry
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA, 01583, USA,
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244
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The good, the bad and the ugly — TFH cells in human health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2013; 13:412-26. [DOI: 10.1038/nri3447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 405] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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245
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Szabo K, Papp G, Barath S, Gyimesi E, Szanto A, Zeher M. Follicular helper T cells may play an important role in the severity of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Immunol 2013; 147:95-104. [PMID: 23578551 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2013.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the possible role of follicular helper T (TFH) cells in the pathogenesis of primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) by analyzing immune-competent cells and serological markers with special emphasis on clinical symptoms. We enrolled 50 pSS patients and 16 healthy individuals in the study. Patients had elevated ratio of peripheral TFH cells, however, when dividing patients into two groups defined by the presence of extraglandular manifestations (EGMs), only patients with EGMs differed from controls significantly. Moreover, TFH cell percentages correlated positively with both activated T cell and Tr1 cell values. On the contrary, TFH cell percentages showed negative correlation with both IgM and IgG memory B cell proportions. Elevated TFH percent\ages were observed in the anti-SSA/SSB positive patients, and also in patients with higher IL-12, IL-21 levels and focus score values. Increased TFH cell proportions seem to have an important role in disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztina Szabo
- Division of Clinical Immunology Institute of Medicine, Medical and Health Science Center University of Debrecen Debrecen Hungary.
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Hale JS, Youngblood B, Latner DR, Mohammed AUR, Ye L, Akondy RS, Wu T, Iyer SS, Ahmed R. Distinct memory CD4+ T cells with commitment to T follicular helper- and T helper 1-cell lineages are generated after acute viral infection. Immunity 2013; 38:805-17. [PMID: 23583644 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T follicular helper (Tfh) cells provide the required signals to B cells for germinal center reactions that are necessary for long-lived antibody responses. However, it remains unclear whether there are CD4(+) memory T cells committed to the Tfh cell lineage after antigen clearance. By using adoptive transfer of antigen-specific memory CD4(+) T cell subpopulations in the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection model, we found that there are distinct memory CD4(+) T cell populations with commitment to either Tfh- or Th1-cell lineages. Our conclusions are based on gene expression profiles, epigenetic studies, and phenotypic and functional analyses. Our findings indicate that CD4(+) memory T cells "remember" their previous effector lineage after antigen clearance, being poised to reacquire their lineage-specific effector functions upon antigen reencounter. These findings have important implications for rational vaccine design, where improving the generation and engagement of memory Tfh cells could be used to enhance vaccine-induced protective immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Hale
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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247
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Vogel KU, Edelmann SL, Jeltsch KM, Bertossi A, Heger K, Heinz GA, Zöller J, Warth SC, Hoefig KP, Lohs C, Neff F, Kremmer E, Schick J, Repsilber D, Geerlof A, Blum H, Wurst W, Heikenwälder M, Schmidt-Supprian M, Heissmeyer V. Roquin paralogs 1 and 2 redundantly repress the Icos and Ox40 costimulator mRNAs and control follicular helper T cell differentiation. Immunity 2013; 38:655-68. [PMID: 23583643 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The Roquin-1 protein binds to messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and regulates gene expression posttranscriptionally. A single point mutation in Roquin-1, but not gene ablation, increases follicular helper T (Tfh) cell numbers and causes lupus-like autoimmune disease in mice. In T cells, we did not identify a unique role for the much lower expressed paralog Roquin-2. However, combined ablation of both genes induced accumulation of T cells with an effector and follicular helper phenotype. We showed that Roquin-1 and Roquin-2 proteins redundantly repressed the mRNA of inducible costimulator (Icos) and identified the Ox40 costimulatory receptor as another shared mRNA target. Combined acute deletion increased Ox40 signaling, as well as Irf4 expression, and imposed Tfh differentiation on CD4(+) T cells. These data imply that both proteins maintain tolerance by preventing inappropriate T cell activation and Tfh cell differentiation, and that Roquin-2 compensates in the absence of Roquin-1, but not in the presence of its mutated form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina U Vogel
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Marchioninistrasse 25, Munich, Germany
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248
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Choi YS, Yang JA, Yusuf I, Johnston RJ, Greenbaum J, Peters B, Crotty S. Bcl6 expressing follicular helper CD4 T cells are fate committed early and have the capacity to form memory. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:4014-26. [PMID: 23487426 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1202963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Follicular helper CD4 T (Tfh) cells are a distinct type of differentiated CD4 T cells uniquely specialized for B cell help. In this study, we examined Tfh cell fate commitment, including distinguishing features of Tfh versus Th1 proliferation and survival. Using cell transfer approaches at early time points after an acute viral infection, we demonstrate that early Tfh cells and Th1 cells are already strongly cell fate committed by day 3. Nevertheless, Tfh cell proliferation was tightly regulated in a TCR-dependent manner. The Tfh cells still depend on extrinsic cell fate cues from B cells in their physiological in vivo environment. Unexpectedly, we found that Tfh cells share a number of phenotypic parallels with memory precursor CD8 T cells, including selective upregulation of IL-7Rα and a collection of coregulated genes. As a consequence, the early Tfh cells can progress to robustly form memory cells. These data support the hypothesis that CD4 and CD8 T cells share core aspects of a memory cell precursor gene expression program involving Bcl6, and a strong relationship exists between Tfh cells and memory CD4 T cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youn Soo Choi
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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249
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Abstract
T-follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a new subset of effector CD4(+) T cells that are specialized in helping B cells in the germinal center reaction. Tfh cells are distinct from other established CD4(+) T-cell lineages, Th1, Th2, Th17, and T-regulatory cells, in their gene expression profiles. Tfh cell differentiation results from a network of transcriptional regulation by a master transcriptional factor Bcl6 as well as IRF4, c-Maf, Batf, and STAT3/5. During Tfh cell ontogeny, increased CXCR5 expression directs activated T-cell migration to the follicles, and their interaction with B cells leads to Bcl6 upregulation, which helps establish effector and memory Tfh cell program. This review summarizes the recent progress in molecular mechanisms underlying Tfh differentiation and discusses the future perspectives for this important area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xindong Liu
- Department of Immunology and Center for Inflammation and Cancer, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77054, USA
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250
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Affiliation(s)
- Roybel R. Ramiscal
- Department of Pathogens and Immunity, John Curtin School of Medical Research; Australian National University; Canberra; ACT; Australia
| | - Carola G. Vinuesa
- Department of Pathogens and Immunity, John Curtin School of Medical Research; Australian National University; Canberra; ACT; Australia
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