Stimuli-responsive copolymer solution and surface assemblies for biomedical applications

pH-responsive micelles based on (PCL)2(PDEA-b-PPEGMA)2 miktoarm polymer: controlled synthesis, characterization, and application as anticancer drug carrier

Amphiphilic A2(BC)2 miktoarm star polymers [poly(ϵ-caprolactone)]2-[poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-b- poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)]2 [(PCL)2(PDEA-b-PPEGMA)2] were developed by a combination of ring opening polymerization (ROP) and continuous activators regenerated by electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization (ARGET ATRP). The critical micelle concentration (CMC) values were extremely low (0.0024 to 0.0043 mg/mL), depending on the architecture of the polymers. The self-assembled empty and doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded micelles were spherical in morphologies, and the average sizes were about 63 and 110 nm. The release of DOX at pH 5.0 was much faster than that at pH 6.5 and pH 7.4. Moreover, DOX-loaded micelles could effectively inhibit the growth of cancer cells HepG2 with IC50 of 2.0 μg/mL. Intracellular uptake demonstrated that DOX was delivered into the cells effectively after the cells were incubated with DOX-loaded micelles. Therefore, the pH-sensitive (PCL)2(PDEA-b-PPEGMA)2 micelles could be a prospective candidate as anticancer drug carrier for hydrophobic drugs with sustained release behavior.

Size evolution of highly amphiphilic macromolecular solution assemblies via a distinct bimodal pathway

The solution self-assembly of macromolecular amphiphiles offers an efficient, bottom-up strategy for producing well-defined nanocarriers, with applications ranging from drug delivery to nanoreactors. Typically, the generation of uniform nanocarrier architectures is controlled by processing methods that rely on cosolvent mixtures. These preparation strategies hinge on the assumption that macromolecular solution nanostructures are kinetically stable following transfer from an organic/aqueous cosolvent into aqueous solution. Herein we demonstrate that unequivocal step-change shifts in micelle populations occur over several weeks following transfer into a highly selective solvent. The unexpected micelle growth evolves through a distinct bimodal distribution separated by multiple fusion events and critically depends on solution agitation. Notably, these results underscore fundamental similarities between assembly processes in amphiphilic polymer, small molecule and protein systems. Moreover, the non-equilibrium micelle size increase can have a major impact on the assumed stability of solution assemblies, for which performance is dictated by nanocarrier size and structure.

Responsive linear-dendritic block copolymers

The combination of dendritic and linear polymeric structures in the same macromolecule opens up new possibilities for the design of block copolymers and for applications of functional polymers that have self-assembly properties. There are three main strategies for the synthesis of linear-dendritic block copolymers (LDBCs) and, in particular, the emergence of click chemistry has made the coupling of preformed blocks one of the most efficient ways of obtaining libraries of LDBCs. In these materials, the periphery of the dendron can be precisely functionalised to obtain functional LDBCs with self-assembly properties of interest in different technological areas. The incorporation of stimuli-responsive moieties gives rise to smart materials that are generally processed as self-assemblies of amphiphilic LDBCs with a morphology that can be controlled by an external stimulus. Particular emphasis is placed on light-responsive LDBCs. Furthermore, a brief review of the biomedical or materials science applications of LDBCs is presented.

Schizophrenic core-shell microgels: thermoregulated core and shell swelling/collapse by combining UCST and LCST phase transitions

A variety of slightly cross-linked poly(2-vinylpyridine)-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (P2VP-PNIPAM) core-shell microgels with pH- and temperature-responsive characteristic were prepared via seeded emulsion polymerization. Negatively charged sodium 2,6-naphthalenedisulfonate (2,6-NDS) could be internalized into the inner core, followed by formation of (P2VPH(+)/SO3(2-)) supramolecular complex through the electrostatic attractive interaction in acid condition. The thermoresponsive characteristic feature of the (P2VPH(+)/SO3(2-))-PNIPAM core-shell microgels was investigated by laser light scattering and UV-vis measurement, revealing an integration of upper critical solution temperature (UCST) and lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behaviors in the temperature range of 20-55 °C. The UCST performance arised from the compromised electrostatic attractive interaction between P2VPH(+) and 2,6-NDS at elevated temperatures, while the subsequent LCST transition is correlated to the thermo-induced collapse of PNIPAM shells. The controlled release of 2,6-NDS was monitored by static fluorescence spectra as a function of temperature change. Moreover, stopped-flow equipped with a temperature-jump accessory was then employed to assess the dynamic process, suggesting a millisecond characteristic relaxation time of the 2,6-NDS diffusion process. Interestingly, the characteristic relaxation time is independent of the shell cross-link density, whereas it was significantly affected by shell thickness. We believe that these dual thermoresponsive core-shell microgels with thermotunable volume phase transition may augur promising applications in the fields of polymer science and materials, particularly for temperature-triggered release.

New strategy for controlled release of drugs. Potential pinpoint targeting with multiresponsive tetraaniline diblock polymer vesicles: site-directed burst release with voltage

A series of amphiphlic diblock polymers, tetraaniline block with different length of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (TA-b-PNIPAM), have been successfully synthesized. In a suitable solution, the as-synthesized diblock polymers can form stable large compound vesicles (LCVs) with multiple bimolecular-layer structure through self-assembly. These factors, such as the block length, different organic solvent, solvent ratio, pH value, temperature, and voltage, which affect the morphology and properties of the assembled aggregates, are systematically investigated. When the degree of polymerization of PNIPAM block is close to 10, the as-synthesized diblock polymer may form stable LCVs with the uniform size as well as few defects in the mixed solvent of dimethylformamide/water (v/v = 3:7). The assembled LCVs possess the properties of triple-responsive capacity on temperature, pH, and voltage. Variation in any of these factors can cause some changes in the morphology of LCVs. The drug release properties for doxorubicin (DOX) loaded by LCVs affected by temperature, voltage, and different pH values have been investigated. It is interesting that the structure of LCVs can be destructed completely by applying a voltage at 0.6 V. With such an advantage, the drugs loaded by the LCVs could burst release into designated place by using appropriate circuit design or instrument, thus achieving maximum efficacy of the loaded drugs or other bioactive molecules without any unnecessary chemical substances added. This approach allows us to concentrate more on material design aspects only, without regard to the complex targeting issue which is the biggest obstacle of such materials in practical applications.

Dynamics of soft nanomaterials captured by transmission electron microscopy in liquid water

In this paper we present in situ transmission electron microscopy of synthetic polymeric nanoparticles with emphasis on capturing motion in a solvated, aqueous state. The nanoparticles studied were obtained from the direct polymerization of a Pt(II)-containing monomer. The resulting structures provided sufficient contrast for facile imaging in situ. We contend that this technique will quickly become essential in the characterization of analogous systems, especially where dynamics are of interest in the solvated state. We describe the preparation of the synthetic micellar nanoparticles together with their characterization and motion in liquid water with comparison to conventional electron microscopy analyses.

Chemical force microscopy of stimuli-responsive adhesive copolymers

Atomic force microscopy with chemically sensitive tips was used to investigate the hydrophobic and electrostatic interaction forces of a stimuli-responsive adhesive polymer, and their dynamic changes in response to water immersion and salt concentration. Block copolymer-filled coatings were obtained by incorporating an amphiphilic block copolymer containing a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) block and a poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) block in a PDMS matrix. Topographic images of fresh samples revealed the presence of nanoscale domains associated with the presence of copolymers, covered by a thin layer of PDMS. Prolonged (30 days) immersion in aqueous solution led to the exposure of the hydrophilic PDMAEMA chains on the surface. Using adhesion force mapping with hydrophobic tips, we showed that fresh samples were uniformly hydrophobic, while aged samples exhibited lower surface hydrophobicity and featured nanoscale hydrophilic copolymer domains. Force mapping with negatively charged tips revealed remarkable salt-dependent force plateau signatures reflecting desorption of polyelectrolyte copolymer chains. These nanoscale experiments show how solvent-induced conformational changes of stimuli-responsive copolymers can be used to modulate surface adhesion.

Nitroxide-mediated surfactant-free emulsion copolymerization of methyl methacrylate and styrene using poly(2-(diethyl)aminoethyl methacrylate-co-styrene) as a stimuli-responsive macroalkoxyamine

The SG1-mediated copolymerization of 2-(diethyl)aminoethyl methacrylate (DEAEMA) and a small percentage of styrene (S) was performed.

Photodegradable poly(ester amide)s for indirect light-triggered release of paclitaxel

A photodegradable poly(ester amide) was developed. An amphiphilic graft copolymer derivative with paclitaxel conjugated via ester linkages formed micelles that released paclitaxel in response to UV light.

Dual effect of thiol addition on fluorescent polymeric micelles: ON-to-OFF emissive switch and morphology transition

Reaction with a thiol causes solution-state self-assembled block copolymer nanoparticles to undergo a simultaneous morphology transition from micelles to vesicles coupled to an ON-to-OFF switch in particle fluorescence.

An NIR-responsive and sugar-targeted polypeptide composite nanomedicine for intracellular cancer therapy

The UCNP-loaded polypeptide composite nanoparticles that present fast NIR-sensitivity and tunable sugar-targeting properties are fabricated, opening a new avenue for on-demand and targeted cancer therapy.

Novel poly(ethylene oxide monomethyl ether)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) diblock copolymers containing a pH-acid labile ketal group as a block linkage

Acidic physiological conditions trigger degradation of amphiphilic block copolymers containing a ketal group as a block linkage into biocompatible degradation products.

Structural characterization of amphiphilic homopolymer micelles using light scattering, SANS, and cryo-TEM

We report the aqueous solution self-assembly of a series of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) polymers end-functionalized with a hydrophobic sulfur-carbon-sulfur (SCS) pincer ligand. Although the hydrophobic ligand accounted for <5 wt% of the overall homopolymer mass, the polymers self-assembled into well-defined spherical micelles in aqueous solution, and these micelles are potential precursors to solution-assembled nanoreactors for small molecule catalysis applications. The micelle structural details were investigated using light scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), and small angle neutron scattering (SANS). Radial density profiles extracted from the cryo-TEM micrographs suggested that the PNIPAM chains formed a diffuse corona with a radially decreasing corona density profile and provided valuable a priori information about the micelle structure for SANS data modeling. SANS analysis indicated a similar profile in which the corona surrounded a small hydrophobic core containing the pincer ligand. The similarity between the SANS and cryo-TEM results demonstrated that detailed information about the micelle density profile can be obtained directly from cryo-TEM and highlighted the complementary use of scattering and cryo-TEM in the structural characterization of solution-assemblies, such as the SCS pincer-functionalized homopolymers described here.