Pain and its effects in the human neonate and fetus

Effect of Sucrose Analgesia, for Repeated Painful Procedures, on Short-term Neurobehavioral Outcome of Preterm Neonates: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Safety of oral sucrose, commonly used procedural analgesic in neonates, is questioned.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of sucrose analgesia, for repeated painful procedures, on short-term neurobehavioral outcome of preterm neonates.

METHODS

Stable preterm neonates were randomized to receive either sucrose or distilled water orally, for every potentially painful procedure during the first 7 days after enrollment. Neurodevelopmental status at 40 weeks postconceptional age (PCA) measured using the domains of Neurobehavioral Assessment of Preterm Infants scale.

RESULTS

A total of 93 newborns were analyzed. The baseline characteristics of the groups were comparable. No statistically significant difference was observed in the assessment at 40 weeks PCA, among the groups. Use of sucrose analgesia, for repeated painful procedures on newborns, does not lead to any significant difference in the short-term neurobehavioral outcome.

The effect of medical clowning on reducing pain, crying, and anxiety in children aged 2-10 years old undergoing venous blood drawing--a randomized controlled study

Recently, the utilization of medical clowns to reduce anxiety, stress, and even pain associated with hospitalization has become popular. However, the scientific basis of this benefit and outcome is scant. Venipuncture and IV cannulation are very common sources of pain in ill children. To reduce pain, one common approach is to apply a local anesthetic prior to the procedure. In the current study, we sought to compare the utilization of medical clowning in this process with two control groups: (1) local anesthetic cream (EMLA®, Astrazeneca, London, UK) applied prior to the procedure (active control) and (2) the procedure performed with neither clown nor EMLA (control group). We hypothesized that a medical clown will reduce pain, crying, and anxiety in children undergoing this procedure.Children aged 2-10 years who required either venous blood sampling or intravenous cannulation were recruited and randomly assigned to one of the three groups. Outcome measures consisted of the duration of the whole procedure (measured objectively by an independent observer), the duration of crying (measured objectively by an independent observer), subjective assessment of pain level (a commonly used validated scale), and anxiety level regarding future blood exams (by questionnaire). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare between the groups. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.One hundred children participated. Mean age was 5.3 ± 2.5 years (range 2-10 years). The duration of crying was significantly lower with clown than in the control group (1.3 ± 2.0 vs 3.8 ± 5.4 min, p = 0.01). With EMLA, this duration was 2.4 ± 2.9 min. The pain magnitude as assessed by the child was significantly lower with EMLA than in the control group (2.9 ± 3.3 vs 5.3 ± 3.8, p = 0.04), while with clown it was 4.1 ± 3.5, not significant when compared with the other two modalities. Hence, duration of crying was shortest with clown while pain assessment was lowest with EMLA. Furthermore, with clown duration of cry was significantly shorter than in controls, but pain perception did not significantly differ between these groups. As expected, the duration of the entire process was shortest in the control group (5.0 ± 3.8 min), moderate with clown (19.3 ± 5.8 min), and longest with EMLA (63.2 ± 11.4 min, p < 0.0001 between all). Parental reporting of a beneficial effect was greater with clown than with EMLA (3.6 ± 0.8 vs 3.0 ± 1.1, p = 0.02). Parental assessment of child's anxiety related to future blood tests as evaluated by telephone the following day revealed that it was significantly lower with clown than in the control group or EMLA (2.6 ± 1.2 vs 3.7 ± 1.3 or 3.8 ± 1.6, p < 0.01 for both).

CONCLUSIONS

Distraction by a medical clown is helpful in children undergoing blood tests or line insertion. Although pain reduction was better with EMLA, both duration of cry and anxiety were lower with a medical clown. These results strongly encourage and support the utilization of medical clowns while drawing blood in children.

The Future of Neonatal Advanced Practice Registered Nurse Practice: White Paper

In recent years, the National Association of Neonatal Nurses and the National Association of Neonatal Nurse Practitioners have been monitoring aspects of neonatal advanced practice nursing and providing leadership and advocacy to address concerns related to workforce, education, competency, fatigue, safety, and scope of practice. This white paper discusses current barriers within neonatal advanced practice registered nurse practice as well as strategies to promote the longevity of the neonatal advanced practice registered nurse roles.

Non-pharmacological management of infant and young child procedural pain

BACKGROUND

Infant acute pain and distress is commonplace. Infancy is a period of exponential development. Unrelieved pain and distress can have implications across the lifespan.  This is an update of a previously published review in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 10 2011 entitled 'Non-pharmacological management of infant and young child procedural pain'.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions for infant and child (up to three years) acute pain, excluding kangaroo care, and music. Analyses were run separately for infant age (preterm, neonate, older) and pain response (pain reactivity, immediate pain regulation). 

SEARCH METHODS

For this update, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library (Issue 2 of 12, 2015), MEDLINE-Ovid platform (March 2015), EMBASE-OVID platform (April 2011 to March 2015), PsycINFO-OVID platform (April 2011 to February 2015), and CINAHL-EBSCO platform (April 2011 to March 2015). We also searched reference lists and contacted researchers via electronic list-serves. New studies were incorporated into the review. We refined search strategies with a Cochrane-affiliated librarian. For this update, nine articles from the original 2011 review pertaining to Kangaroo Care were excluded, but 21 additional studies were added.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Participants included infants from birth to three years. Only randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or RCT cross-overs that had a no-treatment control comparison were eligible for inclusion in the analyses. However, when the additive effects of a non-pharmacological intervention could be assessed, these studies were also included. We examined studies that met all inclusion criteria except for study design (e.g. had an active control) to qualitatively contextualize results. There were 63 included articles in the current update.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Study quality ratings and risk of bias were based on the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and GRADE approach. We analysed the standardized mean difference (SMD) using the generic inverse variance method.

MAIN RESULTS

Sixty-three studies, with 4905 participants, were analysed. The most commonly studied acute procedures were heel-sticks (32 studies) and needles (17 studies). The largest SMD for treatment improvement over control conditions on pain reactivity were: non-nutritive sucking-related interventions (neonate: SMD -1.20, 95% CI -2.01 to -0.38) and swaddling/facilitated tucking (preterm: SMD -0.89; 95% CI -1.37 to -0.40). For immediate pain regulation, the largest SMDs were: non-nutritive sucking-related interventions (preterm: SMD -0.43; 95% CI -0.63 to -0.23; neonate: SMD -0.90; 95% CI -1.54 to -0.25; older infant: SMD -1.34; 95% CI -2.14 to -0.54), swaddling/facilitated tucking (preterm: SMD -0.71; 95% CI -1.00 to -0.43), and rocking/holding (neonate: SMD -0.75; 95% CI -1.20 to -0.30). Fifty two of our 63 trials did not report adverse events. The presence of significant heterogeneity limited our confidence in the findings for certain analyses, as did the preponderance of very low quality evidence.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is evidence that different non-pharmacological interventions can be used with preterms, neonates, and older infants to significantly manage pain behaviors associated with acutely painful procedures. The most established evidence was for non-nutritive sucking, swaddling/facilitated tucking, and rocking/holding. All analyses reflected that more research is needed to bolster our confidence in the direction of the findings. There are significant gaps in the existing literature on non-pharmacological management of acute pain in infancy.

Neonatal preintubation sedation: a national survey in Malaysia

Background

There is a shift of practice towards administering sedation in neonates around the world. At the present moment, there is no available data or literature on the practice of sedation before intubation of neonates in Malaysia thus, evaluation of these practice was not possible. This study was conducted to evaluate neonatal preintubation sedation practice and the availability of neonatal preintubation sedation policy in government, university and private Malaysian Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) in 2007.

Methods

All 43 NICUs in Malaysia were identified and approached to participate in the study. Phone interviews with doctors’ in-charge of NICUs were conducted in 29 governments, 3 universities and in 7 private NICUs.

Results

Only 7 NICUs had written policy on neonatal preintubation sedation use. Seventy-seven percent and 97.4 % of NICUs used sedation during emergency intubation and during planned intubation respectively. Sixty seven percent used either morphine or midazolam with no preference of either drug.

Conclusion

This study showed a significant proportion of NICUs used sedation during emergency or planned intubation. However, the majority does not write policy on neonatal preintubation sedation use (82.1 %). The types and drug administration methods are not standardized in all of the NICUs. This will require a standard national written policy to be developed.

Pharmacoepidemiology of opiate use in the neonatal ICU: Increasing cumulative doses and iatrogenic opiate withdrawal

OBJECTIVE

Neonatal intensive care unit (ICU) care involves use of opiates to treat postoperative, ventilated, or chronically ill infants. Opiates provide necessary analgesia and sedation, but the morbidities include prolonged neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) and extended length of stay for dose tapering. Our objective was to quantify trends in opiate exposure in a tertiary care NICU. The authors hypothesize that medical opiate exposure and resultant ICU-acquired NAS would increase over time.

DESIGN

Retrospective cross-sectional cohort study.

SETTING

Tertiary care NICU.

PATIENTS

High-risk inborn infants admitted in fiscal years 2003-2004, 2007-2008, and 2010-2011.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Average cumulative morphine exposure (all opiate doses converted to morphine equivalents) per time epoch was compared in cohorts of clinically similar infants. Linear regression was used to assess the primary outcome, assessing changes in opiate exposure over time.

RESULTS

Sixty-three infants were included in the final analysis. The primary analysis assessing cumulative opiate exposure per infant showed an increase of 134 mg per time epoch (95% CI-12, 279 mg, p-value 0.071). There was a statistically significant increase in the percent of infants with a diagnosis of iatrogenic NAS, increasing from 9 to 35 to 50 percent (p-value 0.012).

Neurodevelopmental Implications of Neonatal Pain and Morphine Exposure

Neonatal pain management has evolved dramatically in the past few decades. Evidence is clear that neonates experience pain. Furthermore, we are increasingly aware of the detrimental effects of untreated neonatal pain during a critical period of neuronal maturation. Providing safe and effective pain relief is a primary goal of neonatal critical care specialists to ensure good outcomes. However, there are lingering concerns regarding the harmful effects of sedative-analgesics on the developing brain. Thus, striking a fine balance between effective analgesia and avoiding serious short- and long-term adverse effects from pain medications remains a major challenge for caregivers.

Local anesthetic wound infusion versus standard analgesia in paediatric post-operative pain control

INTRODUCTION

Local anesthetic wound infusion has shown promising results in adults. Its use in children is limited to some centers and there are only a few prospective trials in this group of patients.

METHODS

Sub-fascial continuous local anaesthetic wound infusion (CLAWI) (0.2% Bupivacaine) plus intravenous paracetamol and rescue intravenous morphine was compared to: (a) Epidural bupivacaine (EPI) plus paracetamol and rescue intravenous morphine for patients undergoing laparotomy. (b) Intravenous morphine and paracetamol (standard post-operative analgesia-SAPA) in children undergoing Lanz incision laparotomy for complicated appendicitis. 'InfiltralLong', PANJUNK(®) catheters were placed sub-fascially after peritoneal closure for post-operative bupivacaine infusion. Pain scores were recorded regularly by the same blinded pain specialist. The primary outcomes were pain control and total morphine. The secondary outcomes were time to full feeds, mobilization requirement for urinary catheter and complications.

RESULTS

Sixty patients (18 laparotomy-CLAWI, 17 laparotomy-EPI and 12 appendectomy-CLAWI, and 13 appendectomy-SAPA) were analyzed. The average pain score was 2.5 (1-4) in the CLAWI groups, 3.0 (1-5) in the EPI group and 3.5 (2-5) in the SAPA group. Morphine requirements were markedly less for CLAWI. SAPA and EPI groups required urinary catheters for longer and took longer to mobilize (average 4 days compared to 2 days for CLAWI). There were no wound or bupivacaine complications in the CLAWI group.

CONCLUSION

Continuous subfascial bupivacaine infusion is reliable, safe and effective in paediatric post-operative pain control with considerably reduced opiate requirements.

Long-term behavioral effects in a rat model of prolonged postnatal morphine exposure

Prolonged morphine treatment in neonatal pediatric populations is associated with a high incidence of opioid tolerance and dependence. Despite the clinical relevance of this problem, our knowledge of long-term consequences is sparse. The main objective of this study was to investigate whether prolonged morphine administration in a neonatal rat is associated with long-term behavioral changes in adulthood. Newborn animals received either morphine (10 mg/kg) or equal volume of saline subcutaneously twice daily for the first 2 weeks of life. Morphine-treated animals underwent 10 days of morphine weaning to reduce the potential for observable physical signs of withdrawal. Animals were subjected to nonstressful testing (locomotor activity recording and a novel-object recognition test) at a young age (Postnatal Days [PDs] 27-31) or later in adulthood (PDs 55-56), as well as stressful testing (calibrated forceps test, hot plate test, and forced swim test) only in adulthood. Analysis revealed that prolonged neonatal morphine exposure resulted in decreased thermal but not mechanical threshold. Importantly, no differences were found for total locomotor activity (proxy of drug reward/reinforcement behavior), individual forced swim test behaviors (proxy of affective processing), or novel-object recognition test. Performance on the novel-object recognition test was compromised in the morphine-treated group at the young age, but the effect disappeared in adulthood. These novel results provide insight into the long-term consequences of opioid treatment during an early developmental period and suggest long-term neuroplastic differences in sensory processing related to thermal stimuli.

Parental circumcision preferences and early outcome of plastibell circumcision in a Nigerian tertiary hospital

BACKGROUND

Parents are central in decisions and choices concerning circumcision of their male children and plastibell circumcision is a widely practiced technique. This study determined parental preferences for male neonatal and infant circumcisions and evaluate the early outcomes of plastibell circumcisions in a tertiary centre.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This is a prospective study on consecutive male neonates and infants who were brought for circumcisions at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital Nnewi, South-East Nigeria and their respective parents between January 2012 and December 2012. Data on demography, parental choices and early outcome of plastibell circumcision were obtained and analysed.

RESULTS

A total of 337 requests for circumcisions were made for boys with age range of 2-140 days. Culture and religion were the most common reasons for circumcision requests in 200 (59.3%) and 122 (36.2%), respectively, other reasons were medical, cosmesis, to reduce promiscuity and just to follow the norm. Most parents, 249 (73.9%) preferred the procedure to be performed on the 8 th day and 88.7% would like the doctors to perform the procedure while 84.6% preferred the plastibell method. Among those who had circumcision, 114 complied with follow-up schedules and there were complications in 22 (19.3%) patients. Parents assessed the early outcome as excellent, very good, good and poor in 30.7%, 45.6%, 18.4% and 5.3% of the patients, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Parents request for male circumcision in our environment is largely for cultural and religious reasons; and prefer the procedure to be performed by a physician. Plastibell method is well known and preferred and its outcome is acceptable by most parents.

Pain-associated stressor exposure and neuroendocrine values for premature infants in neonatal intensive care

Recurrent stress during neonatal intensive care taxes the adaptive capacity of the premature infant and may be a risk factor for suboptimal developmental outcomes. This research used a descriptive, cross-sectional design and a life course perspective to examine the relationship between resting adrenocorticoid values at 37 postmenstrual weeks of age and cumulative pain-associated stressor exposure in prematurely born infants. Subjects were 59 infants born at under 35 completed weeks of gestation, who were at least 2 weeks of age, and who had been cared for in the NICU since birth. No significant relationships were identified between cortisol values and any of the study variables (number of skin breaking procedures, hours of assisted ventilation, gestational age at birth, exposure to antenatal steroids, history of severe academia, birthweight, days of age to attain birthweight, weight at testing, days of age at testing, recent pain-associated procedures, and 17-OHP value). A significant negative correlation (Spearman rank, one-tailed) between the number of skin-breaking procedures and 17-OHP values was identified (r = -.232, p = .039). Recurrent pain-associated stressor exposure may be a more important factor in explaining the variance of 17-OHP values at 37 postmenstrual weeks of age than birthweight, gestational age, or chronological age.

Influence of prone positioning on premature newborn infant stress assessed by means of salivary cortisol measurement: pilot study

Objective

This study sought to assess the influence of prone positioning on the stress of newborn premature infants through the measurement of the salivary cortisol concentration and the evaluation of physiological and behavioral responses before and after changes in body positioning.

Methods

Saliva samples were collected from newborn infants at two different times: the first (corresponding to the baseline) after a period of 40 minutes during which the infants were not subjected to any manipulation and were placed in the lateral or supine position, and the second 30 minutes after placement in the prone position. Variables including heart rate, respiratory rate, peripheral oxygen saturation, and the Brazelton sleep score were recorded before, during, and at the end of the period in the prone position.

Results

The sample comprised 16 newborn premature infants (56.3% male) with a gestational age between 26 and 36 weeks, postnatal age between 1 and 33 days, birth weight of 935 to 3,050g, and weight at the time of intervention of 870 to 2,890g. During the intervention, six participants breathed room air, while the remainder received oxygen therapy. The median salivary cortisol concentration was lower in the prone position compared to baseline (0.13 versus 0.20; p=0.003), as was the median Brazelton sleep score (p=0.02). The average respiratory rate was lower after the intervention (54.88±7.15 versus 60±7.59; p=0.0004). The remainder of the investigated variables did not exhibit significant variation.

Conclusion

Prone positioning significantly reduced the salivary cortisol level, respiratory rate, and Brazelton sleep score, suggesting a correlation between prone positioning and reduction of stress in preterm infants.

The long-term impact of early life pain on adult responses to anxiety and stress: Historical perspectives and empirical evidence

Approximately 1 in 6 infants are born prematurely each year. Typically, these infants spend 25 days in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) where they experience 10-18 painful and inflammatory procedures each day. Remarkably, pre-emptive analgesics and/or anesthesia are administered less than 25% of the time. Unalleviated pain during the perinatal period is associated with permanent decreases in pain sensitivity, blunted cortisol responses and high rates of neuropsychiatric disorders. To date, the mechanism(s) by which these long-term changes in stress and pain behavior occur, and whether such alterations can be prevented by appropriate analgesia at the time of insult, remains unclear. Work in our lab using a rodent model of early life pain suggests that inflammatory pain experienced on the day of birth blunts adult responses to stress- and pain-provoking stimuli, and dysregulates the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in part through a permanent upregulation in central endogenous opioid tone. This review focuses on the long-term impact of neonatal inflammatory pain on adult anxiety- and stress-related responses, and underlying neuroanatomical changes in the context of endogenous pain control and the HPA axis. These two systems are in a state of exaggerated developmental plasticity early in postnatal life, and work in concert to respond to noxious or aversive stimuli. We present empirical evidence from animal and clinical studies, and discuss historical perspectives underlying the lack of analgesia/anesthetic use for early life pain in the modern NICU.

Ritual circumcision and risk of autism spectrum disorder in 0- to 9-year-old boys: national cohort study in Denmark

OBJECTIVE

Based on converging observations in animal, clinical and ecological studies, we hypothesised a possible impact of ritual circumcision on the subsequent risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in young boys.

DESIGN

National, register-based cohort study.

SETTING

Denmark.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 342,877 boys born between 1994 and 2003 and followed in the age span 0-9 years between 1994 and 2013.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Information about cohort members' ritual circumcisions, confounders and ASD outcomes, as well as two supplementary outcomes, hyperkinetic disorder and asthma, was obtained from national registers. Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) associated with foreskin status were obtained using Cox proportional hazards regression analyses.

RESULTS

With a total of 4986 ASD cases, our study showed that regardless of cultural background circumcised boys were more likely than intact boys to develop ASD before age 10 years (HR = 1.46; 95% CI: 1.11-1.93). Risk was particularly high for infantile autism before age five years (HR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.36-3.13). Circumcised boys in non-Muslim families were also more likely to develop hyperkinetic disorder (HR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.11-2.96). Associations with asthma were consistently inconspicuous (HR = 0.96; 95% CI: 0.84-1.10).

CONCLUSIONS

We confirmed our hypothesis that boys who undergo ritual circumcision may run a greater risk of developing ASD. This finding, and the unexpected observation of an increased risk of hyperactivity disorder among circumcised boys in non-Muslim families, need attention, particularly because data limitations most likely rendered our HR estimates conservative. Considering the widespread practice of non-therapeutic circumcision in infancy and childhood around the world, confirmatory studies should be given priority.

Paracetamol (acetaminophen) for prevention or treatment of pain in newborns

BACKGROUND

Newborn infants have the ability to experience pain. Newborns treated in neonatal intensive care units are exposed to numerous painful procedures. Healthy newborns are exposed to pain if the birth process consists of assisted vaginal birth by vacuum extraction or by forceps and during blood sampling for newborn screening tests.

OBJECTIVES

Primary objectiveTo determine the efficacy and safety of paracetamol for the prevention or treatment of procedural/postoperative pain or pain associated with clinical conditions in neonates. Secondary objectiveTo review the effects of various doses and routes of administration (enteral, intravenous or rectal) of paracetamol for the prevention or treatment of pain in neonates. We designed the main comparisons according to intention of use, that is, paracetamol for prevention or treatment of pain. We included separate comparisons based on the painful intervention/procedure/condition (heel lance, insertion of nasogastric tube, insertion of intravenous catheter, lumbar puncture, assisted vaginal birth, postoperative pain, birth trauma, congenital anomalies such as myelomeningocoele and open cutaneous lesions) and the mode of administration of paracetamol. Within these comparisons, we planned to assess in subgroups (when possible) effects based on postmenstrual age (PMA) at the birth of randomly assigned infants (< 28 weeks, 28 weeks to 31 + 6 weeks, 32 weeks to 36 + 6 weeks and ≥ 37 weeks) or based on birth weight (or current weight) categories (≤ 1000 grams, 1001 to 1500 grams, 1501 to 2500 grams and ≥ 2501 grams)

SEARCH METHODS

We used the standard search strategy of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group including electronic searches of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (October 2014), MEDLINE (1966 to October 2014), EMBASE (1980 to October 2014) and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (1982 to October 2014). We applied no language restrictions.We conducted electronic searches of abstracts from meetings of the Pediatric Academic Societies (2000 to 2014) and the Perinatal Society of Australia and New Zealand (2010 to 2014).We searched clinical trial registries for ongoing trials and the Web of Science for articles quoting identified randomised controlled trials. We searched the first 200 hits on Google Scholar(TM) to identify grey literature.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials of paracetamol for the prevention or treatment of pain in neonates (≤ 30 days of age).

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data from the full-text articles using a specifically designed form. We used this form to decide trial inclusion/exclusion, to extract data from eligible trials and to request additional published information from authors of the original reports. We entered and cross-checked data using RevMan 5.3.3 software. When noted, we resolved differences by mutual discussion and consensus.

MAIN RESULTS

We included eight trials with low risk of bias, which assessed paracetamol use for the treatment of pain in 614 infants. Painful interventions studied included heel lance, assisted vaginal birth, eye examination for ascertainment of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and postoperative care following major surgery. Results of individual studies could not be combined in meta-analyses as the painful conditions, the use of paracetamol and comparison interventions and the outcome measures differed. Paracetamol compared with water, cherry elixir or EMLA cream did not significantly reduce pain following heel lance. The Premature Infant Pain Profile score (PIPP) within three minutes following lancing was higher in the paracetamol group than in the oral glucose group (mean difference (MD) 2.21, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.72 to 3.70; one study, 38 infants). Paracetamol did not reduce "modified facies scores" after assisted vaginal birth (one study, 119 infants). In another study (n = 123), the Échelle de Douleur et d'Inconfort du Nouveau-Né score at two hours of age was significantly higher in the group that received paracetamol suppositories than in the placebo suppositories group (MD 1.00, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.40). In that study, when infants were subjected to a heel lance at two to three days of age, Bernese Pain Scale for Neonates scores were higher in the paracetamol group than in the placebo group, and infants spent a longer time crying (MD 19 seconds, 95% CI 14 to 24). For eye examinations, no significant reduction in PIPP scores in the first or last 45 seconds of eye examination was reported, nor at five minutes after the eye examination. In one study (n = 81), the PIPP score was significantly higher in the paracetamol group than in the 24% sucrose group (MD 3.90, 95% CI 2.92 to 4.88). For postoperative care following major thoracic or abdominal surgery, the total amount of morphine (µg/kg) administered over 48 hours was significantly less among infants randomly assigned to the paracetamol group than in those randomly assigned to the morphine group (MD -157 µg/kg, 95% CI -27 to -288). No adverse events were noted in any study.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Paracetamol does not significantly reduce pain associated with heel lance or eye examinations. Paracetamol given after assisted vaginal birth may increase the response to later painful exposures. Paracetamol should not be used for painful procedures given its lack of efficacy and its potential for adverse effects. Paracetamol may reduce the total need for morphine following major surgery, and for this aspect of paracetamol use, further research is needed.

Rescue morphine in mechanically ventilated newborns associated with combined OPRM1 and COMT genotype

AIM

Determine whether SNPs of OPRM1 118A>G (asn(40)asp), COMT 472G>A (val(158)met) and ARRB2 8622C>T are associated with morphine rescue in newborns on mechanical ventilation.

MATERIALS & METHODS

This is a pharmacogenetic analysis of a randomized controlled trial in (pre)term newborns (n = 64) at a level III Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) who received placebo infusion and for whom need and dose for rescue morphine was documented.

RESULTS

For OPRM1 and COMT separately, the expected risk for rescue morphine or morphine dose was not significantly increased. However, the combined OPRM1/COMT 'high-risk' genotype lead to a significant association with the need for rescue (OR: 5.12; 95% CI: 1.12-23.3; p = 0.035). No association was found between OPRM1/COMT 'high-risk' genotype and total morphine dose administered.

CONCLUSION

Combined OPRM1 118A>G and COMT 472G>A genotype might serve as a predictor for the need of rescue morphine in premature and term newborns on mechanical ventilation.

[Sedation and analgesia practices among Spanish neonatal intensive care units]

INTRODUCTION

Pain management and sedation is a priority in neonatal intensive care units. A study was designed with the aim of determining current clinical practice as regards sedation and analgesia in neonatal intensive care units in Spain, as well as to identify factors associated with the use of sedative and analgesic drugs.

METHOD

A multicenter, observational, longitudinal and prospective study.

RESULTS

Thirty neonatal units participated and included 468 neonates. Of these, 198 (42,3%) received sedatives or analgesics. A total of 19 different drugs were used during the study period, and the most used was fentanyl. Only fentanyl, midazolam, morphine and paracetamol were used in at least 20% of the neonates who received sedatives and/or analgesics. In infusions, 14 different drug prescriptions were used, with the most frequent being fentanyl and the combination of fentanyl and midazolam. The variables associated with receiving sedation and/or analgesia were, to have required invasive ventilation (P<.001; OR=23.79), a CRIB score >3 (P=.023; OR=2.26), the existence of pain evaluation guides in the unit (P<.001; OR=3.82), and a pain leader (P=.034; OR=2.35).

CONCLUSIONS

Almost half of the neonates admitted to intensive care units receive sedatives or analgesics. There is significant variation between Spanish neonatal units as regards sedation and analgesia prescribing. Our results provide evidence on the "state of the art", and could serve as the basis of preparing clinical practice guidelines at a national level.

fMRI reveals neural activity overlap between adult and infant pain

Limited understanding of infant pain has led to its lack of recognition in clinical practice. While the network of brain regions that encode the affective and sensory aspects of adult pain are well described, the brain structures involved in infant nociceptive processing are less well known, meaning little can be inferred about the nature of the infant pain experience. Using fMRI we identified the network of brain regions that are active following acute noxious stimulation in newborn infants, and compared the activity to that observed in adults. Significant infant brain activity was observed in 18 of the 20 active adult brain regions but not in the infant amygdala or orbitofrontal cortex. Brain regions that encode sensory and affective components of pain are active in infants, suggesting that the infant pain experience closely resembles that seen in adults. This highlights the importance of developing effective pain management strategies in this vulnerable population.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.06356.001

Doctors long believed that infants do not feel pain the way that older children and adults do. Instead, they believed that the infants' responses to discomfort were reflexes. Based on these beliefs, it was a routine practice to perform surgery on infants without suitable pain relief up until the late 1980s. Even now, infants may receive less than ideal pain relief. For example, a review found that although newborns in intensive care units undergo 11 painful procedures per day on average, more than half of the babies received no pain medications. Some guidelines continue to emphasize that for infants cuddling and feeding are more important sources of comfort than pain-relieving drugs.

There is growing support for better pain control for infants. Doctors and nurses now routinely observe behaviour and physiological responses—such as heart rate—to assess whether infants are experiencing pain. When an infant shows signs of pain, medical staff may give the infant sugar water or other interventions aimed at reducing their distress. However, recordings of brain activity suggest that infants may experience pain without exhibiting physical signs and that sugar water may reduce the behaviours associated with pain but not the pain itself.

More objective measurements of infant pain would be useful, but to create such measurements scientists must first understand how infants experience pain. So Goksan et al. used a technique called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare the brain responses of adults and newborns to the same stimulus—a sharp poke of the foot. The adults were also asked about the pain they experienced, and whether the infants pulled their foot away when poked was documented.

The fMRI results revealed that pain increased activity in 20 regions in the adults' brains, and 18 of the same regions in the infants' brains. The brain regions activated in the infants' brains in response to a poke on the foot are involved in processing sensations and emotions. The two regions that did not activate in the infant brains—the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex—help individuals interpret the stimuli. Goksan et al. therefore conclude that infants experience pain in similar ways to adults, though they may not experience all the emotions that adults have when they are in pain. It is, therefore, important to give infants suitable pain relief during potentially painful procedures.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.06356.002

Application of Lidocaine Spray for Tracheal Intubation in Neonates - A Clinical Trial Study

Background:

Tracheal intubation is extremely distressing, painful, and may influence heart rate and blood pressure. Sedatives, analgesics, and muscle relaxants are not commonly used for intubation in neonates.

Objectives:

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of lidocaine spray as a non-intravenous drug before neonatal intubation on blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation and time of intubation.

Patients and Methods:

In a randomized, controlled study each neonate was randomly assigned to one of the two study groups by staffs who were not involved in the infant's care. The allocation concealment was kept in an opaque sealed envelope, and the investigators, the patient care team, and the assessors were blinded to the treatment allocation. The selected setting was NICU unit of a teaching hospital in Ilam city, Iran and participants were 60 neonates with indication of tracheal intubation with gestational age > 30 weeks. Patients in the treatment group received lidocaine spray and the placebo group received spray of normal saline prior to intubation. Main outcome measurements were the mean rates of blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation, intubation time and lidocaine side effects were measured before and after intubation.

Results:

Totally 60 newborns including 31 boys and 29 girls were entered into the study (drug group n = 30; placebo group n = 30). Boy/girl ratio in treatment and placebo groups were 1.3 and 0.88, respectively. Mean age ± SD of participants was 34.1 ± 24.8 hours (treatment: 35.3 ± 25.7; placebo: 32.9 ± 24.3; P < 0.0001). Mean weight ± SD of neonates was 2012.5 ± 969 g. Application of lidocaine spray caused a significant reduction of mean intubation time among treatment group compared with placebo group (treatment: 15.03 ± 2.2 seconds; placebo: 18.3 ± 2.3 seconds; P < 0.0001). Mean blood pressure, heart rate and oxygen saturation rate, among neonates in treatment group was reduced after intubation compared with their relevant figures before intubation; however, their differences were not statistically significant except for mean oxygen saturation rate that was reduced significantly in placebo group. No side effects were observed during study.

Conclusions:

Though the current study revealed some promising results in the application of lidocaine spray during neonatal intubation without any considerable side effects; however, the current investigation could only be considered as a pilot study for further attempts in different locations with higher sample sizes and in different situations.

It’s agony for us as well

Background:

Improved techniques and life sustaining technology in the neonatal intensive care unit have resulted in an increased probability of survival for extremely premature babies. The by-product of the aggressive treatment is iatrogenic pain, and this infliction of pain can be a cause of suffering and distress for both baby and nurse.

Research question:

The research sought to explore the caregiving dilemmas of neonatal nurses when caring for extremely premature babies. This article aims to explore the issues arising for neonatal nurses when they inflict iatrogenic pain on the most vulnerable of human beings – babies ≤24 weeks gestation.

Participants:

Data were collected via a questionnaire to Australian neonatal nurses and semi-structured interviews with 24 neonatal nurses in New South Wales, Australia.

Ethical consideration:

Ethical processes and procedures set out by the ethics committee have been adhered to by the researchers.

Findings:

A qualitative approach was used to analyse the data. The theme ‘inflicting pain’ comprised three sub-themes: ‘when caring and torture are the same thing’, ‘why are we doing this!’ and ‘comfort for baby and nurse’. The results show that the neonatal nurses were passionate about the need for appropriate pain relief for extremely premature babies.

Conclusion:

The neonatal nurses experienced a profound sense of distress manifested as existential suffering when they inflicted pain on extremely premature babies. Inflicting pain rather than relieving it can leave the nurses questioning their role as compassionate healthcare professionals.

Pain management in newborns

As a standard of care for preterm/term newborns effective pain management may improve their clinical and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Neonatal pain is assessed using context-specific, validated, and objective pain methods, despite the limitations of currently available tools. Therapeutic approaches reducing invasive procedures and using pharmacologic, behavioral, or environmental measures are used to manage neonatal pain. Nonpharmacologic approaches like kangaroo care, facilitated tucking, non-nutritive sucking, sucrose, and others can be used for procedural pain or adjunctive therapy. Local/topical anesthetics, opioids, NSAIDs/acetaminophen and other sedative/anesthetic agents can be incorporated into NICU protocols for managing moderate/severe pain or distress in all newborns.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of neonatal staff concerning neonatal pain management

BACKGROUND

Neonatal pain management has received increasing attention over the past four decades. Research into the effects of neonatal pain emphasises the professional, ethical and moral obligations of staff to manage pain for positive patient outcomes. However, evaluation studies continuously report evidence of inadequate neonate pain management and a gap between theory and practice.

OBJECTIVE

This study reviewed current practice in neonatal pain management to describe the knowledge, attitudes and practices of nurses and doctors regarding pain management for neonates in two academic hospitals.

METHOD

A non-experimental, prospective quantitative survey, the modified Infant Pain Questionnaire, was used to collect data from 150 nurses and doctors working in the neonatal wards of two academic hospitals in central Gauteng.

RESULTS

The response rate was 35.33% (n=53), most respondents being professional nurses (88.68%; n=47) working in neonatal intensive care units (80.77%; n=42); 24 (45.28%) had less than 5 years' and 29 respondents 6 or more years' working experience in neonatal care. A review of pain management in the study setting indicated a preference for pharmacological interventions to relieve moderate to severe pain. An association (p<0.05) was found between pain ratings on 5 procedures and frequency of administration of pharmacological pain management. Two-thirds of respondents (64%) reported that there were no pain management guidelines in the neonatal wards in which they worked.

CONCLUSION

The interventions to manage moderate neonatal pain are in line with international guidelines. However, neonatal pain management may not occur systematically based on prior assessment of neonatal pain, choice of most appropriate intervention and evaluation. This study recommends implementation of a guideline to standardise practice and ensure consistent and adequate pain management in neonates.

Early life inflammatory pain induces long-lasting deficits in hippocampal-dependent spatial memory in male and female rats

The present experiment tested the hypothesis that neonatal injury disrupts adult hippocampal functioning and that normal aging or chronic stress during adulthood, which are known to have a negative impact on hippocampal function, exacerbate these effects. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were given an intraplantar injection of the inflammatory agent carrageenan (1%) on the day of birth and their memory was tested in the hippocampal-dependent spatial water maze in adulthood and again in middle age. We found that neonatal injury impaired hippocampal-dependent memory in adulthood, that the effects of injury on memory were more pronounced in middle-aged male rats, and that chronic stress accelerated the onset of these memory deficits. Neonatal injury also decreased glucocorticoid receptor mRNA in the dorsal CA1 area of middle-aged rats, a brain region critical for spatial memory. Morphine administration at the time of injury completely reversed injury-induced memory deficits, but neonatal morphine treatments in the absence of injury produced significant memory impairments in adulthood. Collectively, these findings are consistent with our hypothesis that neonatal injury produces long-lasting disruption in adult hippocampal functioning.

Neonatal pain: What's age got to do with it?

Background:

The neurobiology of neonatal pain processing, especially in preterm infants, differs significantly from older infants, children, adolescence, and adults. Research suggests that strong painful procedures or repeated mild procedures may permanently modify individual pain processing. Acute injuries at critical developmental periods are risk factors for persistent altered neurodevelopment. The purpose of this narrative review is to present the seminal and current literature describing the unique physiological aspects of neonatal pain processing.

Methods:

Articles describing the structures and physiological processes that influence neonatal pain were identified from electronic databases Medline, PubMed, and CINAHL.

Results:

The representation of neonatal pain physiology is described in three processes: Local peripheral nervous system processes, referred to as transduction; spinal cord processing, referred to as transmission and modulation; and supraspinal processing and integration or perception of pain. The consequences of undermanaged pain in preterm infants and neonates are discussed.

Conclusion:

Although the process and pain responses in neonates bear some similarity to processes and pain responses in older infants, children, adolescence, and adults; there are some pain processes and responses that are unique to neonates rendering them at risk for inadequate pain treatment. Moreover, exposure to repeated painful stimuli contributes to adverse long-term physiologic and behavioral sequelae. With the emergence of studies showing that painful experiences are capable of rewiring the adult brain, it is imperative that we treat neonatal pain effectively.

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy reduces c-Fos activation in the rat hippocampus: evidence of a long-lasting effect

The effect of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) on maturation of nociceptive pathways has been sparsely explored. To investigate whether neonatal HIE alters neuronal activity, nociceptive behavior, and serum neuroplasticity mediators (brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF] and tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF]) in the short, medium, and long term. Neonate male Wistar rats were randomized to receive a brain insult that could be either ischemic (left carotid artery ligation [LCAL]), hypoxic (8% oxygen chamber), hypoxic-ischemic (LCAL and hypoxic chamber), sham-ischemic, or sham-hypoxic. Neuronal activity (c-Fos activation at region CA1 and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus), nociceptive behavior (von Frey, tail-flick, and hot-plate tests), neuroplasticity mediators (BDNF, TNF), and a cellular injury marker (lactase dehydrogenase [LDH]) were assessed in blood serum 14, 30, and 60 days after birth. Neonatal HIE persistently reduced c-Fos activation in the ipsilateral hippocampal region CA1; however, contralateral c-Fos reduction appeared only 7 weeks after the event. Neonatal HIE acutely reduced the paw withdrawal threshold (von Frey test), but this returned to normal by the 30th postnatal day. Hypoxia reduced serum LDH levels. Serum neuroplasticity mediators increased with age, and neonatal HIE did not affect their ontogeny. Neonatal HIE-induced reduction in neuronal activity occurs acutely in the ipsilateral hippocampal region CA1 and persists for at least 60 days, but the contralateral effect of the insult is delayed. Alterations in the nociceptive response are acute and self-limited. Serum neuroplasticity mediators increase with age, and remain unaffected by HIE.

Procedural sedation and analgesia in pediatric patients

A spectrum of conditions requires sedation and analgesia in pediatric population. Ineffective treatment of pain may result in physiological and behavioral responses that can adversely affect the developing nociceptive system. The recognition of pain in children can be facilitated by different pain scales. This article reviews the procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA) practices in children along with pharmacology of the drugs used for this purpose.

Improving pain assessment in the NICU: a quality improvement project

Pain assessment documentation was inadequate because of the use of a subjective pain assessment strategy in a tertiary level IV neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The aim of this study was to improve consistency of pain assessment documentation through implementation of a multidimensional neonatal pain and sedation assessment tool. The study was set in a 60-bed level IV NICU within an urban children's hospital. Participants included NICU staff, including registered nurses, neonatal nurse practitioners, clinical nurse specialists, pharmacists, neonatal fellows, and neonatologists. The Plan Do Study Act method of quality improvement was used for this project. Baseline assessment included review of patient medical records 6 months before the intervention. Documentation of pain assessment on admission, routine pain assessment, reassessment of pain after an elevated pain score, discussion of pain in multidisciplinary rounds, and documentation of pain assessment were reviewed. Literature review and listserv query were conducted to identify neonatal pain tools. Survey of staff was conducted to evaluate knowledge of neonatal pain and also to determine current healthcare providers' practice as related to identification and treatment of neonatal pain. A multidimensional neonatal pain tool, the Neonatal Pain, Agitation, and Sedation Scale (N-PASS), was chosen by the staff for implementation. Six months and 2 years following education on the use of the N-PASS and implementation in the NICU, a chart review of all hospitalized patients was conducted to evaluate documentation of pain assessment on admission, routine pain assessment, reassessment of pain after an elevated pain score, discussion of pain in multidisciplinary rounds, and documentation of pain assessment in the medical progress note. Documentation of pain scores improved from 60% to 100% at 6 months and remained at 99% 2 years following implementation of the N-PASS. Pain score documentation with ongoing nursing assessment improved from 55% to greater than 90% at 6 months and 2 years following the intervention. Pain assessment documentation following intervention of an elevated pain score was 0% before implementation of the N-PASS and improved slightly to 30% 6 months and 47% 2 years following implementation. Identification and implementation of a multidimensional neonatal pain assessment tool, the N-PASS, improved documentation of pain in our unit. Although improvement in all quality improvement monitors was noted, additional work is needed in several key areas, specifically documentation of reassessment of pain following an intervention for an elevated pain score.

Measurement of Acute Pain in Infants

Background:

The use of non-validated pain measurement tools to assess infant pain represents a serious iatrogenic threat to the developing neonatal nervous system. One partial explanation for this practice may be the contradictory empirical data from studies that use newborn pain management tools constructed for infants of different developmental stages or exposed to different environmental stressors.

Purpose:

The purpose of this review is to evaluate the evidence regarding the physiologic and behavioral variables that accurately assess and measure acute pain response in infants.

Methodology:

A literature search was conducted using PUBMED and CINAHL and the search terms infant, neonate/neonatal, newborn, pain, assessment, and measurement to identify peer-reviewed studies that examined the validity and reliability of behavioral and physiological variables used for investigation of infant pain. Ten articles were identified for critical review. Principal findings: Strong evidence supports the use of the behavioral variables of facial expressions and body movements and the physiologic variables of heart rate and oxygen saturation to assess acute pain in infants.

Conclusion:

It is incumbent upon researchers and clinical nurses to ensure the validity, reliability, and feasibility of pain measures, so that the outcomes of their investigations and interventions will be developmentally appropriate and effective pain management therapies.

How do children with autism spectrum disorders express pain? A comparison with developmentally delayed and typically developing children

There is a lack of knowledge about pain reactions in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), who have often been considered as insensitive to pain. The objective of this study was to describe the facial, behavioral and physiological reactions of children with ASD during venipuncture and to compare them to the reactions of children with an intellectual disability and nonimpaired control children. We also examined the relation between developmental age and pain reactions. The sample included 35 children with ASD, 32 children with an intellectual disability, and 36 nonimpaired children. The children were videotaped during venipuncture and their heart rate was recorded. Facial reactions were assessed using the Child Facial Coding System (CFCS) and behavioral reactions were scored using the Noncommunicating Children's Pain Checklist (NCCPC). A linear mixed-effects model showed that children's reactions increased between baseline and venipuncture and decreased between the end of venipuncture and the recovery period. There was no significant difference between groups regarding the amount of facial, behavioral and physiological reactions. However, behavioral reactions seemed to remain high in children with ASD after the end of the venipuncture, in contrast with children in the 2 other groups. Moreover, we observed a significant decrease in pain expression with age in nonimpaired children, but no such effect was found regarding children with ASD. The data reveal that children with ASD displayed a significant pain reaction in this situation and tend to recover more slowly after the painful experience. Improvement in pain assessment and management in this population is necessary.

Remifentanil versus morphine-midazolam premedication on the quality of endotracheal intubation in neonates: a noninferiority randomized trial

OBJECTIVE

To compare remifentanil and morphine-midazolam for use in nonurgent endotracheal intubation in neonates.

STUDY DESIGN

In this prospective noninferiority randomized trial, newborns of gestational age ≥28 weeks admitted in the neonatal intensive care unit requiring an elective or semielective endotracheal intubation were divided into 2 groups. One group (n = 36) received remifentanil (1 μg/kg), and the other group (n = 35) received morphine (100 μg/kg) and midazolam (50 μg/kg) at a predefined time before intubation (different in each group), to optimize the peak effect of each drug. Both groups also received atropine (20 μg/kg). The primary outcome was to compare the conditions of intubation, and the secondary outcome was to compare the duration of successful intubation, physiological variables, and pain scores between groups for first and second intubation attempts. Adverse events and neurologic test data were reported.

RESULTS

Intubation with remifentanil was not inferior to that with morphine-midazolam. At the first attempted intubation, intubation conditions were poor in 25% of the remifentanil group and in 28.6% of the morphine-midazolam group (P = .471). For the second attempt, conditions were poor in 28.6% of the remifentanil group, compared with 10% of the morphine-midazolam group (P = .360). The median time to successful intubation was 33 seconds (IQR, 24-45 seconds) for the remifentanil group versus 36 seconds (IQR, 25-59 seconds) for the morphine-medazolam group (P = .359) at the first attempt and 45 seconds (IQR, 35-64 seconds) versus 56 seconds (IQR, 44-68 seconds), respectively, for the second attempt (P = .302). No significant between-group difference was reported for hypotension, bradycardia, or adverse events.

CONCLUSION

In our cohort, remifentanil was at least as effective as the morphine-midazolam regimen for endotracheal intubation. Thus, premedication using this very-short-acting opioid can be considered in urgent intubations and is advantageous in rapid extubation.

The neurodevelopmental impact of neonatal morphine administration

Medical management of newborn infants often necessitates recurrent painful procedures, which may alter nociceptive pathways during a critical developmental period and adversely effect neuropsychological outcomes. To mitigate the effects of repeated painful stimuli, opioid administration for peri-procedural analgesia and ICU (intensive care unit) sedation is common in the NICU (neonatal intensive care unit). A growing body of basic and animal evidence suggests potential long-term harm associated with neonatal opioid therapy. Morphine increases apoptosis in human microglial cells, and animal studies demonstrate long-term changes in behavior, brain function, and spatial recognition memory following morphine exposure. This comprehensive review examines existing preclinical and clinical evidence on the long-term impacts of neonatal pain and opioid therapy.

Neonatal pain control and neurologic effects of anesthetics and sedatives in preterm infants

Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the adverse consequences of untreated pain and stress on brain development in the preterm infant. Sucrose has widely been implemented as standard therapy for minor procedural pain. Anesthetics are commonly utilized in preterm infants during major surgery. Pharmacologic agents (benzodiazepines and opioids) have been examined in clinical trials of preterm infants requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. Controversy exists regarding the safety and long-term impact of these interventions. Ongoing multidisciplinary research will help define the impact of these agents and identify potential alternative therapies.

Anesthetic neurotoxicity: what to tell the parents?

Over the past decade, numerous preclinical and retrospective human studies have reported that the provision of anesthetic and sedative agents to infants and children may be associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. These data have gained widespread attention from professional and regulatory agencies, including the public at large. As such, pediatric anesthesiologists are being increasingly questioned by parents about the risks of anesthetic agents on their children's neurocognitive development. To impart a framework from which anesthesiologists may address the apprehensions of parents who actively bring up this issue, we review the data supporting anesthetic neurotoxicity and discuss its strengths and limitations. As many parents are not yet aware and do not actively raise these concerns, we also discuss whether such a conversation should be undertaken as a part of the consent process.

Eight years later, are we still hurting newborn infants?

OBJECTIVE

To study whether new pharmacological and nonpharmacological guidelines lowered numbers of painful procedures in neonates and changed the amount and frequency of analgesic therapy as compared to the results of our previous study in 2001.

DESIGN

A prospective observational study.

SETTING

Level III NICU of the Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam.

PARTICIPANTS

Neonates admitted at postnatal ages less than 3 days with length of stay at least 72 h.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Number of all potentially painful procedures and analgesic therapy recorded at the bedside during the first 14 days of NICU stay.

RESULTS

A total number of 21,076 procedures were performed in the 175 neonates studied during 1,730 patient-days (mean 12.2). The mean number of painful procedures per neonate per day was 11.4 (SD 5.7), significantly lower than the number of 14.3 (SD 4.0) in 2001 (p < 0.001). The use of analgesics was 36.6% compared to 60.3% in 2001. Sixty-three percent of all peripheral arterial line insertions failed versus 37.5% in 2001 and 9.1% venipunctures failed versus 21% in 2001.

CONCLUSIONS

The mean number of painful procedures per NICU patient per day declined. Nonpharmacological pain- or stress-reducing strategies like NIDCAP and sucrose were fully embedded in our pain management. As further reduction of the number of painful procedures is unlikely, we should apply more nonpharmacological interventions and explore newer pharmacological agents.