The tension mounts: stress fibers as force-generating mechanotransducers

Formation of contractile networks and fibers in the medial cell cortex through myosin-II turnover, contraction, and stress-stabilization

The morphology of adhered cells depends crucially on the formation of a contractile meshwork of parallel and cross-linked fibers along the contacting surface. The motor activity and minifilament assembly of non-muscle myosin-II is an important component of cortical cytoskeletal remodeling during mechanosensing. We used experiments and computational modeling to study cortical myosin-II dynamics in adhered cells. Confocal microscopy was used to image the medial cell cortex of HeLa cells stably expressing myosin regulatory light chain tagged with GFP (MRLC-GFP). The distribution of MRLC-GFP fibers and focal adhesions was classified into three types of network morphologies. Time-lapse movies show: myosin foci appearance and disappearance; aligning and contraction; stabilization upon alignment. Addition of blebbistatin, which perturbs myosin motor activity, leads to a reorganization of the cortical networks and to a reduction of contractile motions. We quantified the kinetics of contraction, disassembly and reassembly of myosin networks using spatio-temporal image correlation spectroscopy (STICS). Coarse-grained numerical simulations include bipolar minifilaments that contract and align through specified interactions as basic elements. After assuming that minifilament turnover decreases with increasing contractile stress, the simulations reproduce stress-dependent fiber formation in between focal adhesions above a threshold myosin concentration. The STICS correlation function in simulations matches the function measured in experiments. This study provides a framework to help interpret how different cortical myosin remodeling kinetics may contribute to different cell shape and rigidity depending on substrate stiffness.

FAK is required for Schwann cell spreading on immature basal lamina to coordinate the radial sorting of peripheral axons with myelination

Without Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK), developing murine Schwann cells (SCs) proliferate poorly, sort axons inefficiently, and cannot myelinate peripheral nerves. Here we show that FAK is required for the development of SCs when their basal lamina (BL) is fragmentary, but not when it is mature in vivo. Mutant SCs fail to spread on fragmentary BL during development in vivo, and this is phenocopied by SCs lacking functional FAK on low laminin (LN) in vitro. Furthermore, SCs without functional FAK initiate differentiation prematurely, both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast to their behavior on high levels of LN, SCs lacking functional FAK grown on low LN display reduced spreading, proliferation, and indicators of contractility (i.e., stress fibers, arcs, and focal adhesions) and are primed to differentiate. Growth of SCs lacking functional FAK on increasing LN concentrations in vitro revealed that differentiation is not regulated by G1 arrest but rather by cell spreading and the level of contractile actomyosin. The importance of FAK as a critical regulator of the specific response of developing SCs to fragmentary BL was supported by the ability of adult FAK mutant SCs to remyelinate demyelinated adult nerves on mature BL in vivo. We conclude that FAK promotes the spreading and actomyosin contractility of immature SCs on fragmentary BL, thus maintaining their proliferation, and preventing differentiation until they reach high density, thereby promoting radial sorting. Hence, FAK has a critical role in the response of SCs to limiting BL by promoting proliferation and preventing premature SC differentiation.

Septins promote stress fiber-mediated maturation of focal adhesions and renal epithelial motility

Organogenesis and tumor metastasis involve the transformation of epithelia to highly motile mesenchymal-like cells. Septins are filamentous G proteins, which are overexpressed in metastatic carcinomas, but their functions in epithelial motility are unknown. Here, we show that a novel network of septin filaments underlies the organization of the transverse arc and radial (dorsal) stress fibers at the leading lamella of migrating renal epithelia. Surprisingly, septin depletion resulted in smaller and more transient and peripheral focal adhesions. This phenotype was accompanied by a highly disorganized lamellar actin network and rescued by the actin bundling protein α-actinin-1. We show that preassembled actin filaments are cross-linked directly by Septin 9 (SEPT9), whose expression is increased after induction of renal epithelial motility with the hepatocyte growth factor. Significantly, SEPT9 overexpression enhanced renal cell migration in 2D and 3D matrices, whereas SEPT9 knockdown decreased migration. These results suggest that septins promote epithelial motility by reinforcing the cross-linking of lamellar stress fibers and the stability of nascent focal adhesions.

The toxoplasma-host cell junction is anchored to the cell cortex to sustain parasite invasive force

Background

The public health threats imposed by toxoplasmosis worldwide and by malaria in sub-Saharan countries are directly associated with the capacity of their related causative agents Toxoplasma and Plasmodium, respectively, to colonize and expand inside host cells. Therefore, deciphering how these two Apicomplexan protozoan parasites access their host cells has been highlighted as a priority research with the perspective of designing anti-invasive molecules to prevent diseases. Central to the mechanism of invasion for both genera is mechanical force, which is thought to be applied by the parasite at the interface between the two cells following assembly of a unique cell-cell junction but this model lacks direct evidence and has been challenged by recent genetic studies. In this work, using parasites expressing the fluorescent core component of this junction, we analyze characteristic features of the kinematics of penetration of more than 1,000 invasion events.

Results

The majority of invasion events occur with a typical forward rotational progression of the parasite through a static junction into an invaginating host cell plasma membrane. However, if parasites encounter resistance and if the junction is not strongly anchored to the host cell cortex, as when parasites do not secrete the toxofilin protein and, therefore, are unable to locally remodel the cortical actin cytoskeleton, the junction travels retrogradely with the host cell membrane along the parasite surface allowing the formation of a functional vacuole. Kinetic measurements of the invasive trajectories strongly support a similar parasite driven force in both static and capped junctions, both of which lead to successful invasion. However, about 20% of toxofilin mutants fail to enter and eventually disengage from the host cell membrane while the secreted RhOptry Neck (RON2) molecules are posteriorally capped before being cleaved and released in the medium. By contrast in cells characterized by low cortex tension and high cortical actin dynamics junction capping and entry failure are drastically reduced.

Conclusions

This kinematic analysis newly highlights that to invade cells parasites need to engage their motor with the junction molecular complex where force is efficiently applied only upon proper anchorage to the host cell membrane and cortex.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-014-0108-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Aligned and suspended fiber force probes for drug testing at single cell resolution

The role of physical forces in disease onset and progression is widely accepted and this knowledge presents an alternative route to investigating disease models. Recently, numerous force measurement techniques have been developed to probe single and multi-cell behavior. While these methods have yielded fundamental insights, they are yet unable to capture the fibrous extra-cellular matrix biophysical interactions, involving parameters of curvature, structural stiffness (N m(-1)), alignment and hierarchy, which have been shown to play key roles in disease and developmental biology. Using a highly aggressive glioma model (DBTRG-05MG), we present a platform technology to quantify single cell force modulation (both inside-out and outside-in) with and without the presence of a cytoskeleton altering drug (cytochalasin D) using suspended and aligned fiber networks (nanonets) beginning to represent the aligned glioma environment. The nanonets fused in crisscross patterns were manufactured using the non-electrospinning spinneret based tunable engineering parameters technique. We demonstrate the ability to measure contractile single cell forces exerted by glioma cells attached to and migrating along the fiber axis (inside-out). This is followed by a study of force response of glioma cells attached to two parallel fibers using a probe deflecting the leading fiber (outside-in). The forces are calculated using beam deflection within the elastic limit. Our data shows that cytochalasin D compromises the spreading area of single glioma cells, eventually decreasing their 'inside-out' contractile forces, and 'outside-in' force response to external strain. Most notably, for the first time, we demonstrate the feasibility of using physiologically relevant aligned fiber networks as ultra-sensitive force (∼nanoNewtons) probes for investigating drug response and efficacy in disease models at the single cell resolution.

Documentation and localization of force-mediated filamin A domain perturbations in moving cells

Endogenously and externally generated mechanical forces influence diverse cellular activities, a phenomenon defined as mechanotransduction. Deformation of protein domains by application of stress, previously documented to alter macromolecular interactions in vitro, could mediate these effects. We engineered a photon-emitting system responsive to unfolding of two repeat domains of the actin filament (F-actin) crosslinker protein filamin A (FLNA) that binds multiple partners involved in cell signalling reactions and validated the system using F-actin networks subjected to myosin-based contraction. Expressed in cultured cells, the sensor-containing FLNA construct reproducibly reported FLNA domain unfolding strikingly localized to dynamic, actively protruding, leading cell edges. The unfolding signal depends upon coherence of F-actin-FLNA networks and is enhanced by stimulating cell contractility. The results establish protein domain distortion as a bona fide mechanism for mechanotransduction in vivo.

Ultra-soft cantilevers and 3-D micro-patterned substrates for contractile bundle tension measurement in living cells

Actin-myosin microfilament bundles or stress-fibers are the principal tension-generating structures in the cell. Their mechanical properties are critical for cell shape, motion, and interaction with other cells and extracellular matrix, but were so far difficult to access in a living cell. Here we propose a micro-fabricated two-component setup for direct tension measurement on a peripheral bundle within an intact cell. We used 3-D substrates made of silicon elastomer to elevate the cell making the filament bundle at its border accessible from the side, and employed an ultra-soft (spring constant 0.78 nN μm(-1)) epoxy-based cantilever for mechanical probing. With this setup we were able for the first time to measure the tension in peripheral actin bundles in living primary fibroblasts spread on a rigid substrate.

F-actin-anchored focal adhesions distinguish endothelial phenotypes of human arteries and veins

OBJECTIVE

Vascular endothelial-cadherin- and integrin-based cell adhesions are crucial for endothelial barrier function. Formation and disassembly of these adhesions controls endothelial remodeling during vascular repair, angiogenesis, and inflammation. In vitro studies indicate that vascular cytokines control adhesion through regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, but it remains unknown whether such regulation occurs in human vessels. We aimed to investigate regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and cell adhesions within the endothelium of human arteries and veins.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

We used an ex vivo protocol for immunofluorescence in human vessels, allowing detailed en face microscopy of endothelial monolayers. We compared arteries and veins of the umbilical cord and mesenteric, epigastric, and breast tissues and find that the presence of central F-actin fibers distinguishes the endothelial phenotype of adult arteries from veins. F-actin in endothelium of adult veins as well as in umbilical vasculature predominantly localizes cortically at the cell boundaries. By contrast, prominent endothelial F-actin fibers in adult arteries anchor mostly to focal adhesions containing integrin-binding proteins paxillin and focal adhesion kinase and follow the orientation of the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin. Other arterial F-actin fibers end in vascular endothelial-cadherin-based endothelial focal adherens junctions. In vitro adhesion experiments on compliant substrates demonstrate that formation of focal adhesions is strongly induced by extracellular matrix rigidity, irrespective of arterial or venous origin of endothelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that F-actin-anchored focal adhesions distinguish endothelial phenotypes of human arteries from veins. We conclude that the biomechanical properties of the vascular extracellular matrix determine this endothelial characteristic.

α-Actinin-2 mediates spine morphology and assembly of the post-synaptic density in hippocampal neurons

Dendritic spines are micron-sized protrusions that constitute the primary post-synaptic sites of excitatory neurotransmission in the brain. Spines mature from a filopodia-like protrusion into a mushroom-shaped morphology with a post-synaptic density (PSD) at its tip. Modulation of the actin cytoskeleton drives these morphological changes as well as the spine dynamics that underlie learning and memory. Several PSD molecules respond to glutamate receptor activation and relay signals to the underlying actin cytoskeleton to regulate the structural changes in spine and PSD morphology. α-Actinin-2 is an actin filament cross-linker, which localizes to dendritic spines, enriched within the post-synaptic density, and implicated in actin organization. We show that loss of α-actinin-2 in rat hippocampal neurons creates an increased density of immature, filopodia-like protrusions that fail to mature into a mushroom-shaped spine during development. α-Actinin-2 knockdown also prevents the recruitment and stabilization of the PSD in the spine, resulting in failure of synapse formation, and an inability to structurally respond to chemical stimulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor. The Ca2+-insensitive EF-hand motif in α-actinin-2 is necessary for the molecule's function in regulating spine morphology and PSD assembly, since exchanging it for the similar but Ca2+-sensitive domain from α-actinin-4, another α-actinin isoform, inhibits its function. Furthermore, when the Ca2+-insensitive domain from α-actinin-2 is inserted into α-actinin-4 and expressed in neurons, it creates mature spines. These observations support a model whereby α-actinin-2, partially through its Ca2+-insensitive EF-hand motif, nucleates PSD formation via F-actin organization and modulates spine maturation to mediate synaptogenesis.

Non-channel mechanosensors working at focal adhesion-stress fiber complex

Mechanosensitive ion channels (MSCs) have long been the only established molecular class of cell mechanosensors; however, in the last decade, a variety of non-channel type mechanosensor molecules have been identified. Many of them are focal adhesion-associated proteins that include integrin, talin, and actin. Mechanosensors must be non-soluble molecules firmly interacting with relatively rigid cellular structures such as membranes (in terms of lateral stiffness), cytoskeletons, and adhesion structures. The partner of MSCs is the membrane in which MSC proteins efficiently transduce changes in the membrane tension into conformational changes that lead to channel opening. By contrast, the integrin, talin, and actin filament form a linear complex of which both ends are typically anchored to the extracellular matrices via integrins. Upon cell deformation by forces, this structure turns out to be a portion that efficiently transduces the generated stress into conformational changes of composite molecules, leading to the activation of integrin (catch bond with extracellular matrices) and talin (unfolding to induce vinculin bindings). Importantly, this structure also serves as an "active" mechanosensor to detect substrate rigidity by pulling the substrate with contraction of actin stress fibers (SFs), which may induce talin unfolding and an activation of MSCs in the vicinity of integrins. A recent study demonstrates that the actin filament acts as a mechanosensor with unique characteristics; the filament behaves as a negative tension sensor in which increased torsional fluctuations by tension decrease accelerate ADF/cofilin binding, leading to filament disruption. Here, we review the latest progress in the study of those non-channel mechanosensors and discuss their activation mechanisms and physiological roles.

A FAK-Cas-Rac-lamellipodin signaling module transduces extracellular matrix stiffness into mechanosensitive cell cycling

Tissue and extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness is transduced into intracellular stiffness, signaling, and changes in cellular behavior. Integrins and several of their associated focal adhesion proteins have been implicated in sensing ECM stiffness. We investigated how an initial sensing event is translated into intracellular stiffness and a biologically interpretable signal. We found that a pathway consisting of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), the adaptor protein p130Cas (Cas), and the guanosine triphosphatase Rac selectively transduced ECM stiffness into stable intracellular stiffness, increased the abundance of the cell cycle protein cyclin D1, and promoted S-phase entry. Rac-dependent intracellular stiffening involved its binding partner lamellipodin, a protein that transmits Rac signals to the cytoskeleton during cell migration. Our findings establish that mechanotransduction by a FAK-Cas-Rac-lamellipodin signaling module converts the external information encoded by ECM stiffness into stable intracellular stiffness and mechanosensitive cell cycling. Thus, lamellipodin is important not only in controlling cellular migration but also for regulating the cell cycle in response to mechanical signals.

LIM proteins in actin cytoskeleton mechanoresponse

The actin cytoskeleton assembles into branched networks or bundles to generate mechanical force for critical cellular processes such as establishment of polarity, adhesion, and migration. Stress fibers (SFs) are contractile actomyosin structures that physically couple to the extracellular matrix through integrin-based focal adhesions (FAs), thereby transmitting force into and across the cell. Recently, LIN-11, Isl1, and MEC-3 (LIM) domain proteins have been implicated in mediating this cytoskeletal mechanotransduction. Among the more well-studied LIM domain adapter proteins is zyxin, a dynamic component of both FAs and SFs. Here we discuss recent research detailing the mechanisms by which SFs adjust their structure and composition to balance mechanical forces and suggest ways that zyxin and other LIM domain proteins mediate mechanoresponse.

Cellular traction stresses mediate extracellular matrix degradation by invadopodia

During tumorigenesis, matrix rigidity can drive oncogenic transformation via altered cellular proliferation and migration. Cells sense extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanical properties with intracellular tensile forces generated by actomyosin contractility. These contractile forces are transmitted to the matrix surface as traction stresses, which mediate mechanical interactions with the ECM. Matrix rigidity has been shown to increase proteolytic ECM degradation by cytoskeletal structures known as invadopodia that are critical for cancer progression, suggesting that cellular contractility promotes invasive behavior. However, both increases and decreases in traction stresses have been associated with metastatic behavior. Therefore, the role of cellular contractility in invasive migration leading to metastasis is unclear. To determine the relationship between cellular traction stresses and invadopodia activity, we characterized the invasive and contractile properties of an aggressive carcinoma cell line utilizing polyacrylamide gels of different rigidities. We found that ECM degradation and traction stresses were linear functions of matrix rigidity. Using calyculin A to augment myosin contractility, we also found that traction stresses were strongly predictive of ECM degradation. Overall, our data suggest that cellular force generation may play an important part in invasion and metastasis by mediating invadopodia activity in response to the mechanical properties of the tumor microenvironment.

Dynamin2 organizes lamellipodial actin networks to orchestrate lamellar actomyosin

Actin networks in migrating cells exist as several interdependent structures: sheet-like networks of branched actin filaments in lamellipodia; arrays of bundled actin filaments co-assembled with myosin II in lamellae; and actin filaments that engage focal adhesions. How these dynamic networks are integrated and coordinated to maintain a coherent actin cytoskeleton in migrating cells is not known. We show that the large GTPase dynamin2 is enriched in the distal lamellipod where it regulates lamellipodial actin networks as they form and flow in U2-OS cells. Within lamellipodia, dynamin2 regulated the spatiotemporal distributions of α-actinin and cortactin, two actin-binding proteins that specify actin network architecture. Dynamin2's action on lamellipodial F-actin influenced the formation and retrograde flow of lamellar actomyosin via direct and indirect interactions with actin filaments and a finely tuned GTP hydrolysis activity. Expression in dynamin2-depleted cells of a mutant dynamin2 protein that restores endocytic activity, but not activities that remodel actin filaments, demonstrated that actin filament remodeling by dynamin2 did not depend of its functions in endocytosis. Thus, dynamin2 acts within lamellipodia to organize actin filaments and regulate assembly and flow of lamellar actomyosin. We hypothesize that through its actions on lamellipodial F-actin, dynamin2 generates F-actin structures that give rise to lamellar actomyosin and for efficient coupling of F-actin at focal adhesions. In this way, dynamin2 orchestrates the global actin cytoskeleton.

Actin dynamics, architecture, and mechanics in cell motility

Tight coupling between biochemical and mechanical properties of the actin cytoskeleton drives a large range of cellular processes including polarity establishment, morphogenesis, and motility. This is possible because actin filaments are semi-flexible polymers that, in conjunction with the molecular motor myosin, can act as biological active springs or "dashpots" (in laymen's terms, shock absorbers or fluidizers) able to exert or resist against force in a cellular environment. To modulate their mechanical properties, actin filaments can organize into a variety of architectures generating a diversity of cellular organizations including branched or crosslinked networks in the lamellipodium, parallel bundles in filopodia, and antiparallel structures in contractile fibers. In this review we describe the feedback loop between biochemical and mechanical properties of actin organization at the molecular level in vitro, then we integrate this knowledge into our current understanding of cellular actin organization and its physiological roles.

Loss of myoferlin redirects breast cancer cell motility towards collective migration

Cell migration plays a central role in the invasion and metastasis of tumors. As cells leave the primary tumor, they undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrate as single cells. Epithelial tumor cells may also migrate in a highly directional manner as a collective group in some settings. We previously discovered that myoferlin (MYOF) is overexpressed in breast cancer cells and depletion of MYOF results in a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) and reduced invasion through extracellular matrix (ECM). However, the biomechanical mechanisms governing cell motility during MYOF depletion are poorly understood. We first demonstrated that lentivirus-driven shRNA-induced MYOF loss in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (MDA-231(MYOF-KD)) leads to an epithelial morphology compared to the mesenchymal morphology observed in control (MDA-231(LTVC)) and wild-type cells. Knockdown of MYOF led to significant reductions in cell migration velocity and MDA-231(MYOF-KD) cells migrated directionally and collectively, while MDA-231(LTVC) cells exhibited single cell migration. Decreased migration velocity and collective migration were accompanied by significant changes in cell mechanics. MDA-231(MYOF-KD) cells exhibited a 2-fold decrease in cell stiffness, a 2-fold increase in cell-substrate adhesion and a 1.5-fold decrease in traction force generation. In vivo studies demonstrated that when immunocompromised mice were implanted with MDA-231(MYOF-KD) cells, tumors were smaller and demonstrated lower tumor burden. Moreover, MDA-231(MYOF-KD) tumors were highly circularized and did not invade locally into the adventia in contrast to MDA-231(LTVC)-injected animals. Thus MYOF loss is associated with a change in tumor formation in xenografts and leads to smaller, less invasive tumors. These data indicate that MYOF, a previously unrecognized protein in cancer, is involved in MDA-MB-231 cell migration and contributes to biomechanical alterations. Our results indicate that changes in biomechanical properties following loss of this protein may be an effective way to alter the invasive capacity of cancer cells.

The Drosophila FHOD1-like formin Knittrig acts through Rok to promote stress fiber formation and directed macrophage migration during the cellular immune response

A tight spatiotemporal control of actin polymerization is important for many cellular processes that shape cells into a multicellular organism. The formation of unbranched F-actin is induced by several members of the formin family. Drosophila encodes six formin genes, representing six of the seven known mammalian subclasses. Knittrig, the Drosophila homolog of mammalian FHOD1, is specifically expressed in the developing central nervous system midline glia, the trachea, the wing and in macrophages. knittrig mutants exhibit mild tracheal defects but survive until late pupal stages and mainly die as pharate adult flies. knittrig mutant macrophages are smaller and show reduced cell spreading and cell migration in in vivo wounding experiments. Rescue experiments further demonstrate a cell-autonomous function of Knittrig in regulating actin dynamics and cell migration. Knittrig localizes at the rear of migrating macrophages in vivo, suggesting a cellular requirement of Knittrig in the retraction of the trailing edge. Supporting this notion, we found that Knittrig is a target of the Rho-dependent kinase Rok. Co-expression with Rok or expression of an activated form of Knittrig induces actin stress fibers in macrophages and in epithelial tissues. Thus, we propose a model in which Rok-induced phosphorylation of residues within the basic region mediates the activation of Knittrig in controlling macrophage migration.

Impact of elastic and inelastic substrate behaviors on mechanosensation

In this review we summarize current data on the mechanics of synthetic and naturally occurring biopolymers that are routinely employed in examination of contractility and cellular mechanosensation. We discuss the effect of physical boundaries on the mechanical behaviors of cell substrates and cellular mechanosensation. The application of contractile forces to underlying substrates enables anchorage-dependent cells to probe the physical properties of their microenvironment. Compliant substrates deform as a result of contractile forces generated by adherent cells and, in turn, the mechanical response of substrates influences numerous cellular processes. Unlike synthetic polymers that exhibit linear elastic responses to forces applied by adherent cells, naturally-occurring biopolymers exhibit non-linear, viscoelastic behavior. In turn, the viscoelastic behavior of fibrillar biopolymers may contribute to irreversible network compaction after application of cell-derived forces. Comprehensive characterization of the unusual mechanical properties of extracellular matrix proteins like collagen has provided novel insights into cell contractility and mechanosensation. We suggest that in the future, fabrication and application of novel substrates with fibrillar structures and non-linear viscoelastic behavior will be needed for a better understanding of the role of mechanosensation in many physiological and pathological processes.

Measurement and computer modeling of temporary arrangements of polygonal actin structures in trabecular meshwork cells which consist of cross-linked actin networks and polygonal actin arrangements

PURPOSE

In trabecular meshwork (TM) cells, actin geodesic arrangements were measured and then subjected to computational modeling to appreciate the response of different dome shapes to mechanical force.

METHODS

Polygonal actin arrangements (PAAs) and cross-linked actin networks (CLANs) were induced and imaged by Alexa Flour(®) 488 Phalloidin in bovine TM and human TM cells. Masked images were examined for size, circularity, and spoke and hub dimensions using ImageJ. Finite element modeling was used to create idealized dome structures and "realistic" PAA and CLAN models. The models were subjected to different loads simulating concentrated force and distortion measured.

RESULTS

We provide evidence that PAAs and CLANs are not identical. Both structures formed flattened domes but PAAs were 6 times larger than CLANs, significantly more circular and had greater height. The dimensions of the triangulations of hubs and spokes were, however, remarkably similar. Hubs were around 2 μm(2) in area, whereas spokes were about 5 μm in length. Our modeling showed that temporary arrangements of polygonal actin structures (TAPAS) were because of their flattened shape, more resistant to shearing than compression when compared with idealized domes. CLANs were marginally more resistant to shearing than PAAs but because of size much more resistant to compression.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence is provided that there are 2 types of actin icosahedrons in cultured TM cells we collectively call TAPAS. Modeling suggests that TAPAS have rigidity and are better at dealing with shearing than compression forces. The 2 types of TAPAS, PAAs, and CLANs, have much in common but there are size and mechanical response differences that need to be taken into account in future experimentation.

Mathematical modeling of the dynamic mechanical behavior of neighboring sarcomeres in actin stress fibers

Actin stress fibers (SFs) in live cells consist of series of dynamic individual sarcomeric units. Within a group of consecutive SF sarcomeres, individual sarcomeres can spontaneously shorten or lengthen without changing the overall length of this group, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. We used a computational model to test our hypothesis that this dynamic behavior is inherent to the heterogeneous mechanical properties of the sarcomeres and the cytoplasmic viscosity. Each sarcomere was modeled as a discrete element consisting of an elastic spring, a viscous dashpot and an active contractile unit all connected in parallel, and experiences forces as a result of actin filament elastic stiffness, myosin II contractility, internal viscoelasticity, or cytoplasmic drag. When all four types of forces are considered, the simulated dynamic behavior closely resembles the experimental observations, which include a low-frequency fluctuation in individual sarcomere length and compensatory lengthening and shortening of adjacent sarcomeres. Our results suggest that heterogeneous stiffness and viscoelasticity of actin fibers, heterogeneous myosin II contractility, and the cytoplasmic drag are sufficient to cause spontaneous fluctuations in SF sarcomere length. Our results shed new light to the dynamic behavior of SF and help design experiments to further our understanding of SF dynamics.

Mechanotransduction pathways linking the extracellular matrix to the nucleus

Cells contain several mechanosensing components that transduce mechanical signals into biochemical cascades. During cell-ECM adhesion, a complex network of molecules mechanically couples the extracellular matrix (ECM), cytoskeleton, and nucleoskeleton. The network comprises transmembrane receptor proteins and focal adhesions, which link the ECM and cytoskeleton. Additionally, recently identified protein complexes extend this linkage to the nucleus by linking the cytoskeleton and the nucleoskeleton. Despite numerous studies in this field, due to the complexity of this network, our knowledge of the mechanisms of cell-ECM adhesion at the molecular level remains remarkably incomplete. Herein, we present a review of the structures of key molecules involved in cell-ECM adhesion, along with an evaluation of their predicted roles in mechanical sensing. Additionally, specific binding events prompted by force-induced conformational changes of each molecule are discussed. Finally, we propose a model for the biomechanical events prominent in cell-ECM adhesion.

Mechanotransduction in C. elegans morphogenesis and tissue function

Mechanobiology is an emerging field that investigates how living cells sense and respond to their physical surroundings. Recent interest in the field has been sparked by the finding that stem cells differentiate along different lineages based on the stiffness of the cell surroundings (Engler et al., 2006), and that metastatic behavior of cancer cells is strongly influenced by the mechanical properties of the surrounding tissue (Kumar and Weaver, 2009). Many questions remain about how cells convert mechanical information, such as viscosity, stiffness of the substrate, or stretch state of the cells, into the biochemical signals that control tissue function. Caenorhabditis elegans researchers are making significant contributions to the understanding of mechanotransduction in vivo. This review summarizes recent insights into the role of mechanical forces in morphogenesis and tissue function. Examples of mechanical regulation across length scales, from the single-celled zygote, to the intercellular coordination that enables cohesive tissue function, to the mechanical influences between tissues, are considered. The power of the C. elegans system as a gene discovery and in vivo quantitative bioimaging platform is enabling an important discoveries in this exciting field.

Integrating actin dynamics, mechanotransduction and integrin activation: the multiple functions of actin binding proteins in focal adhesions

Focal adhesions are clusters of integrin transmembrane receptors that mechanically couple the extracellular matrix to the actin cytoskeleton during cell migration. Focal adhesions sense and respond to variations in force transmission along a chain of protein-protein interactions linking successively actin filaments, actin binding proteins, integrins and the extracellular matrix to adapt cell-matrix adhesion to the composition and mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which actin binding proteins integrate actin dynamics, mechanotransduction and integrin activation to control force transmission in focal adhesions.

Mathematical modeling of eukaryotic cell migration: insights beyond experiments

A migrating cell is a molecular machine made of tens of thousands of short-lived and interacting parts. Understanding migration means understanding the self-organization of these parts into a system of functional units. This task is one of tackling complexity: First, the system integrates numerous chemical and mechanical component processes. Second, these processes are connected in feedback interactions and over a large range of spatial and temporal scales. Third, many processes are stochastic, which leads to heterogeneous migration behaviors. Early on in the research of cell migration it became evident that this complexity exceeds human intuition. Thus, the cell migration community has led the charge to build mathematical models that could integrate the diverse experimental observations and measurements in consistent frameworks, first in conceptual and more recently in molecularly explicit models. The main goal of this review is to sift through a series of important conceptual and explicit mathematical models of cell migration and to evaluate their contribution to the field in their ability to integrate critical experimental data.

Integrins in mechanotransduction

Forces acting on cells govern many important regulatory events during development, normal physiology, and disease processes. Integrin-mediated adhesions, which transmit forces between the extracellular matrix and the actin cytoskeleton, play a central role in transducing effects of forces to regulate cell functions. Recent work has led to major insights into the molecular mechanisms by which these adhesions respond to forces to control cellular signaling pathways. We briefly summarize effects of forces on organs, tissues, and cells; and then discuss recent advances toward understanding molecular mechanisms.

High extensibility of stress fibers revealed by in vitro micromanipulation with fluorescence imaging

Stress fibers (SFs), subcellular bundles of actin and myosin filaments, are physically connected at their ends to cell adhesions. The intracellular force transmitted via SFs plays an essential role in cell adhesion regulation and downstream signaling. However, biophysical properties intrinsic to individual SFs remain poorly understood partly because SFs are surrounded by other cytoplasmic components that restrict the deformation of the embedded materials. To characterize their inherent properties independent of other structural components, we isolated SFs from vascular smooth muscle cells and mechanically stretched them by in vitro manipulation while visualizing strain with fluorescent quantum dots attached along their length. SFs were elongated along their entire length, with the length being approximately 4-fold of the stress-free length. This surprisingly high extensibility was beyond that explained by the tandem connection of actin filaments and myosin II bipolar filaments present in SFs, thus suggesting the involvement of other structural components in their passive biophysical properties.