Role of oxidants in microbial pathophysiology

Hydrogen peroxide induced repression of icaADBC transcription and biofilm development in Staphylococcus epidermidis

Expression of the icaADBC-encoded polysaccharide intercellular adhesion by Staphylococcus epidermidis promotes biofilm formation and represents an important virulence factor in biomaterial-related infections following orthopedic surgery. Biofilm development by the pathogen can be viewed as a protective reaction to environmental stressors including osmotic stress, thermal stress, and antimicrobial chemotherapy. Oxidative stress, arising from the release of toxic oxygen radicals by polymorphonuclear cells, is encountered by bacteria entering the body perioperatively. Evasion of this and other cell-mediated immune responses by pathogenic bacteria plays an important role in the development of chronic biomaterial-related infection. Here we investigated the impact of sublethal oxidative stress induced by H2O2 (<18 mM) on S. epidermidis biofilm formation. S. epidermidis grown in brain heart infusion (BHI) media supplemented with 5 mM H2O2 or 10 mM H2O2 formed significantly less biofilm (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) than bacteria grown in BHI alone. Consistent with this, using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction expression of the ica locus was also shown to be reduced by subinhibitory concentrations of H2O2. Furthermore, diminished ica operon expression correlated with increased expression of icaR, which encodes a repressor of icaADBC. Thus, these data suggest that mild oxidative stress downregulates biofilm development by S. epidermidis and may have potential in a therapeutic context.

Elevated mutation frequency in surviving populations of carbon-starved rpoS-deficient Pseudomonas putida is caused by reduced expression of superoxide dismutase and catalase

RpoS is a bacterial sigma factor of RNA polymerase which is involved in the expression of a large number of genes to facilitate survival under starvation conditions and other stresses. The results of our study demonstrate that the frequency of emergence of base substitution mutants is significantly increased in long-term-starved populations of rpoS-deficient Pseudomonas putida cells. The increasing effect of the lack of RpoS on the mutation frequency became apparent in both a plasmid-based test system measuring Phe(+) reversion and a chromosomal rpoB system detecting rifampin-resistant mutants. The elevated mutation frequency coincided with the death of about 95% of the cells in a population of rpoS-deficient P. putida. Artificial overexpression of superoxide dismutase or catalase in the rpoS-deficient strain restored the survival of cells and resulted in a decline in the mutation frequency. This indicated that, compared to wild-type bacteria, rpoS-deficient cells are less protected against damage caused by reactive oxygen species. 7,8-Dihydro-8-oxoguanine (GO) is known to be one of the most stable and frequent base modifications caused by oxygen radical attack on DNA. However, the spectrum of base substitution mutations characterized in rpoS-deficient P. putida was different from that in bacteria lacking the GO repair system: it was broader and more similar to that identified in the wild-type strain. Interestingly, the formation of large deletions was also accompanied by a lack of RpoS. Thus, the accumulation of DNA damage other than GO elevates the frequency of mutation in these bacteria. It is known that oxidative damage of proteins and membrane components, but not that of DNA, is a major reason for the death of cells. Since the increased mutation frequency was associated with a decline in the viability of bacteria, we suppose that the elevation of the mutation frequency in the surviving population of carbon-starved rpoS-deficient P. putida may be caused both by oxidative damage of DNA and enzymes involved in DNA replication and repair fidelity.

Phagocytic superoxide specifically damages an extracytoplasmic target to inhibit or kill Salmonella

Background

The phagocytic oxidative burst is a primary effector of innate immunity that protects against bacterial infection. However, the mechanism by which reactive oxygen species (ROS) kill or inhibit bacteria is not known. It is often assumed that DNA is a primary target of oxidative damage, consistent with known effects of endogenously produced ROS in the bacterial cytoplasm. But most studies fail to distinguish between effects of host derived ROS versus damage caused by endogenous bacterial sources. We took advantage of both the ability of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to survive in macrophages and the genetic tractability of the system to test the hypothesis that phagocytic superoxide damages cytoplasmic targets including DNA.

Methodology/Principal Findings

SodCI is a periplasmic Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD) that contributes to the survival of Salmonella Typhimurium in macrophages. Through competitive virulence assays, we asked if sodCI has a genetic interaction with various cytoplasmic systems. We found that SodCI acts independently of cytoplasmic SODs, SodA and SodB. In addition, SodCI acts independently of the base excision repair system and RuvAB, involved in DNA repair. Although sodCI did show genetic interaction with recA, this was apparently independent of recombination and is presumably due to the pleiotropic effects of a recA mutation.

Conclusions/Significance

Taken together, these results suggest that bacterial inhibition by phagocytic superoxide is primarily the result of damage to an extracytoplasmic target.

Regulation of superoxide dismutase (sod) genes by SarA in Staphylococcus aureus

The scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells is regulated by several interacting factors, including transcriptional regulators. Involvement of sarA family genes in the regulation of proteins involved in the scavenging of ROS is largely unknown. In this report, we show that under aerobic conditions, the levels of sodM and sodA transcription, in particular the sodM transcript, are markedly enhanced in the sarA mutant among the tested sarA family mutants. Increased levels of sod expression returned to near the parental level in a single-copy sarA complemented strain. Under microaerophilc conditions, transcription of both sodM and sodA was considerably enhanced in the sarA mutant compared to the wild-type strain. Various genotypic, phenotypic, and DNA binding studies confirmed the involvement of SarA in the regulation of sod transcripts in different strains of Staphylococcus aureus. The sodA mutant was sensitive to an oxidative stress-inducing agent, methyl viologen, but the sarA sodA double mutant was more resistant to the same stressor than the single sodA mutant. These results suggest that overexpression of SodM, which occurs in the sarA background, can rescue the methyl viologen-sensitive phenotype observed in the absence of the sodA gene. Analysis with various oxidative stress-inducing agents indicates that SarA may play a greater role in modulating oxidative stress resistance in S. aureus. This is the first report that demonstrates the direct involvement of a regulatory protein (SarA) in control of sod expression in S. aureus.

Bleach activates a redox-regulated chaperone by oxidative protein unfolding

Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), the active ingredient in household bleach, is an effective antimicrobial produced by the mammalian host defense to kill invading microorganisms. Despite the widespread use of HOCl, surprisingly little is known about its mode of action. In this study, we demonstrate that low molar ratios of HOCl to protein cause oxidative protein unfolding in vitro and target thermolabile proteins for irreversible aggregation in vivo. As a defense mechanism, bacteria use the redox-regulated chaperone Hsp33, which responds to bleach treatment with the reversible oxidative unfolding of its C-terminal redox switch domain. HOCl-mediated unfolding turns inactive Hsp33 into a highly active chaperone holdase, which protects essential Escherichia coli proteins against HOCl-induced aggregation and increases bacterial HOCl resistance. Our results substantially improve our molecular understanding about HOCl's functional mechanism. They suggest that the antimicrobial effects of bleach are largely based on HOCl's ability to cause aggregation of essential bacterial proteins.

Role of NADPH phagocyte oxidase in host defense against acute respiratory Acinetobacter baumannii infection in mice

Acinetobacter baumannii is an emerging bacterial pathogen that rapidly develops multiple-drug resistance and is responsible for many nosocomial pulmonary infections. This study investigated the role of the NADPH phagocyte oxidase (phox) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) in the host defense against respiratory infection with A. baumannii in mouse models of intranasal A. baumannii infection. gp91(phox-/-) mice showed higher susceptibility to A. baumannii infection than wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice, with significantly greater bacterial counts in their lungs (1,000-fold) (P < 0.005) and spleens (10-fold) (P < 0.05). Moreover, all of the gp91(phox-/-) mice succumbed to infection within 48 h. In contrast, only a moderate increase in bacterial burdens was detected in the lungs of NOS2(-/-) mice, and all NOS2(-/-) mice survived infection. Compared to WT mice, the pulmonary influx of inflammatory cells and serum and local inflammatory cytokine/chemokine responses were not obviously impaired at 4 h and were significantly higher at 24 h (P < 0.05) in gp91(phox-/-) mice, but NADPH-deficient neutrophils were unable to control bacterial replication and extrapulmonary dissemination. Thus, NADPH phagocyte oxidase appears to play a crucial role in the neutrophil-mediated host defense against A. baumannii.

The histone methylase KMTox interacts with the redox-sensor peroxiredoxin-1 and targets genes involved in Toxoplasma gondii antioxidant defences

The ability of living cells to alter their gene expression patterns in response to environmental changes is essential for viability. Oxidative stress represents a common threat for all aerobic life. In normally growing cells, in which hydrogen peroxide generation is transient or pulsed, the antioxidant systems efficiently control its concentration. Intracellular parasites must also protect themselves against the oxidative burst imposed by the host. In this work, we have investigated the role of KMTox, a new histone lysine methyltransferase, in the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii. KMTox is a nuclear protein that holds a High Mobility Group domain, which is thought to recognize bent DNA. The enzyme methylates both histones H4 and H2A in vitro with a great preference for the substrate in reduced conditions. Importantly, KMTox interacts specifically with the typical 2-cys peroxiredoxin-1 and the binding is to some extent enhanced upon oxidation. It appears that the cellular functions that are primarily regulated by the KMTox are antioxidant defences and maintenance of cellular homeostasis. KMTox may regulate gene expression in T. gondii by providing the rapid re-arrangement of chromatin domains and by interacting with the redox-sensor TgPrx1 contribute to establish the antioxidant 'firewall' in T. gondii.

DNA repair of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine lesions in Porphyromonas gingivalis

The persistence of Porphyromonas gingivalis in the inflammatory environment of the periodontal pocket requires an ability to overcome oxidative stress. DNA damage is a major consequence of oxidative stress. Unlike the case for other organisms, our previous report suggests a role for a non-base excision repair mechanism for the removal of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxo-G) in P. gingivalis. Because the uvrB gene is known to be important in nucleotide excision repair, the role of this gene in the repair of oxidative stress-induced DNA damage was investigated. A 3.1-kb fragment containing the uvrB gene was PCR amplified from the chromosomal DNA of P. gingivalis W83. This gene was insertionally inactivated using the ermF-ermAM antibiotic cassette and used to create a uvrB-deficient mutant by allelic exchange. When plated on brucella blood agar, the mutant strain, designated P. gingivalis FLL144, was similar in black pigmentation and beta-hemolysis to the parent strain. In addition, P. gingivalis FLL144 demonstrated no significant difference in growth rate, proteolytic activity, or sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide from that of the parent strain. However, in contrast to the wild type, P. gingivalis FLL144 was significantly sensitive to UV irradiation. The enzymatic removal of 8-oxo-G from duplex DNA was unaffected by the inactivation of the uvrB gene. DNA affinity fractionation identified unique proteins that preferentially bound to the oligonucleotide fragment carrying the 8-oxo-G lesion. Collectively, these results suggest that the repair of oxidative stress-induced DNA damage involving 8-oxo-G may occur by a still undescribed mechanism in P. gingivalis.

Changes in the proteome and infectivity of Leishmania infantum induced by in vitro exposure to a nitric oxide donor

Leishmania species are protozoan parasites that exhibit an intracellular amastigote form within mammalian macrophages and an extracellular promastigote form inside the sandfly vector. The generation of nitric oxide (NO) upon activation of macrophages is surely the principal killing effector of intracellular amastigotes but little is known about the potential action of NO against the promastigote phase during its multiplication inside the digestive tract of the sandfly vector. Therefore, we have approached this issue by using an in vitro model to study the effect of an NO donor, 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1), on the proteome and infectivity of promastigotes of Leishmania infantum. Exposure of promastigotes to SIN-1 during its logarithmic growth phase caused a dramatic effect on parasite protein expression and viability, consequently killing about 60-70% of the promastigotes. The significant changes in the proteome included the over-expression of enolase, peroxidoxin precursors, and heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70), under-expression of 20S proteasome alpha 5 unit, and phosphomannomutase and induced expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methyglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) synthase and prostaglandine f2-alpha (PGD2) synthase. Interestingly, promastigotes that resisted treatment showed enhanced infectivity to J774 macrophages in comparison to the controls. This finding together with the appearance of the PGD2S and an over-expression of HSP70 isoforms in treated promastigotes led us to speculate the existence of NO-mediated programmed cell death (PCD) events as a potential mechanism of population regulation and selection of properly infecting forms that predominantly operate on the promastigote stage.

The LysR-type transcriptional regulator Hrg counteracts phagocyte oxidative burst and imparts survival advantage to Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

LysR-type transcriptional regulators (LTTRs) are one of the key players that help bacteria adapt to different environments. We have designated STM0952, a putative LTTR in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), as hydrogen peroxide resistance gene (hrg). A hrg knockout mutant of S. Typhimurium was sensitive to oxidative products of the respiratory burst, specifically to H(2)O(2). The hrg mutant is profoundly attenuated in a murine model of infection and showed decreased intracellular proliferation in macrophages. It also induced increased amounts of reactive oxygen species and co-localization with gp91phox in the macrophage cell line, when compared to the wild-type. A strain overexpressing the hrg gene showed a survival advantage over the wild-type Salmonella under H(2)O(2)-induced stress. Microarray analysis suggested the presence of an Hrg regulon, which is required for resistance to the toxic oxidative products of the reticuloendothelial system.

Calorie restriction and susceptibility to intact pathogens

Long-term calorie restriction (CR) causes numerous physiological changes that ultimately increase mean and maximum lifespan of most species examined to date. One physiological change that occurs with CR is enhanced immune function, as tested using antigens and mitogens to stimulate an immune response. Fewer studies have used intact pathogen exposure to test whether the enhanced capacity of the immune response during CR actually decreases susceptibility of hosts to their pathogens. So far, studies using intact bacteria, virus, and helminth worm exposure indicate that, despite similar or enhanced immune system function, CR hosts are more susceptible to infection by intact pathogens than their fully fed counterparts. Long-term CR studies that examine susceptibility to a variety of parasite taxa will help determine if direct CR or CR mimetics will be beneficial to people living in pathogen-rich environments.

Complete genome of Phenylobacterium zucineum--a novel facultative intracellular bacterium isolated from human erythroleukemia cell line K562

Background

Phenylobacterium zucineum is a recently identified facultative intracellular species isolated from the human leukemia cell line K562. Unlike the known intracellular pathogens, P. zucineum maintains a stable association with its host cell without affecting the growth and morphology of the latter.

Results

Here, we report the whole genome sequence of the type strain HLK1^T. The genome consists of a circular chromosome (3,996,255 bp) and a circular plasmid (382,976 bp). It encodes 3,861 putative proteins, 42 tRNAs, and a 16S-23S-5S rRNA operon. Comparative genomic analysis revealed that it is phylogenetically closest to Caulobacter crescentus, a model species for cell cycle research. Notably, P. zucineum has a gene that is strikingly similar, both structurally and functionally, to the cell cycle master regulator CtrA of C. crescentus, and most of the genes directly regulated by CtrA in the latter have orthologs in the former.

Conclusion

This work presents the first complete bacterial genome in the genus Phenylobacterium. Comparative genomic analysis indicated that the CtrA regulon is well conserved between C. crescentus and P. zucineum.

Intracellular microbes and haemophagocytosis

Haemophagocytosis (hemophagocytosis) is the phenomenon of activated macrophage consumption of red and white blood cells, including professional phagocytes and lymphocytes. It can occur in patients with severe cases of intracellular microbial infection, including avian influenza, leishmaniasis, tuberculosis and typhoid fever. While well-known to physicians since at least the mid-1800s, haemophagocytosis has been little studied due to a paucity of tractable animal and cell culture models. Recently, haemophagocytosis has been described in a mouse model of typhoid fever, and it was noted that the infectious agent, Salmonella enterica, resides within haemophagocytic macrophages in mice. In addition, a cell culture model for haemophagocytosis revealed that S. enterica preferentially replicate in haemophagocytic macrophages. This review describes how, at the molecular and cellular levels, S. enterica may promote and take advantage of haemophagocytosis to establish long-term systemic infections in mammals. The role, relevance and possible molecular mechanisms of haemophagocytosis are discussed within the context of other microbial infections and of genetic deficiencies in which haemophagocytosis occurs and is associated with morbidity.

Transcriptional analysis of Mycobacterium fortuitum cultures upon hydrogen peroxide treatment using the novel standard rrnA-P1

BACKGROUND

The ability of an intracellular pathogen to establish infection depends on the capacity of the organism to survive and replicate inside the host. Mycobacterium fortuitum is a bacteria that contains genes involved in the detoxification of the oxygen reactive species such as those produced by the host during the infection. In this work, we investigate the effects of hydrogen peroxide on the transcription and expression of these genes by developing a real time quantitative PCR technique (qRT-PCR) using the ribosomal promoter region (rrnA-P1) as reference product for quantification of the mRNA levels.

RESULTS

M. fortuitum cultures were treated with different hydrogen peroxide concentrations (0.02 to 20 mM) during several periods of time (30 to 120 minutes). The activity of the enzymes KatGII and SodA, and the transcription of corresponding genes were evaluated. The transcriptional regulator furAII gene was also studied. The ribosomal promoter region rrnA-P1 was validated as referential product under the stress conditions checked by qRT-PCR. Minor changes were observed under the conditions tested except when bacteria were incubated in the presence of 20 mM hydrogen peroxide. Under those conditions, the levels of transcription of the three genes under study increased at 30 minutes of treatment. The viability of the bacteria was not influenced under the conditions tested.

CONCLUSION

In this work, we have quantified transcriptional responses to stress suggesting that, the opportunistic pathogen M. fortuitum is more resistant and differs in behaviour in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, when compared to the major pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the saprophyte Mycobacterium smegmatis. Besides, we demonstrate the mycobacterial non-coding region rrnA-P1 to be a suitable reference product in the analysis of qRT-PCR transcriptional data of M. fortuitum.

Quantifying changes in the thiol redox proteome upon oxidative stress in vivo

Antimicrobial levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by the mammalian host defense to kill invading bacteria and limit bacterial colonization. One main in vivo target of ROS is the thiol group of proteins. We have developed a quantitative thiol trapping technique termed OxICAT to identify physiologically important target proteins of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and hypochlorite (NaOCl) stress in vivo. OxICAT allows the precise quantification of oxidative thiol modifications in hundreds of different proteins in a single experiment. It also identifies the affected proteins and defines their redox-sensitive cysteine(s). Using this technique, we identified a group of Escherichia coli proteins with significantly (30-90%) oxidatively modified thiol groups, which appear to be specifically sensitive to either H(2)O(2) or NaOCl stress. These results indicate that individual oxidants target distinct proteins in vivo. Conditionally essential E. coli genes encode one-third of redox-sensitive proteins, a finding that might explain the bacteriostatic effect of oxidative stress treatment. We identified a select group of redox-regulated proteins, which protect E. coli against oxidative stress conditions. These experiments illustrate that OxICAT, which can be used in a variety of different cell types and organisms, is a powerful tool to identify, quantify, and monitor oxidative thiol modifications in vivo.

Modulating temporal control of NF-kappaB activation: implications for therapeutic and assay selection

The activation of transcription factor NF-kappaB (nuclear factor-kappaB) plays a central role in the induction of many inflammatory response genes. This process is characterized by either oscillations or stable induction of NF-kappaB nuclear binding. Changes in dynamics of binding result in the expression of distinct subsets of genes leading to different physiological outcomes. We examined NF-kappaB DNA binding activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated IC-21 cells by electromobility shift assay and nonradioactive transcription factor assay and interpreted the results using a kinetic model of NF-kappaB activation. Both assays detected damped oscillatory behavior of NF-kappaB with differences in sensitivity and reproducibility. 3,4-Dichloropropionaniline (DCPA) was used to modulate the oscillatory behavior of NF-kappaB after LPS stimulation. DCPA is known to inhibit the production of two NF-kappaB-inducible cytokines, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, by reducing but not completely abrogating NF-kappaB-induced transcription. DCPA treatment resulted in a potentiation of early LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation. The nonradioactive transcription factor assay, which has a higher signal/noise ratio than the electromobility shift assay, combined with in silico modeling, produced results that revealed changes in NF-kappaB dynamics which, to the best of our knowledge, have never been previously reported. These results highlight the importance of cell type and stimulus specificity in transcription factor activity assessment. In addition, assay selection has important implications for network inference and drug discovery.

Interleukin-13 neutralization modulates interleukin-13 induced suppression of reactive oxygen species production in peritoneal macrophages in a murine T-cell lymphoma

IL-13 is a Th2 cytokine that regulates the effector functions and alters the phenotype and function of normal macrophages switching to alternatively activated or type II polarized macrophages. The type II polarized macrophages differ from normal macrophages greatly in terms of receptor expression, NO and other cytokine production. It produces chemokines that preferentially attract Th2 cells, which increases the local concentration of Th2 cytokines including IL-13. As a result, normal macrophage population gets polarized as type II macrophages at the site of the tumor-microenvironment. In the present investigation, we have determined the IL-13 serum level in DL-bearing host and the effect of IL-13 on peritoneal macrophages harvested from normal healthy, control DL-bearing, and treated DL-bearing mice with respect to reactive oxygen intermediate production. It has been observed that IL-13 significantly inhibits the ROI generation in all macrophage types while by neutralizing with invivo administration of IL-13R*2 and/or potentiation with Th1 cytokine, the production of reactive oxygen intermediate increases, which indicates that IL-13R*2 and/or potentiation with Th1 cytokine could restore the cytotoxic ability of macrophage in a murine T-cell lymphoma.

Gingipain-dependent interactions with the host are important for survival of Porphyromonas gingivalis

Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major periodontal pathogen, must acquire nutrients from host derived substrates, overcome oxidative stress and subvert the immune system. These activities can be coordinated via the gingipains which represent the most significant virulence factor produced by this organism. In the context of our contribution to this field, we will review the current understanding of gingipain biogenesis, glycosylation, and regulation, as well as discuss their role in oxidative stress resistance and apoptosis. We can postulate a model, in which gingipains may be part of the mechanism for P. gingivalis virulence.

Quantitative nitric oxide production by rat, bovine and porcine macrophages

The aim of this work was to compare in vitro nitric oxide (NO) production by rat, bovine and porcine macrophages. NO production was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) with ionomycin or recombinant interferon gamma (rIFN-gamma) and was assessed by Griess reaction. NO synthase type II (NOS II) expression was quantified by immunocytochemistry, Western blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). There were differences in NO production by pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM) in all species tested. The largest amounts of NO were produced by rat PAM. Less NO was produced by bovine PAM. Moreover, PAM in rats and cows differed in their abilities to respond to various stimulators. Neither porcine PAM nor Kupffer cells produced NO. Stimulation of porcine PAM with alternative concentrations of LPS did not lead to inducing NO production. Stimulation of porcine PAM with rIFN-gamma together with LPS led to a significant increase in the expression of NOS II mRNA, albeit without detectable NO production or NOS II expression on the protein level.

An ICT-based approach to ratiometric fluorescence imaging of hydrogen peroxide produced in living cells

We present the synthesis, properties, and biological applications of Peroxy Lucifer 1 (PL1), a new fluorescent probe for imaging hydrogen peroxide produced in living cells by a ratiometric response. PL1 utilizes a chemoselective boronate-based switch to detect hydrogen peroxide by modulation of internal charge transfer (ICT) within a 1,8-naphthalimide dye. PL1 features high selectivity for hydrogen peroxide over similar reactive oxygen species, including superoxide, and nitric oxide, and a 65 nm shift in emission from blue-colored fluorescence to green-colored fluorescence upon reaction with peroxide. Two-photon confocal microscopy experiments in live macrophages show that PL1 can ratiometrically visualize localized hydrogen peroxide bursts generated in living cells at immune response levels.

The timing of TNF and IFN-gamma signaling affects macrophage activation strategies during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

During most infections, the population of immune cells known as macrophages are key to taking up and killing bacteria as an integral part of the immune response. However, during infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), host macrophages serve as the preferred environment for mycobacterial growth. Further, killing of Mtb by macrophages is impaired unless they become activated. Activation is induced by stimulation from bacterial antigens and inflammatory cytokines derived from helper T cells. The key macrophage-activating cytokines in Mtb infection are tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) and interferon (IFN)-gamma. Due to differences in cellular sources and secretion pathways for TNF and IFN-gamma, the possibility of heterogeneous cytokine distributions exists, suggesting that the timing of macrophage activation from these signals may affect activation kinetics and thus impact the outcome of Mtb infection. Here we use a mathematical model to show that negative feedback from production of nitric oxide (the key mediator of mycobacterial killing) that typically optimizes macrophage responses to activating stimuli may reduce effective killing of Mtb. Statistical sensitivity analysis predicts that if TNF and IFN-gamma signals precede infection, the level of negative feedback may have a strong effect on how effectively macrophages kill Mtb. However, this effect is relaxed when IFN-gamma or TNF+IFN-gamma signals are received coincident with infection. Under these conditions, the model suggests that negative feedback induces fast responses and an initial overshoot of nitric oxide production for given doses of TNF and IFN-gamma, favoring killing of Mtb. Together, our results suggest that direct entry of macrophages into a granuloma site (and not distal to it) from lung vascular sources represents a preferred host strategy for mycobacterial control. We examine implications of these results in establishment of latent Mtb infection.

Fenretinide Corrects Newly Found Ceramide Deficiency in Cystic Fibrosis

Chronic and persistent lung infections cause the majority of morbidity and mortality in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Galactosyl ceramide has been previously shown to be involved in Pseudomonas internalization. Therefore, we assessed ceramide levels in the plasma of patients with CF and compared them to healthy volunteers using high-performance liquid chromatography followed by mass spectrometry. Our results demonstrate that patients with CF display significantly lower levels of several ceramide sphingolipid species, specifically C14:0, C20:1, C22:0, C22:1, and C24:0 ceramides, and dihydroxy ceramide (DHC16:0). We report that Cftr-knockout mice display diminished ceramide levels in CF-related organs (lung, pancreas, ileum, and plasma) compared with their littermate controls. Since it has been previously reported that in vitro treatment with fenretinide induced ceramide in neuroblastoma cell lines, we decided to test this drug in vivo using our Cftr-knockout mice in an attempt to correct this newly identified defect in ceramide levels. We demonstrate that treatment with fenretinide is able to increase ceramide concentrations in CF-related organs. We further assessed the biological effect of fenretinide on the ability of Cftr-knockout mice to combat lung infection with P. aeruginosa. Our data show dramatic improvement in the ability of Cftr-knockout mice to control P. aeruginosa infection. Overall, these findings not only document a novel deficiency in several ceramide species in patients with CF, but also demonstrate a pharmacologic means to correct this defect in Cftr-knockout mice. Our data provide a strong rationale for clinical intervention that may benefit patients with CF suffering from CF lung disease.

Airway smooth muscle relaxation is impaired in mice lacking the p47phox subunit of NAD(P)H oxidase

NAD(P)H oxidase is one of the critical enzymes mediating cellular production of reactive oxygen species and has a central role in airway smooth muscle (ASM) cell proliferation. Since reactive oxygen species also affect ASM contractile response, we hypothesized a regulatory role of NAD(P)H oxidase in ASM contractility. We therefore studied ASM function in wild-type mice (C57BL/6J) and mice deficient in a component (p47phox) of NAD(P)H oxidase. In histological sections of the trachea, we found that the area occupied by ASM was 17% more in p47(phox-/-) than in wild-type mice. After correcting for the difference in ASM content, we found that force generation did not vary between the two genotypes. Similarly, their ASM shortening velocity, maximal power, and sensitivity to acetylcholine, as well as airway responsiveness to methacholine in vivo, were not significantly different. The main finding of this study was a significantly reduced ASM relaxation in p47phox-/- compared with wild-type mice both during the stimulus and after the end of stimulation. The tension relaxation attained at the 20th second of electric field stimulation was, respectively, 17.6 +/- 2.4 and 9.2 +/- 2.3% in null and wild-type mice (P <0.01 by t-test). Similar significant differences were found in the rate of tension relaxation and the time required to reduce tension by one-half. Our data suggest that NAD(P)H oxidase may have a role in the structural arrangement and mechanical properties of the airway tissue. Most importantly, we report the first evidence that the p47phox subunit of NAD(P)H oxidase plays a role in ASM relaxation.

Toxicogenomic response to chlorination includes induction of major virulence genes in Staphylococcus aureus

Despite the widespread use of chlorination for microbial control in aqueous environments, cellular response mechanisms of human pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, against chlorination remain unknown. In this work, genome-wide transcriptional analysis was performed to elucidate cellular response of S. aureusto hypochlorous acid, an active antimicrobial product of chlorination in aqueous solution. Our results suggest that hypochlorous acid repressed transcription of genes involved in cell wall synthesis, membrane transport, protein synthesis, and primary metabolism, while amino acid synthesis genes were induced. Furthermore, hypochlorous acid induced transcription of genes encoding major virulence factors of S. aureus, such as exotoxins, hemolysins, leukocidins, coagulases, and surface adhesion proteins, which all play essential roles in staphylococcal virulence. This work implies that chlorination may stimulate production of virulence factors, which provides new insight into host-pathogen interactions and effects of chlorine application for microbial control.

A role for Haemophilus ducreyi Cu,ZnSOD in resistance to heme toxicity

The Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (Cu,ZnSOD) from Haemophilus ducreyi is the only enzyme of this class which binds a heme molecule at its dimer interface. To explore the role of the enzyme in this heme-obligate bacterium, a sodC mutant was created by insertional inactivation. No difference in growth rate was observed during heme limitation. In contrast, under heme rich conditions growth of the sodC mutant was impaired compared to the wild type strain. This growth defect was abolished by supplementation of exogenous catalase. Genetic complementation of the sodC mutant in trans demonstrated that the enzymatic property or the heme-binding activity of the protein could repair the growth defect of the sodC mutant. These results indicate that Cu,ZnSOD protects Haemophilus ducreyi from heme toxicity.

A proteomic approach for the identification of bismuth-binding proteins in Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is a major human pathogen that can cause peptic ulcers and chronic gastritis. Bismuth-based triple or quadruple therapies are commonly recommended for the treatment of H. pylori infections. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying treatment with bismuth are currently not fully understood. We have conducted a detailed comparative proteomic analysis of H. pylori cells both before and after treatment with colloidal bismuth subcitrate (CBS). Eight proteins were found to be significantly upregulated or downregulated in the presence of CBS (20 microg mL(-1)). Bismuth-induced oxidative stress was confirmed by detecting higher levels of lipid hydroperoxide (approximately 1.8 times) and hemin (approximately 3.4 times), in whole cell extracts of bismuth-treated H. pylori cells, compared with those from untreated cells. The presence of bismuth also led to an approximately eightfold decrease in cellular protease activities. Using immobilized-bismuth affinity chromatography, we isolated and subsequently identified seven bismuth-binding proteins from H. pylori cell extracts. The intracellular levels of four of these proteins (HspA, HspB, NapA and TsaA) were influenced by the addition of CBS, which strongly suggests that they interact directly with bismuth. The other bismuth-interacting proteins identified were two enzymes (fumarase and the urease subunit UreB), and a translational factor (Ef-Tu). Our data suggest that the inhibition of proteases, modulation of cellular oxidative stress and interference with nickel homeostasis may be key processes underlying the molecular mechanism of bismuth's actions against H. pylori.

Malaria circumsporozoite protein inhibits the respiratory burst in Kupffer cells

After transmission by infected mosquitoes, malaria sporozoites rapidly travel to the liver. To infect hepatocytes, sporozoites traverse Kupffer cells, but surprisingly, the parasites are not killed by these resident macrophages of the liver. Here we show that Plasmodium sporozoites and recombinant circumsporozoite protein (CSP) suppress the respiratory burst in Kupffer cells. Sporozoites and CSP increased the intracellular concentration of cyclic adenosyl mono-phosphate (cAMP) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate in Kupffer cells, but not in hepatocytes or liver endothelia. Preincubation with cAMP analogues or inhibition of phosphodiesterase also inhibited the respiratory burst. By contrast, adenylyl cyclase inhibition abrogated the suppressive effect of sporozoites. Selective protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitors failed to reverse the CSP-mediated blockage and stimulation of the exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC), but not PKA inhibited the respiratory burst. Both blockage of the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP-1) with receptor-associated protein and elimination of cell surface proteoglycans inhibited the cAMP increase in Kupffer cells. We propose that by binding of CSP to LRP-1 and cell surface proteoglycans, malaria sporozoites induce a cAMP/EPAC-dependent, but PKA-independent signal transduction pathway that suppresses defence mechanisms in Kupffer cells. This allows the sporozoites to safely pass through these professional phagocytes and to develop inside neighbouring hepatocytes.

Proteomic identification and characterization of bacterial factors associated with Burkholderia cenocepacia survival in a murine host

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a member of the Burkholderia cepacia complex, a diverse family of Gram-negative bacteria that are serious respiratory pathogens in immunocompromised patients and individuals with cystic fibrosis. To identify putative bacterial virulence determinants, proteomic profiles were compared between two B. cenocepacia isolates that demonstrated differential persistence in a mouse model of pulmonary infection; clinical isolate C1394 is rapidly cleared from the murine lung whereas the strain variant, C1394mp2, persists. Two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis was used to identify candidate proteins involved in B. cenocepacia survival in a susceptible host. The 2D proteome of the persistent isolate (C1394mp2) revealed loss of an alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C (AhpC) protein spot and increased production of flagellin proteins. Loss of AhpC expression in C1394mp2 correlated with enhanced susceptibility to oxidative stress. C1394mp2 expressed increased flagellin production and enhanced swimming motility, traits that were subject to regulation by heat and low pH. Together, these results revealed differential expression and stress regulation of putative virulence determinants associated with B. cenocepacia persistence in a susceptible host.

Development of antioxidant activity in milk whey during fermentation with lactic acid bacteria

AIMS

To investigate the production of antioxidant activity during fermentation with commonly used dairy starter cultures. Moreover, to study the development of antioxidant activity during fermentation, and the connection to proteolysis and bacterial growth.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Antioxidant activity was measured by analysing the radical scavenging activity using a spectrophotometric decolorization assay and lipid peroxidation inhibition was assayed using liposomal model system with a fluorescence method. Milk was fermented with 25 lactic acid bacterial (LAB) strains, and from these six strains, exhibiting the highest radical scavenging activity was selected for further investigation. Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. cremoris strains, Lactobacillus jensenii (ATCC 25258) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (ATCC 4356) showed the highest activity with both the methods used. However, the radical scavenging activity was stronger than lipid peroxidation inhibition activity. The development of radical scavenging activity was connected to proteolysis with four strains. Molecular distribution profiles showed that fermentates with high scavenging activity also possessed a higher proportion of peptides in the molecular mass range of 4-20 kDa, while others had mostly large polypeptides and compounds below 4 kDa. In addition, the amount of hydrophobic amino acids was higher in these fermentates.

CONCLUSIONS

The development of antioxidant activity was strain-specific characteristic. The development of radical scavengers was more connected to the simultaneous development of proteolysis whereas, lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity was related to bacterial growth. However, high radical scavenging activity was not directly connected to the high degree of proteolysis.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

To the best of our knowledge, this seems to be the first report, which screens possible antioxidant activity among most common dairy LAB strains. Use of such strains improve nutritional value of fermented dairy products.

Oxidant generation by single infected monocytes after short-term fluorescence labeling of a protozoan parasite

Leishmania spp. are intracellular protozoa residing in mononuclear phagocytes. Leishmania organisms are susceptible to microbicidal responses generated in response to phagocytosis. Assuming that both phagocyte and parasite populations are heterogeneous, it is advantageous to examine the response of individual cells phagocytosing living parasites. Because Leishmania spp. lose virulence during the raising of transfectants, we developed a method to label live Leishmania chagasi short-term with fluorescent dyes. Up to six parasite divisions were detected by flow cytometry after labeling with carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE), dioctadecyl-tetramethylindo carbocyanine perchlorate, or chloromethyl tetramethylrhodamine. Labeled parasites entered mononuclear phagocytes as determined by confocal and time-lapse microscopy. Dihydroethidium (DHE) was used to detect macrophage-derived oxidants generated during phagocytosis. Presumably Leishmania organisms are opsonized with host serum/tissue components such as complement prior to phagocytosis. Therefore, we investigated the effects of opsonization and found that this increased the efficiency of CFSE-labeled parasite entry into monocytes (84.6% +/- 8.8% versus 20.2% +/- 3.8% monocytes infected; P < 0.001). Opsonization also increased the percentage of phagocytes undergoing a respiratory burst (66.0% +/- 6.3% versus 41.0% +/- 8.3% of monocytes containing CFSE-labeled parasites; P < 0.001) and the magnitude of oxidant generation by each infected monocyte. Inhibitor data indicated that DHE was oxidized by products of the NADPH oxidase. These data suggest that opsonized serum components such as complement lead to more efficient entry of Leishmania into their target cells but at the same time activate the phagocyte oxidase to generate microbicidal products in infected cells. The parasite must balance these positive and negative survival effects in order to initiate a viable infection.

Degradation of p22phox and inhibition of superoxide generation by Ehrlichia chaffeensis in human monocytes

Ehrlichia chaffeensis is an obligate intracellular bacterium which replicates in monocytes or macrophages, the primary producers of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, effects of ROS on E. chaffeensis infection and whether E. chaffeensis modulates ROS generation in host monocytes are unknown. Here, E. chaffeensis was shown to lose infectivity upon exposure to O(2)(-) or hydrogen peroxide. Upon incubation with human monocytes, E. chaffeensis neither induced O(2)(-) generation by human monocytes, nor colocalized with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase components. Instead, it actively blocked O(2)(-) generation by monocytes stimulated with phorbol myristate acetate and caused the rapid degradation of p22(phox), a component of NADPH oxidase. These effects were not seen in neutrophil, which is another potent ROS generator, but a cell type that E. chaffeensis does not infect. Trypsin pretreatment of monocytes prevented the inhibition of O(2)(-) generation by E. chaffeensis. The degradation of p22(phox) by E. chaffeensis was specific to subsets of monocytes with bound and/or intracellular bacteria, and the degradation could be reduced by heat treatment of the bacterium, lipopolysaccharide pretreatment of monocytes, or the incubation with haemin. The degradation of p22(phox) by E. chaffeensis and its prevention by haemin or protease inhibitors also occurred in isolated monocyte membrane fractions, indicating that host cytoplasmic signalling is not required for these processes. The amount of gp91(phox) was stable under all conditions examined in this study. These findings point to a unique survival mechanism of ROS-sensitive obligate intraleucocytic bacteria that involves the destabilization of p22(phox) following the binding of bacteria to host cell surface proteins.

Modeling the reactions of superoxide and myeloperoxidase in the neutrophil phagosome: implications for microbial killing

Neutrophils kill bacteria by ingesting them into phagosomes where superoxide and cytoplasmic granule constituents, including myeloperoxidase, are released. Myeloperoxidase converts chloride and hydrogen peroxide to hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is strongly microbicidal. However, the role of oxidants in killing and the species responsible are poorly understood and the subject of current debate. To assess what oxidative mechanisms are likely to operate in the narrow confines of the phagosome, we have used a kinetic model to examine the fate of superoxide and its interactions with myeloperoxidase. Known rate constants for reactions of myeloperoxidase have been used and substrate concentrations estimated from neutrophil morphology. In the model, superoxide is generated at several mm/s. Most react with myeloperoxidase, which is present at millimolar concentrations, and rapidly convert the enzyme to compound III. Compound III turnover by superoxide is essential to maintain enzyme activity. Superoxide stabilizes at approximately 25 microM and hydrogen peroxide in the low micromolar range. HOCl production is efficient if there is adequate chloride supply, but further knowledge on chloride concentrations and transport mechanisms is needed to assess whether this is the case. Low myeloperoxidase concentrations also limit HOCl production by allowing more hydrogen peroxide to escape from the phagosome. In the absence of myeloperoxidase, superoxide increases to >100 microM but hydrogen peroxide to only approximately 30 microM. Most of the HOCl reacts with released granule proteins before reaching the bacterium, and chloramine products may be effectors of its antimicrobial activity. Hydroxyl radicals should form only after all susceptible protein targets are consumed.

Toxicogenomic analysis of sodium hypochlorite antimicrobial mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) is routinely used in hospitals and health care facilities for surface sterilization; however, the mechanism of action by which this disinfectant kills and the extent to which Pseudomonas aeruginosa is resistant to sodium hypochlorite have not been elucidated. Consequently, nosocomial infections from P. aeruginosa result in considerable casualties and economic hardship. We report the genome-wide transcriptome response of P. aeruginosa to sodium hypochlorite-induced oxidative stress via the use of DNA microarrays. In addition to a general oxidative stress response, our data revealed a downregulation of virtually all genes related to oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport and an upregulation of many organic sulfur transport and metabolism genes.

Parasiticidal activity of bovine lactoperoxidase against Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligatory intracellular parasitic protozoan transmitted via the ingestion of raw, infected meat that causes congenital infections. In a cell-free environment, virulent Toxoplasma was strikingly resistant to H2O2. The activity of H2O2 or H2O2 generated by glucose – glucose oxidase against the resistant tachyzoite stage of pathogenic T. gondii was enhanced by adding KI and bovine lactoperoxidase (bLPO), referred to here as the bLPO system. Replacing bLPO (heme content, 90%) with recombinant bLPO (heme content, 6%) did not enhance the parasiticidal activity with KI and H2O2. These results indicated that heme contributed to the enzyme activity and resulted in the killing of tachyzoites of T. gondii. Tachyzoites treated with the bLPO system also lost the ability to penetrate the mouse fibroblast cell line (NIH/3T3), and could be killed intracellularly after exposure by bLPO to a mouse macrophage cell line (J774A.1). These findings suggested that toxicity was mediated through small amounts of H2O2 generated by phagocytic events in naive macrophages, and by the peroxidative activity of bLPO. Our observations suggest that the bLPO system could help prevent the development of Toxoplasmosis in humans after ingesting raw, infected meat.

Involvement of pyruvate oxidase activity and acetate production in the survival of Lactobacillus plantarum during the stationary phase of aerobic growth

In addition to the previously characterized pyruvate oxidase PoxB, the Lactobacillus plantarum genome encodes four predicted pyruvate oxidases (PoxC, PoxD, PoxE, and PoxF). Each pyruvate oxidase gene was individually inactivated, and only the knockout of poxF resulted in a decrease in pyruvate oxidase activity under the tested conditions. We show here that L. plantarum has two major pyruvate oxidases: PoxB and PoxF. Both are involved in lactate-to-acetate conversion in the early stationary phase of aerobic growth and are regulated by carbon catabolite repression. A strain devoid of pyruvate oxidase activity was constructed by knocking out the poxB and poxF genes. In this mutant, acetate production was strongly affected, with lactate remaining the major end product of either glucose or maltose fermentation. Notably, survival during the stationary phase appeared to be dramatically improved in the poxB poxF double mutant.

Superoxide dismutase B gene (sodB)-deficient mutants of Francisella tularensis demonstrate hypersensitivity to oxidative stress and attenuated virulence

A Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain mutant (sodB(Ft)) with reduced Fe-superoxide dismutase gene expression was generated and found to exhibit decreased sodB activity and increased sensitivity to redox cycling compounds compared to wild-type bacteria. The sodB(Ft) mutant also was significantly attenuated for virulence in mice. Thus, this study has identified sodB as an important F. tularensis virulence factor.

Enhanced biofilm formation and increased resistance to antimicrobial agents and bacterial invasion are caused by synergistic interactions in multispecies biofilms

Most biofilms in their natural environments are likely to consist of consortia of species that influence each other in synergistic and antagonistic manners. However, few reports specifically address interactions within multispecies biofilms. In this study, 17 epiphytic bacterial strains, isolated from the surface of the marine alga Ulva australis, were screened for synergistic interactions within biofilms when present together in different combinations. Four isolates, Microbacterium phyllosphaerae, Shewanella japonica, Dokdonia donghaensis, and Acinetobacter lwoffii, were found to interact synergistically in biofilms formed in 96-well microtiter plates: biofilm biomass was observed to increase by >167% in biofilms formed by the four strains compared to biofilms composed of single strains. When exposed to the antibacterial agent hydrogen peroxide or tetracycline, the relative activity (exposed versus nonexposed biofilms) of the four-species biofilm was markedly higher than that in any of the single-species biofilms. Moreover, in biofilms established on glass surfaces in flow cells and subjected to invasion by the antibacterial protein-producing Pseudoalteromonas tunicata, the four-species biofilms resisted invasion to a greater extent than did the biofilms formed by the single species. Replacement of each strain by its cell-free culture supernatant suggested that synergy was dependent both on species-specific physical interactions between cells and on extracellular secreted factors or less specific interactions. In summary, our data strongly indicate that synergistic effects promote biofilm biomass and resistance of the biofilm to antimicrobial agents and bacterial invasion in multispecies biofilms.

The novel Helicobacter pylori CznABC metal efflux pump is required for cadmium, zinc, and nickel resistance, urease modulation, and gastric colonization

Maintaining metal homeostasis is crucial for the adaptation of Helicobacter pylori to the gastric environment. Iron, copper, and nickel homeostasis has recently been demonstrated to be required for the establishment of H. pylori infection in animal models. Here we demonstrate that the HP0969-0971 gene cluster encoding the Czc-type metal export pump homologs HP0969, HP0970, and the H. pylori-specific protein HP0971 forms part of a novel H. pylori metal resistance determinant, which is required for gastric colonization and for the modulation of urease activity. Insertional mutagenesis of the HP0971, HP0970, or HP0969 genes in H. pylori reference strain 26695 resulted in increased sensitivity to cadmium, zinc, and nickel (czn), suggesting that the encoded proteins constitute a metal-specific export pump. Accordingly, the genes were designated cznC (HP0971), cznB (HP0970), and cznA (HP0969). The CznC and CznA proteins play a predominant role in nickel homeostasis, since only the cznC and cznA mutants but not the cznB mutant displayed an 8- to 10-fold increase in urease activity. Nickel-specific affinity chromatography demonstrated that recombinant versions of CznC and CznB can bind to nickel and that the purified CznB protein interacted with cadmium and zinc, since both metals competitively inhibited nickel binding. Finally, single cznA, cznB, and cznC mutants did not colonize the stomach in a Mongolian gerbil-based animal model. This demonstrates that the metal export functions of H. pylori cznABC are essential for gastric colonization and underlines the extraordinary importance of metal ion homeostasis for the survival of H. pylori in the gastric environment.

Control ofListeriaSuperoxide Dismutase by Phosphorylation

Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are enzymes that protect organisms against superoxides and reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during their active metabolism. ROS are major mediators of phagocytes microbicidal activity. Here we show that the cytoplasmic Listeria monocytogenes MnSOD is phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues and less active when bacteria reach the stationary phase. We also provide evidence that the most active nonphosphorylated form of MnSOD can be secreted via the SecA2 pathway in culture supernatants and in infected cells, where it becomes phosphorylated. A Deltasod deletion mutant is impaired in survival within macrophages and is dramatically attenuated in mice. Together, our results demonstrate that the capacity to counteract ROS is an essential component of L. monocytogenes virulence. This is the first example of a bacterial SOD post-translationally controlled by phosphorylation, suggesting a possible new host innate mechanism to counteract a virulence factor.

An essential complementary role of NF-kappaB pathway to microbicidal oxidants in Drosophila gut immunity

In the Drosophila gut, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent immunity is critical to host survival. This is in contrast to the NF-kappaB pathway whose physiological function in the microbe-laden epithelia has yet to be convincingly demonstrated despite playing a critical role during systemic infections. We used a novel in vivo approach to reveal the physiological role of gut NF-kappaB/antimicrobial peptide (AMP) system, which has been 'masked' in the presence of the dominant intestinal ROS-dependent immunity. When fed with ROS-resistant microbes, NF-kappaB pathway mutant flies, but not wild-type flies, become highly susceptible to gut infection. This high lethality can be significantly reduced by either re-introducing Relish expression to Relish mutants or by constitutively expressing a single AMP to the NF-kappaB pathway mutants in the intestine. These results imply that the local 'NF-kappaB/AMP' system acts as an essential 'fail-safe' system, complementary to the ROS-dependent gut immunity, during gut infection with ROS-resistant pathogens. This system provides the Drosophila gut immunity the versatility necessary to manage sporadic invasion of virulent pathogens that somehow counteract or evade the ROS-dependent immunity.

Introducing glutathione biosynthetic capability into Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris NZ9000 improves the oxidative-stress resistance of the host

This study describes how a metabolic engineering approach can be used to improve bacterial stress resistance. Some Lactococcus lactis strains are capable of taking up glutathione, and the imported glutathione protects this organism against H(2)O(2)-induced oxidative stress. L. lactis subsp. cremoris NZ9000, a model organism of this species that is widely used in the study of metabolic engineering, can neither synthesize nor take up glutathione. The study described here aimed to improve the oxidative-stress resistance of strain NZ9000 by introducing a glutathione biosynthetic capability. We show that the glutathione produced by strain NZ9000 conferred stronger resistance on the host following exposure to H(2)O(2) (150 mM) and a superoxide generator, menadione (30 microM). To explore whether glutathione can complement the existing oxidative-stress defense systems, we constructed a superoxide dismutase deficient mutant of strain NZ9000, designated as NZ4504, which is more sensitive to oxidative stress, and introduced the glutathione biosynthetic capability into this strain. Glutathione produced by strain NZ4504(pNZ3203) significantly shortens the lag phase of the host when grown aerobically, especially in the presence of menadione. In addition, cells of NZ4504(pNZ3203) capable of producing glutathione restored the resistance of the host to H(2)O(2)-induced oxidative stress, back to the wild-type level. We conclude that the resistance of L. lactis subsp. cremoris NZ9000 to oxidative stress can be increased in engineered cells with glutathione producing capability.

Photosensitized oxidation and inactivation of pyocyanin, a virulence factor of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pyocyanin (PyO-) (1-hydroxy-5-methylphenazine) is a cytotoxic compound secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an omnipresent bacterium and a human pathogen. We report that visible light illumination in the presence of rose bengal, or riboflavin, in aerated solutions (pH 7.0-7.2) induces irreversible loss of the pigment's characteristic absorption band at 690 nm, indicating its oxidation. This photobleaching was paralleled by generation of a multiline Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectrum attributed to a PyO(-)-derived radical. The reaction was dependent on the presence of air, sensitizers and light, was inhibited by sodium azide and was unaffected by ethanol. This suggests that PyO- was oxidized largely via singlet oxygen and that hydroxyl radicals were not involved. The photochemically modified pigment was less efficient in oxidizing NAD(P)H and generated less superoxide (by approximately 50%) than the intact PyO-, indicating its partial inactivation. 1-Methoxy-5-methylphenazine, a PyO- analog in which the -O- moiety was replaced by the methoxy group (-OMe), was resistant to oxidation, suggesting that oxidation of PyO- involves its phenolate moiety. These results also suggest that photosensitization could be a potentially useful method for inactivation of PyO- and, possibly, detoxification of superficial wounds (skin, eye) infected with P. aeruginosa.

Role of epithelial nitric oxide in airway viral infection

The airway mucosal epithelium is the first site of virus contact with the host, and the main site of infection and inflammation. Nitric oxide (NO) produced by the airway epithelium is vital to antiviral inflammatory and immune defense in the lung. Multiple mechanisms function coordinately to support high-level basal NO synthesis in healthy airway epithelium and further induction of NO synthesis in the infected airway of normal hosts. Hosts deficient in NO synthesis, such as those patients with cystic fibrosis, have impaired antiviral defense and may benefit from therapies to augment NO levels in the airways.