2651
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Bild T, Jose J, Hartmann RW. Discovery of Inhibitors of MCF-7 Tumor Cell Adhesion to Endothelial Cells and Investigation on their Mode of Action. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2004; 337:687-94. [PMID: 15597402 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.200400622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis, the main reason for high mortality of cancer, is a multistep process. One important step in this process is the adhesion of tumor cells to vascular endothelium at sites distant from primary tumors during hematogenous dissemination. In order to investigate and quantify the adhesion of tumor cells to endothelial cells we developed an in vitro model using MCF-7 breast cancer cells and monolayers of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The tumor cells were specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye for quantification; for increasing the amount of adherent cells, HUVEC monolayers were stimulated with phorbol ester before the addition of the tumor cells. Due to previous reports that products of several P450 enzymes contribute to the progression of certain kinds of cancer, inhibitors of CYP5 (thromboxane A(2) synthase), CYP17 (17alpha-hydroxylase-C17, 20-lyase), and CYP19 (aromatase) were tested in this in vitro model for their potency to reduce cancer cell adhesion. Within each series of P450 inhibitors, compounds with high inhibitory activity on tumor cell adhesion were identified. At an initial concentration of 100 microM, BW26, a potent inhibitor of CYP5, reduced tumor cell adhesion of MCF-7 to HUVECs to 15%, BW40 (CYP17) to 29%, and SU5a (CYP19) to 11% of the corresponding controls (no inhibitor). Reduction of tumor cell adhesion was shown to occur in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition to these inhibitors of CYP5, CYP17, and CYP19, liarozole, known to be a potent inhibitor of CYP26 (retinoic acid-4-hydroxylase) and ATRA (all-trans-retinoic acid) metabolism, was able to reduce tumor cell adhesion to 51% of the initial rate. Experiments elucidating the mode of action of these compounds revealed that inhibition of the mentioned CYP enzymes is not responsible for their ability to reduce tumor cell adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bild
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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2652
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Enns A, Gassmann P, Schlüter K, Korb T, Spiegel HU, Senninger N, Haier J. Integrins can directly mediate metastatic tumor cell adhesion within the liver sinusoids. J Gastrointest Surg 2004; 8:1049-59; discussion 1060. [PMID: 15585393 DOI: 10.1016/j.gassur.2004.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells can show different malignant properties regarding their ability for organ-specific metastasis formation. Their adhesive and invasive characteristics mediated by various cell adhesion molecules appear to be crucial for this process. Using intravital fluorescence microscopy, we analyzed the adhesive and invasive interactions of circulating human colon carcinoma cells within the microvasculature of the liver in rats. The involvement of different cell adhesion molecules in specific tumor cell-host organ interactions was investigated. Single-cell suspensions of human colon carcinoma with low (HT-29P) and high (HT-29LMM) metastatic potential were fluorescence labeled with calcein-AM and intra-arterially injected into Sprague-Dawley rats. Initial interactions between different cell lines and the microvasculature of the liver were observed over 30 minutes and semiquantitatively analyzed. Different integrin subunits, carbohydrate ligands, and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 were inhibited using function-blocking antibodies or by enzymatic removal. Inhibition of sialyl-Lewis(a) (sLe(a)) or enzymatic removal of selectin carbohydrate ligands significantly reduced metastatic cell adhesion. In addition, alpha6-, beta1-, and beta4-integrins can directly mediate cell adhesion within the hepatic microcirculation. Furthermore, alpha2-, alpha6-, beta1-, and beta4-integrins are involved in early tumor cell extravasation into the liver parenchyma. Organ-specific formation of colorectal metastases appears to be mainly mediated by specific interactions between circulating carcinoma cells and the vessel wall of target organs but not mechanical entrapment. Selectin-sLe(a) interactions with sinusoidal endothelial cells can play a key role in organ-specific targeting, but direct integrin-mediated cell adhesion to extracellular matrix components in the space of Disse appears to be required for the successful formation of liver metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Enns
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of General Surgery, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
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2653
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Laferrière J, Houle F, Huot J. Adhesion of HT-29 colon carcinoma cells to endothelial cells requires sequential events involving E-selectin and integrin beta4. Clin Exp Metastasis 2004; 21:257-64. [PMID: 15387376 DOI: 10.1023/b:clin.0000037708.09420.9a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
HT-29 colon carcinoma cells attach to TNFalpha-activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by their specific binding to E-selectin. This interaction activates, in the cancer cells, the MAPK SAPK2/p38, which leads to their transendothelial migration (Laferrière et al., J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 33762). In this study, we investigated the role of E-selectin in activating integrins to modulate adhesion and regulate integrin-mediated events. Blocking the integrins from HT-29 cells (alpha2, alpha3, alpha6, alphav/beta5, beta1 and beta4) with specific antibodies revealed a role for beta4 integrin in their adhesion to TNFalpha-treated HUVEC. The beta4 integrin-dependent adhesion was maximal after 30 min, whereas the-E-selectin-dependent adhesion was maximal after 15 min. Integrin beta4 became quickly phosphorylated upon addition of HT-29 cells to endothelial cells and the effect was independent of the expression of E-selectin. Moreover, a recombinant E-selectin/Fc chimera did not induce the phosphorylation of beta4. The phosphorylation of beta4 is not required for adhesion since adhesion was not affected in HT-29 cells that express a truncated form of beta4 that is deleted from its cytoplasmic phosphorylatable domain. However, the expression of the non-phosphorylatable deletant of beta4 was associated with decreased transendothelial cell migration underscoring the key role for the cytoplasmic domain of beta4 in cell migration. We suggest: 1) that the adhesion of HT-29 cells to activated endothelial cells follows at least two essential sequential steps involving the binding of E-selectin to its receptor on carcinoma cells and then the binding of beta4 to its own receptor on endothelial cells; 2) that the phosphorylation of integrin beta4 contributes to enhance the motile potential of cancer cells and increase their trans-endothelial migration. Overall, our results indicate that the interaction of metastatic cancer cells with endothelial cells implies a specific sequence of signaling events that ultimately leads to an increase in their efficient transendothelial migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Laferrière
- Le Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de l'Université Laval, L'Hôtel-Dieu de Québec, 9 Rue McMahon, Québec, Canada G1R2J6
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2654
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Wei LH, Lai KP, Chen CA, Cheng CH, Huang YJ, Chou CH, Kuo ML, Hsieh CY. Arsenic trioxide prevents radiation-enhanced tumor invasiveness and inhibits matrix metalloproteinase-9 through downregulation of nuclear factor κB. Oncogene 2004; 24:390-8. [PMID: 15531921 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has been implicated as a promising anticancer agent by inhibiting cell growth and inducing apoptosis in certain types of cancer cells. This study explored the antimetastasis property of arsenic, drew potential link between arsenic use and radiotherapy, and uncovered the specific mechanisms underlying these remarkable responses. Using gelatin invasion assay and intravasation assay, we report the novel finding that low-dose ATO (1 muM) reduced the intrinsic migration ability of HeLa cells and significantly inhibited radiation-promoted tumor invasive potential of CaSki cells without inducing apoptotic cell death. Using the murine Lewis lung carcinoma model, the control animals and ATO treatment animals (1 mg/kg i.p., twice weekly) displayed similar in vivo growth kinetics, whereas the radiation (30 Gy in one fraction) and concurrent treatment groups showed considerable growth inhibition. Importantly, although concurrent treatment did not enhance the effectiveness of radiation therapy to the primary tumor, further examination of the lungs revealed that all animals succumbed to radiation-accelerated lung metastases could be effectively treated by combination of ATO and radiation. Radiation-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression was significantly inhibited by ATO using sequential analysis of the expression of MMPs in xenografts. Supporting this observation, ATO directly downregulates radiation-induced MMP-9 mRNA expression by inhibiting nuclear factor kappaB activity in human cervical cancer cells. In sum, concurrent arsenic-radiation therapy not only achieves local tumor control but also inhibits distant metastasis. Experimental results of this study highlight a novel strategy in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Hung Wei
- Department of Oncology, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
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2655
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Wang X, Hou M, Tan L, Sun X, Zhang Y, Li P, Zhu Y. A hybrid protein of the amino-terminal fragment of urokinase and mutant plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 efficiently inhibits tumor cell invasion and metastasis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2004; 131:129-36. [PMID: 15490235 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-004-0623-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2004] [Accepted: 08/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The urokinase plasminogen activator(uPA) system plays important roles in tumor cell invasion and metastasis. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of ATF-PAI2CD, a hybrid protein of the amino-terminal fragment of urokinase and mutant plasminogen activator inhibitor-2, on 95D cells in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, our results support a current hypothesis that fusion protein blocks tumor invasion and motility by inhibiting localized pericellular proteolysis. Treatment of 95D cells with ATF-PAI2CD resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in tumor-cell invasion through matrigel, and ATF-PAI2CD was much more effective than PAI-2CD. In addition, extracellular regular protein kinase (ERK1/2) expression was downregulated and the adhesion ability to fibronectin was increased in 95D cells treated with the fusion protein, which was confirmed by cell adhesion assay. A high-concentration of ATF-PAI2CD caused a significant reduction in tumor volume and weight in BALB/c (nu/nu) mice female inoculated with human 95D cells (5 x 10(6)); the antitumor effects were significant, which demonstrated a 67.9+/-4.2% reduction in tumor growth compared with control mice. The number of lymphatic metastasis was significantly reduced in mice treated with high- and middle- concentrations of ATF-PAI2CD, whereas a low-concentration of ATF-PAI2CD failed to exhibit any antimetastatic effects. In conclusion, the results suggested that the hybrid protein has therapeutic potential for lung carcinoma and other tumors to inhibit tumor invasion and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Wang
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, 200032 Shanghai, P.R. China.
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2656
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Abstract
The revolution in cancer research can be summed up in a single sentence: cancer is, in essence, a genetic disease. In the last decade, many important genes responsible for the genesis of various cancers have been discovered, their mutations precisely identified, and the pathways through which they act characterized. The purposes of this review are to highlight examples of progress in these areas, indicate where knowledge is scarce and point out fertile grounds for future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bert Vogelstein
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA.
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2657
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Yu HK, Kim JS, Lee HJ, Ahn JH, Lee SK, Hong SW, Yoon Y. Suppression of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastasis and Extension of Survival by Expression of Apolipoprotein(a) Kringles. Cancer Res 2004; 64:7092-8. [PMID: 15466205 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-0364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The formation of hepatic metastases in colorectal cancer is the main cause of patient death. Current therapies directed at hepatic metastasis of colorectal cancer have had minimal impact on outcome. Therefore, alternative treatment strategies for liver metastasis require development. The present study was performed to evaluate the application of cDNA of LK68 encoding apolipoprotein(a) kringles IV-9, IV-10, and V as possible candidates for gene therapy treatment of this life-threatening disease. The murine colorectal cancer cell line CT26 was transduced ex vivo with LK68 cDNA via retroviral gene transfer, and an experimental model of hepatic metastasis was established by injecting LK68-expressing and control cells into the spleens of BALB/c mice. Expression of LK68 did not affect the growth characteristics and viability of transduced CT26 cells in vitro. LK68 produced from CT26 cells substantially inhibited the migration of endothelial cells in vitro. In vivo, substantial suppression of liver metastasis and prolonged survival were observed in mice bearing LK68-expressing CT26 cells, compared with controls. LK68-expressing liver metastases were restricted to smaller sizes and displayed decreased microvessel density and increased tumor cell apoptosis. Our data collectively indicate that LK68 suppresses angiogenesis-dependent progression of prevascular micrometastases to macroscopic tumors and their growth, which are clinically accessible and biologically relevant therapeutic targets. We propose that antiangiogenic gene therapy with LK68 is a promising strategy for the treatment of colorectal cancer liver metastasis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apolipoproteins/biosynthesis
- Apolipoproteins/genetics
- Apoprotein(a)
- Apoptosis/genetics
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Colorectal Neoplasms/blood supply
- Colorectal Neoplasms/metabolism
- Colorectal Neoplasms/pathology
- Colorectal Neoplasms/therapy
- DNA, Complementary/administration & dosage
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Disease Models, Animal
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Genetic Therapy/methods
- Kringles/genetics
- Lipoprotein(a)/biosynthesis
- Lipoprotein(a)/genetics
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/prevention & control
- Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/secondary
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/genetics
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/metabolism
- Neovascularization, Pathologic/therapy
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Kyung Yu
- Mogam Biotechnology Research Institute, Yongin-city, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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2658
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Pinkas J, Martin SS, Leder P. Bcl-2-Mediated Cell Survival Promotes Metastasis of EpH4 βMEKDD Mammary Epithelial Cells. Mol Cancer Res 2004. [DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.551.2.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The majority of patients who succumb to cancer die from metastatic disease progression rather than from the primary tumor. Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying tissue-specific metastasis is essential to the development of effective therapies. The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) pathway is frequently activated in human tumors and has been shown to regulate genes involved in proliferation, migration, and invasion. Studies with MEK-transformed EpH4 mouse mammary epithelial cells showed that these cells are highly tumorigenic but have a limited metastatic ability. Detachment of epithelial cells from the extracellular matrix causes disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and induces apoptosis. Several metastatic breast carcinoma cell lines have been shown to be resistant to cell death following actin disruption. This death-resistant phenotype can be modeled by overexpressing the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 protein in cells. This suggests that mechanisms that regulate survival of extravasated tumor cells may enhance metastatic efficiency. Therefore, we examined whether expression of Bcl-2 in MEK-transformed EpH4 mammary epithelial cells could provide a survival advantage and promote metastasis. Expression of Bcl-2 in parental EpH4 mammary epithelial cells or MEK-transformed cells was insufficient to induce increased migration, invasion, or tumor development. However, Bcl-2 expression markedly enhanced spontaneous lung metastasis from orthotopically implanted primary tumors. These results clearly show that mechanisms that regulate primary tumor development are distinct from those that promote metastasis and that assays designed to isolate genes involved in transformation may fail to identify genes that are critical regulators of metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Pinkas
- Department of Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Stuart S. Martin
- Department of Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Philip Leder
- Department of Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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2659
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Joseph J, Mudduluru G, Antony S, Vashistha S, Ajitkumar P, Somasundaram K. Expression profiling of sodium butyrate (NaB)-treated cells: identification of regulation of genes related to cytokine signaling and cancer metastasis by NaB. Oncogene 2004; 23:6304-15. [PMID: 15318170 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors induce growth arrest and apoptosis in a variety of human cancer cells. Sodium butyrate (NaB), a short chain fatty acid, is a HDAC inhibitor and is produced in the colonic lumen as a consequence of microbial degradation of dietary fibers. In order to dissect out the mechanism of NaB-induced growth inhibition of cancer cells, we carried out expression profiling of a human lung carcinoma cell line (H460) treated with NaB using a cDNA microarray. Of the total 1728 genes analysed, there were 32 genes with a mean expression value of 2.0-fold and higher and 66 genes with a mean expression value 3.0-fold and lower in NaB-treated cells. For a few selected genes, we demonstrate that their expression pattern by semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis is matching with the results obtained by microarray analysis. Closer view at the expression profile of NaB-treated cells revealed the downregulation of a total of 16 genes associated with cytokine signaling, in particular, interferon gamma (IFNgamma) pathway. In good correlation, NaB-pretreated cells failed to induce interferon regulatory factor 1, an INFgamma target gene, efficiently upon IFNgamma addition. These results suggest that NaB inhibits proinflammatory cytokine signaling pathway, thus providing proof of mechanism for its anti-inflammatory activity. We also found that NaB induced three genes, which are known metastatic suppressors, and downregulated 11 genes, which have been shown to promote metastasis. Upregulation of metastatic suppressor Kangai 1 (KAI1) by NaB in a time-dependent manner was confirmed by RT-PCR analysis. The differential regulation of metastasis-associated genes by NaB provides explanation for the anti-invasive properties of NaB. Therefore, our study presents new evidence for pathways regulated by NaB, thus providing evidence for the mechanism behind anti-inflammatory and antimetastatic activities of NaB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeena Joseph
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
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2660
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Shulby SA, Dolloff NG, Stearns ME, Meucci O, Fatatis A. CX3CR1-fractalkine expression regulates cellular mechanisms involved in adhesion, migration, and survival of human prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 2004; 64:4693-8. [PMID: 15256432 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-3437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors might be involved in the selection of specific organs by metastatic cancer cells. For instance, the CXCR4-SDF-1alpha pair regulates adhesion and migration of breast as well as prostate cancer cells to metastatic sites. In this study, we present the first evidence for the expression of CX3CR1--the specific receptor for the chemokine fractalkine--by human prostate cancer cells, whereas human bone marrow endothelial cells and differentiated osteoblasts express fractalkine. The adhesion of prostate cancer cells to human bone marrow endothelial cells in flow conditions is significantly reduced by a neutralizing antibody against fractalkine, and they migrate toward a medium conditioned by osteoblasts, which secrete the soluble form of the chemokine. Finally, fractalkine activates the PI3K/Akt survival pathway in human prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon A Shulby
- Department of Pharmacology, Drexel University, College of Medicine, 245 North 15th Street, New College Building, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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2661
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Mukhina S, Mertani HC, Guo K, Lee KO, Gluckman PD, Lobie PE. Phenotypic conversion of human mammary carcinoma cells by autocrine human growth hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:15166-71. [PMID: 15353581 PMCID: PMC524067 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0405881101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We report here that autocrine production of human growth hormone (hGH) results in a phenotypic conversion of mammary carcinoma cells such that they exhibit the morphological and molecular characteristics of a mesenchymal cell, including expression of fibronectin and vimentin. Autocrine production of hGH resulted in reduced plakoglobin expression and relocalization of E-cadherin to the cytoplasm, leading to dissolution of cell-cell contacts and decreased cell height. These phenotypic changes were accompanied by an increase in cell motility, elevated activity of specific matrix metalloproteinases, and an acquired ability to invade a reconstituted basement membrane. Forced expression of plakoglobin significantly decreased mammary carcinoma cell migration and invasion stimulated by autocrine hGH. In vivo, autocrine hGH stimulated local invasion of mammary carcinoma cells concomitant with a prominent stromal reaction in comparison with well delineated and capsulated growth of mammary carcinoma cells lacking autocrine production of hGH. Thus, autocrine production of hGH by mammary carcinoma cells is sufficient for generation of an invasive phenotype. Therapeutic targeting of autocrine hGH may provide a mechanistic approach to prevent metastatic extension of human mammary carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Mukhina
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 30 Medical Drive, Republic of Singapore 117609
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2662
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Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMT) are vital for morphogenesis during embryonic development and are also implicated in the conversion of early stage tumors into invasive malignancies. Several key inducers of EMT are transcription factors that repress E-cadherin expression. A recent report in Cell (Yang et al., 2004) adds Twist to this list and links EMT to the ability of breast cancer cells to enter the circulation and seed metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibin Kang
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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2663
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Voura EB, Jaiswal JK, Mattoussi H, Simon SM. Tracking metastatic tumor cell extravasation with quantum dot nanocrystals and fluorescence emission-scanning microscopy. Nat Med 2004; 10:993-8. [PMID: 15334072 DOI: 10.1038/nm1096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 545] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2004] [Accepted: 06/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis is an impediment to the development of effective cancer therapies. Our understanding of metastasis is limited by our inability to follow this process in vivo. Fluorescence microscopy offers the potential to follow cells at high resolution in living animals. Semiconductor nanocrystals, quantum dots (QDs), offer considerable advantages over organic fluorophores for this purpose. We used QDs and emission spectrum scanning multiphoton microscopy to develop a means to study extravasation in vivo. Although QD labeling shows no deleterious effects on cultured cells, concern over their potential toxicity in vivo has caused resistance toward their application to such studies. To test if effects of QD labeling emerge in vivo, tumor cells labeled with QDs were intravenously injected into mice and followed as they extravasated into lung tissue. The behavior of QD-labeled tumor cells in vivo was indistinguishable from that of unlabeled cells. QDs and spectral imaging allowed the simultaneous identification of five different populations of cells using multiphoton laser excitation. Besides establishing the safety of QDs for in vivo studies, our approach permits the study of multicellular interactions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn B Voura
- The Rockefeller University, Box 304, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York, USA
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2664
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Jessup JM, Laguinge L, Lin S, Samara R, Aufman K, Battle P, Frantz M, Edmiston KH, Thomas P. Carcinoembryonic antigen induction of IL-10 and IL-6 inhibits hepatic ischemic/reperfusion injury to colorectal carcinoma cells. Int J Cancer 2004; 111:332-7. [PMID: 15221959 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.20264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells cause ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury as they arrest within the hepatic microvasculature with the production of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that kill both host liver and implanting tumor cells. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) both facilitates the survival of experimental metastasis to nude mouse liver by weakly metastatic human colorectal carcinomas (CRCs) and induces the release of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6. We hypothesized that CEA also stimulates the release of the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10 causing inhibition of the toxicity of hepatic I/R injury and indirect stimulation of tumor cell colonization of the liver. Intravenous injection of CEA produced more than 1 ng/ml of IL-10 in the systemic circulation within 1 hr which subsided by 8 hr. The IL-10 response is specific to CEA since the pentapeptide sequence in CEA that binds to the CEA receptor stimulated isolated Kupffer cells to produce IL-10. IL-10, but not IL-6, increased the survival of weakly metastatic CRC cocultured with ischemic-reoxygenated liver fragments but did not affect the survival of CRC exposed to oxidative stress in the absence of any host cells. CEA, IL-6 and IL-10 pretreatment reduced expression of iNOS but only CEA and IL-10 strongly inhibited NO and total reactive species production by ischemic-rexoygenated liver. IL-6 was toxic to CRC exposed to oxidative stress while IL-10 did not have a direct effect on CRC. Thus, CEA stimulates production of IL-10 that may enhance metastasis by promoting the ability of circulating CRC cells to survive the I/R injury of implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Milburn Jessup
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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2665
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Ribeiro-Neto F, Leon A, Urbani-Brocard J, Lou L, Nyska A, Altschuler DL. cAMP-dependent oncogenic action of Rap1b in the thyroid gland. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:46868-75. [PMID: 15331589 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m406858200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
cAMP signaling leads to activation and phosphorylation of Rap1b. Using cellular models where cAMP stimulates cell proliferation, we have demonstrated that cAMP-mediated activation, as well as phosphorylation of Rap1b, is critical for cAMP stimulation of DNA synthesis. To determine whether Rap1b stimulates mitogenesis in vivo, we have constructed a transgenic mouse where a constitutively active G12V-Rap1b, flanked by Cre recombinase LoxP sites, is followed by the dominant negative S17N mutant. Employing this novel mouse model, we have switched, in a tissue-specific (thyroid) and temporally controlled manner, the expression of Rap1b from a stimulatory to an inhibitory form. These experiments provide conclusive evidence that Rap1b is oncogenic in the thyroid in ways linked to transduction of the cAMP mitogenic signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Ribeiro-Neto
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
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2666
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Abstract
Using the Affymetrix array technology, we previously identified an EST strongly expressed in several metastatic cell lines. In the present study, we cloned the corresponding cDNA that encodes a new glycoprotein composed of 97 amino acids and containing a trans-membrane domain. Therefore, we named it SMAGP for Small trans-Membrane And Glycosylated Protein. SMAGP is strongly conserved during evolution. It is expressed by normal epithelia of various organs, the protein being notably localized to the lateral face of the plasma membrane of cohesive well-polarized epithelial cells. In addition, SMAGP contains binding domains for the protein 4.1 and the PDZ domain of MAGUK proteins. Similar protein features are observed in several cell-surface proteins involved via ternary complexes in intercellular processes leading to cytoskeleton assembly as well as intracellular signalling. Thus, SMAGP might similarly be involved in a scaffolding protein complex, and therefore participate in the epithelium organization or in subsequent functions. Immunohistochemical data obtained using human breast, colon and lung cancer samples sustain this hypothesis since they showed that, in both primary tumours and metastases, reduced expression and/or cytoplasmic redistribution of SMAGP is superimposable with low histological tumour differentiation features, namely a lack of epithelial cell polarity and disorganized tissue phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nesrine G Tarbé
- Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Pharma Research, Nonnenwald 2, 82377 Penzberg, Germany
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2667
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Kawada K, Sonoshita M, Sakashita H, Takabayashi A, Yamaoka Y, Manabe T, Inaba K, Minato N, Oshima M, Taketo MM. Pivotal role of CXCR3 in melanoma cell metastasis to lymph nodes. Cancer Res 2004; 64:4010-7. [PMID: 15173015 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors play key roles in leukocyte trafficking and are also implicated in cancer metastasis to specific organs. Here we show that mouse B16F10 melanoma cells constitutively express chemokine receptor CXCR3, and that its ligands CXCL9/Mig, CXCL10/IP-10, and CXCL11/I-TAC induce cellular responses in vitro, such as actin polymerization, migration, invasion, and cell survival. To determine whether CXCR3 could play a role in metastasis to lymph nodes (LNs), we constructed B16F10 cells with reduced CXCR3 expression by antisense RNA and investigated their metastatic activities after s.c. inoculations to syngeneic hosts, C57BL/6 mice. The metastatic frequency of these cells to LNs was markedly reduced to approximately 15% (P < 0.05) compared with the parental or empty vector-transduced cells. On the other hand, pretreatment of mice with complete Freund's adjuvant increased the levels of CXCL9 and CXCL10 in the draining LNs, which caused 2.5-3.0-fold increase (P < 0.05) in the metastatic frequency of B16F10 cells to the nodes with much larger foci. Importantly, such a stimulation of metastasis was largely suppressed when CXCR3 expression in B16F10 cells was reduced by antisense RNA or when mice were treated with specific antibodies against CXCL9 and CXCL10. We also demonstrate that CXCR3 is expressed on several human melanoma cell lines as well as primary human melanoma tissues (5 of 9 samples tested). These results suggest that CXCR3 inhibitors may be promising therapeutic agents for treatment of LN metastasis, including that of melanoma.
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MESH Headings
- Actins/metabolism
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Movement/physiology
- Cell Survival/physiology
- Chemokine CXCL10
- Chemokine CXCL9
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/genetics
- Cytoskeleton/metabolism
- Focal Adhesions/physiology
- Freund's Adjuvant/pharmacology
- Humans
- Lymph Nodes/pathology
- Lymphatic Metastasis
- Melanoma/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/genetics
- Melanoma, Experimental/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Neoplasm Invasiveness
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptors, CXCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kawada
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto
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2668
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Martin SS, Ridgeway AG, Pinkas J, Lu Y, Reginato MJ, Koh EY, Michelman M, Daley GQ, Brugge JS, Leder P. A cytoskeleton-based functional genetic screen identifies Bcl-xL as an enhancer of metastasis, but not primary tumor growth. Oncogene 2004; 23:4641-5. [PMID: 15064711 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Many mouse models of breast cancer form large primary tumors that rarely metastasize. Models with aggressive metastasis express oncoproteins that simultaneously affect growth and apoptosis pathways. To define the role of apoptotic resistance and to model a challenge faced by tumor cells during metastatic dissemination, we focused on apoptosis induced by cell shape change. Inhibiting actin polymerization with Latrunculin-A causes cell rounding and death within hours in nontumorigenic human 10A-Ras mammary epithelial cells. In contrast, MDA-MB-231 metastatic breast tumor cells resist LA-induced death, and survive for days despite cell rounding. Infecting 10A-Ras cells with a MDA-MB-231 retroviral expression library, and selecting with Latrunculin-A repeatedly identified Bcl-xL as a suppressor of cytoskeleton-dependent death. Although Bcl-xL enhances the spread of metastatic breast tumor cell lines, the distinct effects of apoptotic resistance on tumor growth in the mammary gland and during metastasis have not been compared directly. We find that Bcl-xL overexpression in mouse mammary epithelial cells does not induce primary tumor formation or enhance MEK-induced tumorigenesis within the mammary gland environment. However, it strongly enhances metastatic potential. These results with Bcl-xL provide novel evidence that isolated apoptotic resistance can increase metastatic potential, but remain overlooked by assays based on breast tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart S Martin
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Genetics, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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2669
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Wu X, Zeng H, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Sha H, Ge X, Zhang M, Gao X, Xu Q. Phosphatase of regenerating liver-3 promotes motility and metastasis of mouse melanoma cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2004; 164:2039-54. [PMID: 15161639 PMCID: PMC1615773 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63763-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent reports suggested that phosphatase of regenerating liver (PRL)-3 might be involved in colorectal carcinoma metastasis with an unknown mechanism. Here we demonstrated that PRL-3 expression was up-regulated in human liver carcinoma compared with normal liver. PRL-3 was also highly expressed in metastatic melanoma B16-BL6 cells but not in its lowly metastatic parental cell line, B16 cells. B16 cells transfected with PRL-3 cDNA displayed morphological transformation from epithelial-like shape to fibroblast-like shape. PRL-3-overexpressed cells showed much higher migratory ability, which could be reversed by specific anti-sense oligodeoxynucleotide and the phosphatase inhibitors sodium orthovanadate or potassium bisperoxo oxovanadate V. Meanwhile, the expression of the catalytically inactive PRL-3 mutations (D72A or C104S) significantly reduced the cell migratory capability. In addition, PRL-3 transfectants demonstrated altered extracellular matrix adhesive property and up-regulated integrin-mediated cell spreading efficiency. Furthermore, we confirmed that PRL-3 could facilitate lung and liver metastasis of B16 cells in an experimental metastasis model in mice, consistent with accelerated proliferation and growth rate both in vitro and in vivo. Together, these observations provide convincing evidence that PRL-3 truly plays a causal role in tumor metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaopeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, and the Model Animal Genetics Research Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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2670
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan P Toole
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA.
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2671
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Yamamoto N, Jiang P, Yang M, Xu M, Yamauchi K, Tsuchiya H, Tomita K, Wahl GM, Moossa AR, Hoffman RM. Cellular dynamics visualized in live cells in vitro and in vivo by differential dual-color nuclear-cytoplasmic fluorescent-protein expression. Cancer Res 2004; 64:4251-6. [PMID: 15205338 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-0643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report here the genetic engineering of dual-color fluorescent cells with one color in the nucleus and the other in the cytoplasm that enables real-time nuclear-cytoplasmic dynamics to be visualized in living cells in vivo as well as in vitro. To obtain the dual-color cells, red fluorescent protein (RFP) was expressed in the cytoplasm of HT-1080 human fibrosarcoma cells, and green fluorescent protein (GFP) linked to histone H2B was expressed in the nucleus. Nuclear GFP expression enabled visualization of nuclear dynamics, whereas simultaneous cytoplasmic RFP expression enabled visualization of nuclear cytoplasmic ratios as well as simultaneous cell and nuclear shape changes. Thus, total cellular dynamics can be visualized in the living dual-color cells in real time. The parental HT-1080 and the derived dual-color clones had similar cell proliferation rates, suggesting that expression of GFP and/or RFP does not affect cell cycle progression. The cell cycle position of individual living cells was readily visualized by the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio and nuclear morphology. Real-time induction of apoptosis was observed by nuclear size changes and progressive nuclear fragmentation. Mitotic cells were visualized by whole-body imaging after injection in the mouse ear. Common carotid artery injection of dual-color cells and a reversible skin flap enabled the external visualization of the dual-color cells in microvessels in the mouse brain where extreme elongation of the cell body as well as the nucleus occurred. Dual-color cells in various positions of the cell cycle were visualized in excised mouse lungs after tail-vein injection of the dual-color cells. In the lung, the dual-color cells were observed frequently juxtaposing their nuclei, suggesting a potential novel form of cell-cell communication. The dual-color cells thus are a useful tool for visualizing living-cell dynamics in vivo as well as in vitro. Drugs that could specifically perturb these processes can now be readily screened in real time in vivo.
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2672
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Abstract
Several recent scientific and technical developments have made it possible to postulate the use of the 'magic bullet' concept; that is, the identification of specific antigens present on tumor cells that can be targeted either by therapeutic antibodies or by small molecules. The use of monoclonal antibodies in cancer, in particular, has moved beyond the proof-of-concept stage, and many such antibodies are presently being tested in the clinic. Several antibodies have been successfully developed and are now in use against various cancers, and we can expect many more to become available in the next few years. The use and development of these new therapeutics represent significant opportunities but also new challenges.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Murine-Derived
- Antigens, CD20/immunology
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Benzamides
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Drug Therapy
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Genes, abl/physiology
- Genes, erbB-2/physiology
- Humans
- Imatinib Mesylate
- Integrins/metabolism
- Leukemia, Myelomonocytic, Chronic/drug therapy
- Lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin/drug therapy
- Metalloproteases/metabolism
- Neoplasm Metastasis/drug therapy
- Piperazines/pharmacology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-kit/metabolism
- Pyrimidines/pharmacology
- Receptors, Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/metabolism
- Rituximab
- Stomach Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Trastuzumab
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Affiliation(s)
- Pantea Houshmand
- Neurocrine Biosciences, 10555 Science Center Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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2673
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Ludwig RJ, Boehme B, Podda M, Henschler R, Jager E, Tandi C, Boehncke WH, Zollner TM, Kaufmann R, Gille J. Endothelial P-selectin as a target of heparin action in experimental melanoma lung metastasis. Cancer Res 2004; 64:2743-50. [PMID: 15087389 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-1054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous and experimental metastasis can be effectively inhibited by the widely used anticoagulant heparin in different tumor models. At the cellular level, many of the antimetastatic effects of heparin in vivo are due to its action on P-selectin-mediated binding. Whereas previous attention has focused on P-selectin-dependent tumor-cell-platelet interactions in blood-borne metastasis, we sought to address the potential contribution of endothelial P-selectin expression to adhesive events between the microvasculature and melanoma cells in vivo. Transplantation of bone marrow from P-selectin-deficient into wild-type mice conveyed inhibition of ex-perimental melanoma metastasis. However, the extent to which bone marrow-conferred lack of platelet P-selectin expression attenuated melanoma lung metastasis was significantly less than that seen in P-selectin-deficient mice, suggesting that endothelial P-selectin expression may additionally contribute to formation of hematogenous metastases. This assumption was supported by our intravital microscopy studies, in which a significant proportion of melanoma cells were capable of directly interacting with postcapillary venules of the murine ear in a P-selectin-dependent manner. Heparin not only inhibits P-selectin-mediated melanoma cell rolling but also attenuates melanoma metastasis formation in vivo, further supporting the concept that endothelial P-selectin expression may represent an additional target of heparin action in experimental melanoma lung metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf J Ludwig
- Department of Dermatology, Klinikum der J. W. Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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2674
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Pantel
- Institute of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 202461, Germany.
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2675
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Montgomery E, Abraham SC, Fisher C, Deasel MR, Amr SS, Sheikh SS, House M, Lilliemoe K, Choti M, Brock M, Ephron DT, Zahuruk M, Chadburn A. CD44 loss in gastric stromal tumors as a prognostic marker. Am J Surg Pathol 2004; 28:168-77. [PMID: 15043305 DOI: 10.1097/00000478-200402000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The adhesion molecule CD44 (CD44s; CD44H) and its isoforms (CD44v3-6 and v9) are preferentially expressed by different cell types. These transmembrane glycoproteins are involved in cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and in cell trafficking and, thus, may play a role in tumor metastasis and/or local invasion. The expression pattern of CD44s and variant isoforms, particularly CD44v6 and CD44v9, of some neoplasms, including soft tissue tumors, correlates with clinical course and outcome. The clinical behavior of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) is site specific; however, other reliable predictors of clinical outcome have not been identified. Thus, the prognostic value of CD44s and isoform expression in GIST were evaluated by immunohistochemistry of tissue microarrays. DESIGN Paraffin-embedded formalin-fixed tissue cores (129: 103 GIST and 26 normal stomach smooth muscle) from 33 patients with clinical outcome data were collected and used for the construction of the tissue microarrays. One to five tissue cores from each patient specimen were evaluated (mean = 3 tissue cores/patient). Array slides were stained with anti-CD44s (CD44H) and with antibodies to v3, v4, v5, v6, and v9 isomers. CD44s and isoform expression and staining intensity were scored semiquantitatively without knowledge of patient identity or outcome: 0 = no; 1 = weak; 2 = moderate; 3 = moderate to strong; 4 = strong. The scores of multiple cores from the same GIST were averaged; the nonneoplastic smooth muscle was similarly graded. CD44s and isoform expression and intensity were compared with outcome. RESULTS The 33 patients with gastric GIST, 0.8 to 30 cm in size, were followed for 1 to 111 months with a median follow-up of 7 months (mean 17.5 months). The overall median survival was 25 months. Nine of the 33 (27%) patients had metastases, 9 (27%) had recurrent disease, and 9 (27%) died of disease (9-111 months; mean 39 months; median 23 months). All 18 patients with GIST CD44s expression > 2+ were alive at last follow-up (1-62 months; median 3.5 months; mean 11 months). More than half (53%) of patients with GIST CD44s expression < or = 2+ died (9-111 months; median 23 months; mean 38 months); the median follow-up of the surviving patients with CD44 expression < or = 2 was 5 months (2-22 months; mean 6.5 months; log rank P = 0.07). The majority of tumors were variably positive CD44v3 and CD44v4, but there was minimal staining (number of cases and/or expression level) with antibodies directed against the v5, v6, and v9 isomers. CONCLUSION These preliminary results suggest that although gastric GISTs variably express CD44s and variants, only the expression of CD44s correlates with clinical outcome with loss of CD44s positivity correlating with poor clinical outcome.
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2676
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Sugino T, Yamaguchi T, Ogura G, Saito A, Hashimoto T, Hoshi N, Yoshida S, Goodison S, Suzuki T. Morphological evidence for an invasion-independent metastasis pathway exists in multiple human cancers. BMC Med 2004; 2:9. [PMID: 15066199 PMCID: PMC400511 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2003] [Accepted: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have previously described an alternative invasion-independent pathway of cancer metastasis in a murine mammary tumor model. This pathway is initiated by intravasation of tumor nests enveloped by endothelial cells of sinusoidal vasculature within the tumor. In this study, we examined whether evidence for the invasion-independent pathway of metastasis is present in human cancers. METHODS Archival specimens of 10 common types of human cancers were examined for the presence of sinusoidal vasculature enveloping tumor nests and subsequently generated endothelial-covered tumor emboli in efferent veins. RESULTS A percentage of tumor emboli in all cancers was found to be enveloped by endothelial cells, but these structures were particularly prevalent in renal cell carcinomas, hepatocellular carcinomas and follicular thyroid carcinomas. A common feature of the vasculature in these tumors was the presence of dilated sinusoid-like structures surrounding tumor nests. A high mean vascular area within tumors, an indication of sinusoidal vascular development, was significantly related to the presence of endothelial-covered tumor emboli. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that an invasion-independent metastatic pathway is possible in a wide variety of human cancers. Further investigation of this phenomenon may present new therapeutic strategies for the amelioration of cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Sugino
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Tomiko Yamaguchi
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Go Ogura
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Atsuko Saito
- Pathology Division, Jusendo General Hospital, Koriyama, 963-8002, Japan
| | - Takeaki Hashimoto
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Nobuo Hoshi
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Sayaka Yoshida
- Department of Surgery, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Steve Goodison
- Department of Pathology, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32209-6511, USA
| | - Toshimitsu Suzuki
- Department of Pathology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
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2677
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Abstract
Carcinogenesis is a multistage process. At each step of this process, there are natural mechanisms protecting against development of cancer. The majority of cancers in humans is induced by carcinogenic factors present in our environment including our food. However, some natural substances present in our diet or synthesized in our cells are able to block, trap or decompose reactive oxygen species (ROS) participating in carcinogenesis. Carcinogens can also be removed from our cells. If DNA damage occurs, it is repaired in most of the cases. Unrepaired DNA alterations can be fixed as mutations in proliferating cells only and mutations of very few strategic genes can induce tumor formation, the most relevant are those activating proto-oncogenes and inactivating tumor suppressor genes. A series of mutations and/or epigenetic changes is required to drive transformation of a normal cell into malignant tumor. The apparently unrestricted growth has to be accompanied by a mechanism preserving telomeres which otherwise shorten with succeeding cell divisions leading to growth arrest. Tumor can not develop beyond the size of 1-2mm in diameter without the induction of angiogenesis which is regulated by natural inhibitors. To invade the surrounding tissues epithelial tumor cells have to lose some adhesion molecules keeping them attached to each other and to produce enzymes able to dissolve the elements of the basement membrane. On the other hand, acquisition of other adhesion molecules enables interaction of circulating tumor cells with endothelial cells facilitating extravasation and metastasis. One of the last barriers protecting against cancer is the activity of the immune system. Both innate and adaptive immunity participates in anti-tumor effects including the activity of natural killer (NK) cells, natural killer T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils, complement, various cytokines, specific antibodies, and specific T cytotoxic cells. Upon activation neutrophils and macrophages are able to kill tumor cells but they can also release ROS, angiogenic and immunosuppressive substances. Many cytokines belonging to different families display anti-tumor activity but their role in natural anti-tumor defense remains largely to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Jakóbisiak
- Department of Immunology, Center of Biostructure, The Medical University of Warsaw, Chalubińskiego 5, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland.
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2678
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Brown DM, Ruoslahti E. Metadherin, a cell surface protein in breast tumors that mediates lung metastasis. Cancer Cell 2004; 5:365-74. [PMID: 15093543 DOI: 10.1016/s1535-6108(04)00079-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2003] [Revised: 02/13/2004] [Accepted: 03/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We used a phage expression library of cDNAs from metastatic breast carcinoma to identify protein domains that bind to the vasculature of the lung, a frequent site of breast cancer metastasis. We found that one protein domain selectively targeted phage as well as cells to the lung. This domain is part of the protein metadherin, shown by gene expression profiling to be overexpressed in metastatic breast cancer. Immunostaining revealed that metadherin is overexpressed in breast cancer tissue and breast tumor xenografts. Antibodies reactive to the lung-homing domain of metadherin and siRNA-mediated knockdown of metadherin expression in breast cancer cells inhibited experimental lung metastasis, indicating that tumor cell metadherin mediates localization at the metastatic site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren M Brown
- Cancer Research Center, The Burnham Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
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2679
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Bao S, Ouyang G, Bai X, Huang Z, Ma C, Liu M, Shao R, Anderson RM, Rich JN, Wang XF. Periostin potently promotes metastatic growth of colon cancer by augmenting cell survival via the Akt/PKB pathway. Cancer Cell 2004; 5:329-39. [PMID: 15093540 DOI: 10.1016/s1535-6108(04)00081-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 431] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2003] [Revised: 01/08/2004] [Accepted: 01/22/2004] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Molecular mechanisms associated with tumor metastasis remain poorly understood. Here we report that acquired expression of periostin by colon cancer cells greatly promoted metastatic development of colon tumors. Periostin is overexpressed in more than 80% of human colon cancers examined with highest expression in metastatic tumors. Periostin expression dramatically enhanced metastatic growth of colon cancer by both preventing stress-induced apoptosis in the cancer cells and augmenting endothelial cell survival to promote angiogenesis. At the molecular level, periostin activated the Akt/PKB signaling pathway through the alpha(v)beta(3) integrins to increase cellular survival. These data demonstrated that the survival-promoting function is crucial for periostin to promote tumor metastasis of colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shideng Bao
- The Key Laboratory for Cell Biology and Tumor Cell Engineering, The Ministry of Education of China, The School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Fujian 361005, China
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2680
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Wang J, Xi L, Hunt JL, Gooding W, Whiteside TL, Chen Z, Godfrey TE, Ferris RL. Expression pattern of chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) and CCR7 in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck identifies a novel metastatic phenotype. Cancer Res 2004; 64:1861-6. [PMID: 14996750 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-2968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) metastasizes predictably to cervical lymph nodes, with low rates of distant metastases. Tumor cells can express various receptors that facilitate such metastatic spread to lymph nodes and other nonlymphoid organs. Chemokine receptors (CCR), normally expressed on lymphocytes, control immune and inflammatory cell migration, providing a link between innate and adaptive immunity. Chemokine receptor expression was evaluated in SCCHN, using paired primary and metastatic tumors cell lines, and paired primary and metastatic biopsies from the same patients. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR showed a consistent pattern of CCR6 down-regulation and up-regulation of CCR7 in metastatic cells and tissues. Chemotaxis assays, ligand-induced receptor down-regulation, and specific antibody blocking experiments supported the quantitative reverse transcription-PCR results, indicating that these surface receptors were functional on metastatic tumor cells. Cells derived from a highly metastatic mouse model of SCCHN were used to confirm CCR7 up-regulation in tumor cells with higher metastatic potential. CCR6 down-regulation is consistent with its decreased expression in cells emigrating from peripheral mucosal sites, whereas CCR7, important for homing of immune cells to secondary lymphoid organs, was significantly up-regulated. Thus, CCR6, CCR7, and their ligands, normally important in controlling immune cell trafficking in response to inflammatory stimuli, may have an important role in determining the metastasis of SCCHN cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology and Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
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2681
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Sawyer TK. Cancer metastasis therapeutic targets and drug discovery: emerging small-molecule protein kinase inhibitors. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2004; 13:1-19. [PMID: 14680449 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.13.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Cancer metastasis is a significant problem and a tremendous challenge to drug discovery relative to identifying key therapeutic targets as well as developing breakthrough medicines. Recent progress in unravelling the complex molecular circuitry of cancer metastasis, including receptors, intracellular proteins and genes, is highlighted. Furthermore, recent advances in drug discovery to provide novel proof-of-concept ligands, in vivo effective lead compounds and promising clinical candidates, are summarised. Such drug discovery efforts illustrate the integration of functional genomics, cell biology, structural biology, drug design, molecular/cellular screening and chemical diversity (e.g., small molecules, peptides/peptidomimetics, natural products, antisense, vaccines and antibodies). Promising therapeutic targets for cancer metastasis have been identified, including Src, focal adhesion kinase, the integrin receptor, the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, the epidermal growth factor receptor, Her-2/neu, c-Met, Ras/Rac GTPases, Raf kinase, farnesyl diphosphate synthase (i.e., amino-bisphosphonate therapeutic target) and matrix metalloproteases within the context of their implicated functional roles in cancer growth, invasion, angiogenesis and survival at secondary sites. Clinical and preclinical drug discovery is described and emerging small-molecule inhibitors of protein kinases are highlighted.
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2682
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Vander Griend DJ, Berger JC, Rinker-Schaeffer CW. Suppression of Metastasis--A New Function for Known Proteins. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96:344-5. [PMID: 14996848 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djh078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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2683
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Schedin P, Elias A. Multistep tumorigenesis and the microenvironment. Breast Cancer Res 2004; 6:93-101. [PMID: 14979914 PMCID: PMC400664 DOI: 10.1186/bcr772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2004] [Accepted: 02/03/2004] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Early-stage cancers have long been considered to be less aggressive than late-stage cancers because it is assumed that they have accumulated fewer of the mutations that are required for full metastatic potential. For breast cancer, recent gene expression profiling data have challenged this paradigm by identifying early-stage cancers with similar gene expression profiles to fully metastatic cancers. In this review, multistep carcinogenesis is reconsidered in light of these new data. The concept that the tumor stroma plays a key role in determining whether a metastatic tumor cell will remain dormant or become invasive is discussed. Recent studies demonstrating the feasibility of targeting tumor stroma for cancer prevention and treatment are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pepper Schedin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology and Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado Health Science Center, Denver, Colorado, USA.
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2684
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Freije JMP, Balbín M, Pendás AM, Sánchez LM, Puente XS, López-Otín C. Matrix metalloproteinases and tumor progression. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2004; 532:91-107. [PMID: 12908552 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0081-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of more than 20 distinct enzymes that are frequently overexpressed in human tumors. Functional studies have shown that MMPs play an important role in the proteolytic destruction of extracellular matrix and basement membranes, thereby facilitating tumor invasion and metastasis. In addition, these enzymes may also be important in other steps of tumor evolution including neoplastic cell proliferation and angiogenesis stimulation. On the basis of the relevance of MMPs in tumor progression, a number of different strategies aimed to block the unwanted activity of these enzymes in cancer have been developed. Unfortunately, most clinical trials with the first series of MMP inhibitors have failed to show clear benefit in patients with advanced cancer. Explanations for this lack of success include the failure to recognize the role of these enzymes in early stages of the disease as well as inadequacy of either the employed inhibitors or the proteases to be targeted. The introduction of novel concepts such as tumor degradome, and global approaches to protease analysis, may facilitate the identification of the relevant MMPs that must be targeted in each individual cancer patient. On the other hand, the finding that MMPs are enzymes whose effects on biologically active substrates can have profound consequences on cell behaviour, suggests that selective inhibition of a limited set of MMPs at early stages of tumor evolution might be much more effective than using wide-spectrum inhibitors active against most family members, and administered to patients at late stages of the disease. Further studies directed to elucidate these questions will be necessary to clarify whether any of the multiple strategies of MMP inhibition may be part of future therapeutic approaches to control tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M P Freije
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Universitario de Oncología, Universidad de Oviedo, 33006-Oviedo, Spain
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2685
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Torng PL, Mao TL, Chan WY, Huang SC, Lin CT. Prognostic significance of stromal metalloproteinase-2 in ovarian adenocarcinoma and its relation to carcinoma progression. Gynecol Oncol 2004; 92:559-67. [PMID: 14766248 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2003.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES MMP-2 expression in ovarian cancer cells has been correlated with poor prognosis. This study attempts to assess the prognostic importance of stromal MMP-2 in patients with ovarian endometrioid and serous adenocarcinoma. METHODS MMP-2, MMP-2 activator, MT1-MMP, and its inhibitor (TIMP-2) were immunostained in 84 primary epithelial ovarian carcinomas (EOCs) (35 endometrioid adenocarcinomas [ECs] and 49 serous adenocarcinomas [SCs]). Results were correlated to pathological subtypes, tumor stage, grade, size, and to recurrence-free and cancer-specific survival. RESULTS MMP-2 and stromal MMP-2 were detected in all carcinoma cells of 22.2% of EC and 77.8% of SC tumors. MT1-MMP co-localized with MMP-2. TIMP-2 staining was weak and cytoplasmically distributed in all tumors. Univariant analysis showed expression of stromal MMP-2 significantly associated with advanced stage (P = 0.018), higher grade (P = 0.005), serous subtype (P = 0.02), smaller tumor size at operation (P = 0.001), and higher incidence of recurrence (P = 0.042), but not with the rate of death due to cancer. By multiple Cox proportional hazard regression analysis, patient survival and disease-free survival were significantly related to the presence of stromal MMP-2 in EC but not SC patients (P < 0.05). However, after multivariant analysis, the associations with patient age, tumor stage, grade, and size no longer existed. In stepwise selection, tumor stage remained the most important predictor of patient survival and disease-free survival in ovarian EC and SC, but stromal MMP-2 remained the most important predictor of recurrence-free survival in patients with EC. CONCLUSIONS Stromal MMP-2 occurs early and may play a role early in EOC invasion. Tumor stage and stromal MMP-2 are important predictors of disease-free survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pao-Ling Torng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.
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2686
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Wilson SM, Chambers AF. Experimental Metastasis Assays in the Chick Embryo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; Chapter 19:Unit 19.6. [DOI: 10.1002/0471143030.cb1906s21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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2687
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Sachdev D, Hartell JS, Lee AV, Zhang X, Yee D. A Dominant Negative Type I Insulin-like Growth Factor Receptor Inhibits Metastasis of Human Cancer Cells. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:5017-24. [PMID: 14615489 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m305403200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that LCC6 wild-type (WT) cells, a metastatic variant of MDA-MB-435 cancer cells originally derived from a breast cancer patient, exhibit enhanced motility in response to IGF-I compared with the parent MDA-MB-435 cells. To further understand the role of the type I insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptor (IGF1R) in cancer metastasis we inhibited signaling via IGF1R using a C-terminal-truncated IGF1R. The truncated receptor retains the ligand binding domain but lacks the autophosphorylated tyrosine residues in the carboxyl terminus. Cells stably transfected with this truncated receptor (LCC6-DN cells) overexpressed the truncated IGF1R messenger RNA nearly 50-fold over endogenous receptor. The truncated receptor in the LCC6-DN cells behaved in a dominant negative manner to inhibit endogenous IGF1R activation by IGF-I. Compared with the LCC6-WT cells, LCC6-DN cells failed to phosphorylate the adaptor proteins insulin receptor substrate-1 and -2 in response to IGF-I and did not activate Akt after exposure to IGF-I. Unlike LCC6-WT cells, LCC6-DN cells did not show enhanced motility in response to IGF-I. To assay for metastasis, LCC6-WT and LCC6-DN cells were injected into the mammary fat pads of mice, and the primary xenograft tumors were removed after 21 days. Mice sacrificed 5 weeks later showed multiple lung metastases derived from LCC-WT xenografts, whereas mice harboring LCC6-DN xenografts showed no lung metastases. Our data show that IGF1R can regulate several aspects of the malignant phenotype. In these cells, metastasis but not proliferation requires IGF1R function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali Sachdev
- Department of Medicine and Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minnesota 55455, USA
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2688
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Vander Griend DJ, Rinker-Schaeffer CW. A New Look at an Old Problem: The Survival and Organ-Specific Growth of Metastases. Sci Signal 2004; 2004:pe3. [PMID: 14734785 DOI: 10.1126/stke.2162004pe3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Despite improvements in cancer detection and therapy, metastatic disease is largely incurable. Recent research indicates that tumor cells disseminate widely early in the process of pathogenesis, and that the survival and proliferation of these cells--and thus the development of metastases--depend on interactions between the disseminated cells and their particular microenvironment. Proliferative signals and the inhibition of proapoptotic responses are both critically involved in the development of clinically significant metastases. Identification of the underlying signaling cascades may provide additional targets for antimetastatic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald J Vander Griend
- Section of Urology MC6038, University of Chicago, 5841 S. Maryland Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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2689
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie K McCauley
- University of Michigan Department of Periodontics/Prevention/Teriatrics, School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor 48109, USA
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2690
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Varghese HJ, Mackenzie LT, Groom AC, Ellis CG, Ryan A, MacDonald IC, Chambers AF. In vivo videomicroscopy reveals differential effects of the vascular-targeting agent ZD6126 and the anti-angiogenic agent ZD6474 on vascular function in a liver metastasis model. Angiogenesis 2004; 7:157-64. [PMID: 15516836 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-004-1941-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Metastases require a functional blood supply for progressive growth. Thus, therapies that target metastatic vasculature have potential clinical utility. The effects of the vascular-targeting agent (VTA), ZD6126, and the anti-angiogenic agent, ZD6474, on vascular development and function within metastases were compared in an experimental liver metastasis model. Ras-transformed PAP2 fibroblasts were injected into the mesenteric veins of SCID mice to produce a control liver metastasis burden of approximately 40% at 14 days. Mice given a single dose of ZD6126 (200 mg/kg, i.p.) on day 13 were examined 24 h later. Histology revealed a significant reduction in metastatic burden, associated with extensive tumor necrosis, increased tumor cell apoptosis and a reduction in tumor-associated vasculature. In vivo videomicroscopy (IVVM) revealed disrupted, non-functional vascular channels within metastases, with no blood flow. Mice given ZD6474 on days 4 to 10 (50 mg/kg daily, oral gavage) were examined on day 11. Histology revealed a lower metastatic burden, significant reductions in metastasis size and vasculature, and a significant increase in tumor cell apoptosis. IVVM revealed extensive reductions in vascularity and blood flow within metastases. Neither ZD6126 nor ZD6474 treatment affected surrounding normal liver tissue. This study shows that both agents can reduce experimental liver metastasis with no apparent effect on normal vasculature. However, these reductions were attained through distinct effects on the metastatic vasculature. Understanding differences in the modes of action of VTAs and anti-angiogenic agents will be important in optimizing their clinical application and in developing appropriate combination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemanth J Varghese
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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2691
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Robinson
- Section of Urology, Department of Surgery, The University of Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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2692
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Models of Breast Cancer Metastasis to Bone: Characterization of a Clinically Relevant Model. BONE METASTASIS AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-2036-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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2693
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Shan S, Robson ND, Cao Y, Qiao T, Li CY, Kontos CD, Garcia-Blanco M, Dewhirst MW. Responses of vascular endothelial cells to angiogenic signaling are important for tumor cell survival. FASEB J 2003; 18:326-8. [PMID: 14688196 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0765fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Neoplastic cells overexpress several angiogenic cytokines, which stimulate neovascularization. Whether the responses of the host endothelial cells to these signaling molecules affect tumor cells during early tumorigenesis has not been investigated. We investigated pre-angiogenic tumor cell survival and angiogenesis initiation by two murine tumor lines (4T1 mammary carcinoma and B16 melanoma), which constitutively expressed GFP, in dorsal skin-fold window chambers of mice treated with extracellular domain of Tie-2 (ExTek) or bFGF. ExTek reduced tumor cell survival, retarded tumor growth, and inhibited angiogenesis onset compared with controls. bFGF increased tumor cell survival and promoted earlier angiogenesis and tumor growth. Neither bFGF nor ExTek affected cell proliferation in vitro. RT-PCR showed mRNA expression of bFGF receptor 2 (FGFR2) IIIb, which does not bind bFGF efficiently, by 4T1 cells and B16 cells express FGFR1 but not FGFR2. B16 cells expressed angiopoietin (Ang) 2, but neither cell line expresses Ang1. Both tumor lines express VEGF. These findings suggested that effects of bFGF and ExTek on tumor cell survival and angiogenesis were not due to direct action but were instead a result of paracrine factors secreted by endothelial cells. These subsequent signals from endothelial cells promote early survival and proliferation of disseminated tumor cells before onset of angiogenesis.
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MESH Headings
- Angiogenesis Inducing Agents/chemistry
- Angiogenesis Inducing Agents/pharmacology
- Animals
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Endothelium, Vascular/drug effects
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Fibroblast Growth Factor 2/pharmacology
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Models, Biological
- Neovascularization, Pathologic
- Paracrine Communication/drug effects
- Peptide Fragments/chemistry
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1
- Receptor, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/chemistry
- Receptor, TIE-2/chemistry
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Solubility
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqing Shan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710-3455, USA
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2694
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Weigelt B, Glas AM, Wessels LFA, Witteveen AT, Peterse JL, van't Veer LJ. Gene expression profiles of primary breast tumors maintained in distant metastases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:15901-5. [PMID: 14665696 PMCID: PMC307665 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2634067100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been debated for decades how cancer cells acquire metastatic capability. It is unclear whether metastases are derived from distinct subpopulations of tumor cells within the primary site with higher metastatic potential, or whether they originate from a random fraction of tumor cells. Here we show, by gene expression profiling, that human primary breast tumors are strikingly similar to the distant metastases of the same patient. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering, multidimensional scaling, and permutation testing, as well as the comparison of significantly expressed genes within a pair, reveal their genetic similarity. Our findings suggest that metastatic capability in breast cancer is an inherent feature and is not based on clonal selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Weigelt
- Departments of Experimental Therapy, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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2695
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Affiliation(s)
- John Condeelis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Program in Motility and Invasion, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA.
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2696
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Abstract
Although the genetic basis of tumorigenesis may vary greatly between different cancer types, the cellular and molecular steps required for metastasis are similar for all cancer cells. Not surprisingly, the molecular mechanisms that propel invasive growth and metastasis are also found in embryonic development, and to a less perpetual extent, in adult tissue repair processes. It is increasingly apparent that the stromal microenvironment, in which neoplastic cells develop, profoundly influences many steps of cancer progression, including the ability of tumor cells to metastasize. In carcinomas, the influences of the microenvironment are mediated, in large part, by bidirectional interactions (adhesion, survival, proteolysis, migration, immune escape mechanisms lymph-/angiogenesis, and homing on target organs) between epithelial tumor cells and neighboring stromal cells, such as fibroblasts as well as endothelial and immune cells. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms that govern this frequently lethal metastatic progression along an axis from primary tumor to regional lymph nodes to distant organ sites. Affected proteins include growth factor signaling molecules, chemokines, cell-cell adhesion molecules (cadherins, integrins) as well as extracellular proteases (matrix metalloproteinases). We then discuss promising new therapeutic approaches targeting the microenvironment. We note, however, that there is still too little knowledge of how the many events are coordinated and integrated by the cancer cell, with conspiratorial help by the stromal component of the host. Before drug development can proceed with a legitimate chance of success, significant gaps in basic knowledge need to be filled.
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2697
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Tzukerman M, Rosenberg T, Ravel Y, Reiter I, Coleman R, Skorecki K. An experimental platform for studying growth and invasiveness of tumor cells within teratomas derived from human embryonic stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:13507-12. [PMID: 14573705 PMCID: PMC263844 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2235551100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
There is currently no available experimental system wherein human cancer cells can be grown in the context of a mixed population of normal differentiated human cells for testing biological aspects of cancer cell growth (e.g., tumor cell invasion and angiogenesis) or response to anti-cancer therapies. When implanted into immunocompromised mice, human embryonic stem cells develop teratomas containing complex structures comprising differentiated cell types representing the major germ line-derived lineages. We sought to determine whether human cancer cells would grow within such teratomas and display properties associated with malignancy, such as invasiveness and recruitment of blood vessels. HEY ovarian cancer cells stably expressing an H2A-GFP fusion protein (HEY-GFP) injected into mature teratomas developed into tumors, which allowed tracking of tumor cell invasion and recruitment of human teratoma-derived blood vessels. This provides a straightforward and powerful approach to studying the biological properties of cancer cells within the microenvironment of normal differentiated human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maty Tzukerman
- Rambam Medical Center and Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel
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2698
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Staller P, Sulitkova J, Lisztwan J, Moch H, Oakeley EJ, Krek W. Chemokine receptor CXCR4 downregulated by von Hippel-Lindau tumour suppressor pVHL. Nature 2003; 425:307-11. [PMID: 13679920 DOI: 10.1038/nature01874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 647] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2003] [Accepted: 06/26/2003] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Organ-specific metastasis is governed, in part, by interactions between chemokine receptors on cancer cells and matching chemokines in target organs. For example, malignant breast cancer cells express the chemokine receptor CXCR4 and commonly metastasize to organs that are an abundant source of the CXCR4-specific ligand stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha (ref. 1). It is still uncertain how an evolving tumour cell is reprogrammed to express CXCR4, thus implementing the tendency to metastasize to specific organs. Here we show that the von Hippel-Lindau tumour suppressor protein pVHL negatively regulates CXCR4 expression owing to its capacity to target hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) for degradation under normoxic conditions. This process is suppressed under hypoxic conditions, resulting in HIF-dependent CXCR4 activation. An analysis of clear cell renal carcinoma that manifests mutation of the VHL gene in most cases revealed an association of strong CXCR4 expression with poor tumour-specific survival. These results suggest a mechanism for CXCR4 activation during tumour cell evolution and imply that VHL inactivation acquired by incipient tumour cells early in tumorigenesis confers not only a selective survival advantage but also the tendency to home to selected organs.
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MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma, Clear Cell/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma, Clear Cell/metabolism
- Adenocarcinoma, Clear Cell/pathology
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Cell Line
- Chemokine CXCL12
- Chemokines, CXC/antagonists & inhibitors
- Chemokines, CXC/metabolism
- Chemotaxis
- Cloning, Molecular
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Down-Regulation
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Hypoxia/metabolism
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit
- Kidney Neoplasms/genetics
- Kidney Neoplasms/metabolism
- Kidney Neoplasms/pathology
- Ligases/metabolism
- Neoplasm Metastasis
- Nuclear Proteins/metabolism
- Organ Specificity
- Promoter Regions, Genetic/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, CXCR4/genetics
- Receptors, CXCR4/metabolism
- Transcription Factors
- Tumor Suppressor Proteins
- Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases
- Von Hippel-Lindau Tumor Suppressor Protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Staller
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
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2699
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Abstract
A genetic screen was designed in Drosophila to interrogate its genome for mutations sufficient to cause noninvasive tumors of the eye disc to invade neighboring or distant tissues. We found that cooperation between oncogenic RasV12 expression and inactivation of any one of a number of genes affecting cell polarity leads to metastatic behavior, including basement membrane degradation, loss of E-cadherin expression, migration, invasion, and secondary tumor formation. Inactivation of these cell polarity genes cannot drive metastatic behavior alone or in combination with other tumor-initiating alterations. These findings suggest that the oncogenic background of tissues makes a distinct contribution toward metastatic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond A Pagliarini
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06536, USA
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2700
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Mook ORF, Van Marle J, Vreeling-Sindelárová H, Jonges R, Frederiks WM, Van Noorden CJF. Visualization of early events in tumor formation of eGFP-transfected rat colon cancer cells in liver. Hepatology 2003; 38:295-304. [PMID: 12883473 DOI: 10.1053/jhep.2003.50297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Colon cancer preferentially metastasizes to the liver. To determine cellular backgrounds of this preference, we generated an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP)-expressing rat adenocarcinoma cell line (CC531s) that forms metastases in rat liver after administration to the portal vein. Intravital videomicroscopy (IVVM) was used to visualize early events in the development of tumors in livers of live animals from the time of injection of the cancer cells up to 4 days afterward. Based on information obtained with IVVM, tissue areas were selected for further analysis using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), electron microscopy (EM), and electron tomography. It was shown that initial arrest of colon cancer cells in sinusoids of the liver was due to size restriction. Adhesion of cancer cells to endothelial cells was never found. Instead, endothelial cells retracted rapidly and interactions were observed only between cancer cells and hepatocytes. Tumors developed exclusively intravascularly during the first 4 days. In conclusion, initial steps in the classic metastatic cascade such as adhesion to endothelium and extravasation are not essential for colon cancer metastasis in liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf R F Mook
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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