Measurements of volatile organic compounds in the earth's atmosphere using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry

Application of proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry to the assessment of odorant removal in a biological air cleaner for pig production

There is an urgent need to develop odor reduction technologies for animal production facilities, and this requires a reliable measurement technique for estimating the removal of odorants. The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the application of proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) for continuous measurements at a biofilter from SKOV A/S installed at a pig production facility. PTR-MS was able to handle the harsh conditions with high humidity and dust load in a biofilter and provide reliable data for the removal of odorants, including the highly odorous sulfur compounds. The biofilter removed 80-99% of carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, and indoles and ca. 75% of hydrogen sulfide. However, only ~0-15% of methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide was removed. In conclusion, PTR-MS is a promising tool that can be used to improve the development of biological air cleaning and other odor reduction technologies toward significant odorants.

Prediction of odor from pig production based on chemical odorants

The present work was performed to investigate the use of odorant measurements for prediction of odor concentration in facilities with growing-finishing pigs and to analyze the odorant composition in facilities with different floor and ventilation systems. Air was sampled in Nalophan bags, odor concentrations were measured by dilution-to-threshold olfactometry, and concentrations of odorants were measured by proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). Olfactometry and chemical analyses were synchronized to take place at identical time intervals after sampling. A principal component analysis revealed that different facilities for growing-finishing pigs can be distinguished based on the odorants. Pit ventilation comprising a small amount of the total ventilation air (10-20%) in facilities with both room and pit ventilation can be used to concentrate odorants, whereas the room ventilation contains lower concentrations of most odorants. A partial least squares regression model demonstrated that prediction of the odor concentration based on odorants measured by PTR-MS is feasible. Hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, trimethylamine, and 4-methylphenol were identified as the compounds having the largest influence on the prediction of odor concentration, whereas carboxylic acids had no significant influence. In conclusion, chemical measurement of odorants by PTR-MS is an alternative for expressing the odor concentration in facilities with growing-finishing pigs that can be used to increase the understanding of odor from different types of facilities and improve the development of odor reduction technologies.

On quantitative determination of volatile organic compound concentrations using proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Proton transfer reaction - mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) has become a reference technique in environmental science allowing for VOC monitoring with low detection limits. The recent introduction of time-of-flight mass analyzer (PTR-ToF-MS) opens new horizons in terms of mass resolution, acquisition time, and mass range. A standard procedure to perform quantitative VOC measurements with PTR-ToF-MS is to calibrate the instrument using a standard gas. However, given the number of compounds that can be simultaneously monitored by PTR-ToF-MS, such a procedure could become impractical, especially when standards are not readily available. In the present work we show that, under particular conditions, VOC concentration determinations based only on theoretical predictions yield good accuracy. We investigate a range of humidity and operating conditions and show that theoretical VOC concentration estimations are accurate when the effect of water cluster ions is negligible. We also show that PTR-ToF-MS can successfully be used to estimate reaction rate coefficients between H(3)O(+) and VOC at PTR-MS working conditions and find good agreement with the corresponding nonthermal theoretical predictions. We provide a tabulation of theoretical rate coefficients for a number of relevant volatile organic compounds at various energetic conditions and test the approach in a laboratory study investigating the oxidation of alpha-pinene.

Evaluation of single column trapping/separation and chemiluminescence detection for measurement of methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide from pig production

Reduced sulfur compounds are considered to be important odorants from pig production due to their low odor threshold values and low solubility in slurry. The objective of the present study was to investigate the use of a portable method with a single silica gel column for trapping/separation coupled with chemiluminescence detection (SCTS-CL) for measurement of methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide in sample air from pig production. Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) was used to evaluate the trapping/separation. The silica gel column used for the SCTS-CL efficiently collected hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide. The measurement of methanethiol by SCTS-CL was clearly interfered by the high concentration of hydrogen sulfide found in pig production, and a removal of hydrogen sulfide was necessary to obtain reliable results. Air samples taken from a facility with growing-finishing pigs were analyzed by SCTS-CL, PTR-MS, and a gas chromatograph with sulfur chemiluminescence detection (GC-SCD) to evaluate the SCTS-CL. The difference between the concentrations of methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide measured with SCTS-CL, PTR-MS, and GC-SCD was below 10%. In conclusion, the SCTS-CL is a portable and low-cost alternative to the commercial methods that can be used to measure methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide in sample air from pig production.

Real-time analysis of sulfur-containing volatiles in Brassica plants infested with root-feeding Delia radicum larvae using proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Plants damaged by herbivores emit a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Here we used proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) as a sensitive detection method for online analysis of herbivore-induced VOCs. Previously, it was found that Brassica nigra plants emit several sulfur-containing VOCs when attacked by cabbage root fly (Delia radicum) larvae with m/z 60 as a marker for the formation of allylisothiocyanate from the glucosinolate sinigrin. We tested the hypothesis that m/z 60 emission occurs only in plants with sinigrin in their roots. Additionally, we tested the hypothesis that methanethiol, dimethylsulfide and dimethyldisulfide are only emitted after larval infestation.

METHODOLOGY

Proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry was used to track sulfur-containing VOCs from six different species of Brassica over time. The roots were either artificially damaged or infested with cabbage root fly larvae. Glucosinolate profiles of the roots were analysed using high-pressure liquid chromatography and compared with VOC emissions.

PRINCIPAL RESULTS

Brassica nigra, B. juncea and B. napus primarily emitted m/z 60 directly after artificial damage or root fly infestation. Sulfide and methanethiol emissions from B. nigra and B. juncea also increased after larval damage but much later (6-12 h after damage). Brassica rapa, B. oleracea and B. carinata principally emitted methanethiol after artificial and after larval damage. Brassica oleracea and B. carinata showed some increase in m/z 60 emission after larval damage. Comparison with root glucosinolate profiles revealed that sinigrin cannot be the only precursor for m/z 60.

CONCLUSIONS

The principal compound emitted after root damage is determined by the plant species, and not by damage type or root glucosinolate composition. Once determined, the principal compounds may be used as markers for identifying damaged or infested plants. Further analyses of plant enzymes involved in the breakdown of sulfur compounds is needed to reveal the origin of sulfur-containing VOCs from plants.

The plant volatilome: methods of analysis

Analysis of plant volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and essential oils (EOs, collectively called the plant volatilome) is an invaluable technique in plant biology, as it provides the qualitative and quantitative composition of bioactive compounds. From a physiological standpoint, the plant volatilome is involved in some critical processes, namely plant-plant interactions, the signaling between symbiotic organisms, the attraction of pollinating insects, a range of biological activities in mammals, and as an endless source of novel drugs and drug leads. This chapter analyses and discusses the most advanced methods of analysis of the plant volatilome.

Atmospheric and kinetic studies of OH and HO2 by the FAGE technique

A new FAGE setup has recently been built at the University of Lille, France. It permits the quantification of OH and HO2 in the atmosphere with a detection limit of 3 x 105 molecules/(cm3 x min) for OH and 1 x 10(6) molecules/(cm3 x min) for HO2. Its coupling to a photolysis cell enables the measurement of the total reactivity of the hydroxyl radical in ambient air and kinetic studies in laboratory. Two configurations have been considered: one with the photolysis cell at 90 degrees to the FAGE nozzle, the other on line with the FAGE nozzle. The two configurations have been tested and validated by measuring the well known rate constants of OH with CH4, C3H8 and CO. The advantages and drawbacks of each configuration have been evaluated. The "on line" configuration limits losses and permits measurements over a larger reactivity range but is affected by OH formation from the laser beam striking the FAGE nozzle, thus limiting the ability to carry out energy dependence studies which can, in contrast, be successfully performed in the 90 degrees configuration.

Effects of airflow on odorants' emissions in a model pig house - A laboratory study using Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS)

Identification of different factors that affect emissions of gasses, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is necessary to develop emission abatement technology. The objectives of this research were to quantify and study temporal variation of gas emissions from a model pig house under varying ventilation rates. The used model was a 1:12.5 scale of a section of a commercial finishing pig house. The VOC concentrations at inlet, outlet, and slurry pit of the model space were measured using Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS). PTR-MS can measure the temporal variations of odor compounds' emission from the slurry pit in real time. The emissions of H(2)S and 14 VOCs were lower compared to real pig buildings except for ammonia, which indicated possible other sources of those compounds than the slurry in the slurry pit. The ventilation rate affected significantly on ammonia and trimethylamine emission (p<0.05). The hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) emission was independent of the ventilation rate. VFAs' emission dependency on ventilation rate increased with the increase of carbon chain. Phenols, indoles and ketones showed the positive correlation with ventilation rate to some extent. Generally, compounds with high solubility (low Henry's constant) showed stronger correlation with ventilation rates than the compounds with high Henry's constant.

Chemical evaluation of odor reduction by soil injection of animal manure

Field application of animal manure is a major cause of odor nuisance in the local environment. Therefore, there is a need for methods for measuring the effect of technologies for reducing odor after manure application. In this work, chemical methods were used to identify key odorants from field application of pig manure based on experiments with surface application by trailing hoses and soil injection. Results from three consecutive years of field trials with full-scale equipment are reported. Methods applied were: membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS), proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), gold-film hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) detection, all performed on site, and thermal desorption gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) based on laboratory analyses of field samples. Samples were collected from a static flux chamber often used for obtaining samples for dynamic olfactometry. While all methods were capable of detecting relevant odorants, PTR-MS gave the most comprehensive results. Based on odor threshold values, 4-methylphenol, H₂S, and methanethiol are suggested as key odorants. Significant odorant reductions by soil injection were consistently observed in all trials. The flux chamber technique was demonstrated to be associated with critical errors due to compound instabilities in the chamber. This was most apparent for H₂S, on a time scale of a few minutes, and on a longer time scale for methanethiol.

Stability of odorants from pig production in sampling bags for olfactometry

Odor from pig production facilities is typically measured with olfactometry, whereby odor samples are collected in sampling bags and assessed by human panelists within 30 h. In the present study, the storage stability of odorants in two types of sampling bags that are often used for olfactometry was investigated. The bags were made of Tedlar or Nalophan. In a field experiment, humid and dried air samples were collected from a pig production facility with growing-finishing pigs and analyzed with a gas chromatograph with an amperometric sulfur detector at 4, 8, 12, 28, 52, and 76 h after sampling. In a laboratory experiment, the bags were filled with a humid gas mixture containing carboxylic acids, phenols, indoles, and sulfur compounds and analyzed with proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry after 0, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h. The results demonstrated that the concentrations of carboxylic acids, phenols, and indoles decreased by 50 to >99% during the 24 h of storage in Tedlar and Nalophan bags. The concentration of hydrogen sulfide decreased by approximately 30% during the 24 h of storage in Nalophan bags, whereas in Tedlar bags the concentration of sulfur compounds decreased by <5%. In conclusion, the concentrations of odorants in air samples from pig production facilities significantly decrease during storage in Tedlar and Nalophan bags, and the composition changes toward a higher relative presence of sulfur compounds. This can result in underestimation of odor emissions from pig production facilities and of the effect of odor reduction technologies.

The relationship between isoprene emission, CO(2) assimilation and water use efficiency across a range of poplar genotypes

Poplars (Populus sp.) are among the strongest isoprene (Iso)-emitting plants. Ten poplar genotypes belonging to four different species were grown under the same environmental conditions in a common garden experiment, to study the influence of the genetic variability on Iso emission and on the relationship between Iso and photosynthesis. Photosynthesis ranged from 13 to 20 µmol CO(2) m(-2) s(-1) , whereas Iso emission ranged from 18.2 to 45.2 nmol m(-2) s(-1) . There was no clear association between Iso emission and photosynthesis. In most genotypes, photosynthetic capacity developed earlier than Iso emission capacity. The emission of Iso was inversely correlated with the intercellular CO(2) concentration (C(i) ) and positively correlated with instantaneous water use efficiency. It is speculated that, by regulating C(i) , stomatal opening also indirectly controls Iso emission in poplars. A positive linear correlation between the fraction of recently assimilated carbon emitted as Iso and Iso emission rate was found. The slope of this relationship indicated that each nanomole of Iso emitted requires a fixed fraction of photosynthetic carbon regardless of the intra- and interspecific variability in the Populus genus, and of leaf ontogeny. A comparison with data from recent studies showed that the slope of this relationship increases in drought-stressed leaves. However, this might be explained by an increasing contribution of carbon sources for Iso biosynthesis from stored photosynthates. If this is true, then the amount of carbon directly shunted from photosynthesis into Iso is constant in all poplars and is not influenced by abiotic stresses.

Indoor formaldehyde removal by thermal catalyst: kinetic characteristics, key parameters, and temperature influence

Thermal catalytic oxidation (TCO) technology can continuously degrade formaldehyde at room temperature without added energy. However, there is very little knowledge on the TCO kinetic reaction mechanism, which is necessary in developing such air cleaners and in comparison with other air cleaning techniques. This paper addresses the problem of a novel TCO catalyst, Pt/MnO(x)-CeO(2). The experiments measuring the outlet concentrations of formaldehyde and other possible byproducts were conducted at temperatures of 25, 40, 60, 100, and 180 °C and at a series of inlet formaldehyde concentrations (280-3000 ppb). To measure the concentrations precisely and real timely, proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) was used. We found the following from the experimental results: (1) no byproducts were detected; (2) the bimolecular L-H kinetic model best described the catalytic reaction rate; (3) the activation energy of the oxidation was about 25.8 kJ mol(-1); (4) TCO is most energy efficient at room temperature without auxiliary heating; (5) compared with photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) which needs ultraviolet light radiation, the reaction area of TCO can be much larger for a given volume so that TCO can perform much better not only in formaldehyde removal efficiency but also in energy saving.

Locating industrial VOC sources with aircraft observations

Observation and characterization of environmental pollution, focussing on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), in a high-risk industrial area, are particularly important in order to provide indications on a safe level of exposure, indicate eventual priorities and advise on policy interventions. The aim of this study is to use the Solid Phase Micro Extraction (SPME) method to measure VOCs, directly coupled with atmospheric measurements taken on a small aircraft environmental platform, to evaluate and locate the presence of VOC emission sources in the Marghera industrial area. Lab analysis of collected SPME fibres and subsequent analysis of mass spectrum and chromatograms in Scan Mode allowed the detection of a wide range of VOCs. The combination of this information during the monitoring campaign allowed a model (Gaussian Plume) to be implemented that estimates the localization of emission sources on the ground.

Ambient analysis of trace compounds in gaseous media by SIFT-MS

The topic of ambient gas analysis has been rapidly developed in the last few years with the evolution of the exciting new techniques such as DESI, DART and EESI. The essential feature of all is that analysis of trace gases can be accomplished either in the gas phase or those released from surfaces, crucially avoiding sample collection or modification. In this regard, selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry, SIFT-MS, also performs ambient analyses both accurately and rapidly. In this focused review we describe the underlying ion chemistry underpinning SIFT-MS through a discourse on the reactions of different classes of organic and inorganic molecules with H(3)O(+), NO(+) and O(2)(+)˙ studied using the SIFT technique. Rate coefficients and ion products of these reactions facilitate absolute SIFT-MS analyses and can also be useful for the interpretation of data obtained by the other ambient analysis methods mentioned above. The essential physics and flow dynamics of SIFT-MS are described that, together with the reaction kinetics, allow SIFT-MS to perform absolute ambient analyses of trace compounds in humid atmospheric air, exhaled breath and the headspace of aqueous liquids. Several areas of research that, through pilot experiments, are seen to benefit from ambient gas analysis using SIFT-MS are briefly reviewed. Special attention is given to exhaled breath and urine headspace analysis directed towards clinical diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring, and some other areas researched using SIFT-MS are summarised. Finally, extensions to current areas of application and indications of other directions in which SIFT-MS can be exploited for ambient analysis are alluded to.

Chemical ionization by [NO]+ and subsequent collision-induced dissociation for the selective on-line detection of monoterpenes and linalool

Existing on-line Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CIMS) techniques for quantification of atmospheric trace gases, such as Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOCs), suffer from difficulty in discriminating between isomeric (and more generally isobaric) compounds. Selective detection of these compounds, however, is important because they can affect atmospheric chemistry in different ways, depending on their chemical structure. In this work, Flowing Afterglow Tandem Mass Spectrometry (FATMS) was used to investigate the feasibility of the selective detection of a series of monoterpenes, an oxygenated monoterpene (linalool) and a sesquiterpene (β-caryophyllene). Ions at m/z 137 from [H(3)O](+) chemical ionization of α-pinene, linalool and β-caryophyllene have been subjected to Collision-Induced Dissociation (CID) with Ar in the collision cell of a tandem mass spectrometer at center-of-mass energies ranging between 0 and 8 eV. Similar fragmentation patterns were obtained, demonstrating that this method is not suited for the selective detection of these compounds. However, CID of the ions at m/z 136 produced via [NO](+) chemical ionization of a series of monoterpenes has revealed promising results. Some tracer-product ions for individual compounds or groups of compounds were found, which can be considered as a step forward towards selective on-line monitoring of BVOCs with CIMS techniques.

Importance of secondary sources in the atmospheric budgets of formic and acetic acids

We present a detailed budget of formic and acetic acids, two of the most abundant trace gases in the atmosphere. Our bottom-up estimate of the global source of formic and acetic acids are ∼1200 and ∼1400Gmolyr^-1, dominated by photochemical oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds, in particular isoprene. Their sinks are dominated by wet and dry deposition. We use the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model to evaluate this budget against an extensive suite of measurements from ground, ship and satellite-based Fourier transform spectrometers, as well as from several aircraft campaigns over North America. The model captures the seasonality of formic and acetic acids well but generally underestimates their concentration, particularly in the Northern midlatitudes. We infer that the source of both carboxylic acids may be up to 50% greater than our estimate and report evidence for a long-lived missing secondary source of carboxylic acids that may be associated with the aging of organic aerosols. Vertical profiles of formic acid in the upper troposphere support a negative temperature dependence of the reaction between formic acid and the hydroxyl radical as suggested by several theoretical studies.

Extending the dynamic range of proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometers by a novel dead time correction

Proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS) allows for very fast simultaneous monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in complex environments. In several applications, food science and food technology in particular, peaks with very different intensities are present in a single spectrum. For VOCs, the concentrations range from the sub-ppt all the way up to the ppm level. Thus, a large dynamic range is necessary. In particular, high intensity peaks are a problem because for them the linear dependency of the detector signal on VOC concentration is distorted. In this paper we present, test with real data, and discuss a novel method which extends the linearity of PTR-TOF-MS for high intensity peaks far beyond the limit allowed by the usual analytical correction methods such as the so-called Poisson correction. Usually, raw data can be used directly without corrections with an intensity of up to about 0.1 ions/pulse, and the Poisson correction allows the use of peaks with intensities of a few ions/pulse. Our method further extends the linear range by at least one order of magnitude. Although this work originated from the necessity to extend the dynamic range of PTR-TOF-MS instruments in agro-industrial applications, it is by no means limited to this area, and can be implemented wherever dead time corrections are an issue.

OH reactivity measurements within a boreal forest: evidence for unknown reactive emissions

Boreal forests emit large amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which react with the hydroxyl radical (OH) to influence regional ozone levels and form secondary organic aerosol. Using OH reactivity measurements within a boreal forest in Finland, we investigated the budget of reactive VOCs. OH reactivity was measured using the comparative reactivity method, whereas 30 individual VOCs were measured using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, thermal-desorption gas chromatography mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, in August 2008. The measured OH reactivity ranged from below detection limit (3.5 s(-1)), to approximately 60 s(-1) in a single pollution event. The average OH reactivity was approximately 9 s(-1) and no diel variation was observed in the profiles. The measured OH sinks (approximately 30 species) accounted for only 50% of the total measured OH reactivity, implying unknown reactive VOCs within the forest. The five highest measured OH sinks were: monoterpenes (1 s(-1)), CO (0.7 s(-1)), isoprene (0.5 s(-1)), propanal and acetone (0.3 s(-1)), and methane (0.3 s(-1)). We suggest that models be constrained by direct OH reactivity measurements to accurately assess the impact of boreal forest emissions on regional atmospheric chemistry and climate.

Determination of material emission signatures by PTR-MS and their correlations with odor assessments by human subjects

The objectives of this study were to determine volatile organic compound (VOC) emission signatures of nine typical building materials by using proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) and to explore the correlation between the PTR-MS measurements and the measurements of acceptability by human subjects. VOC emissions from each material were measured in a 50-l small-scale chamber. Chamber air was sampled by PTR-MS to determine emission signatures. Sorbent tube sampling and TD-GC/MS analysis were also performed to identify the major VOCs emitted and to compare the resulting data with the PTR-MS emission signatures. The data on the acceptability of air quality assessed by human subjects were obtained from a previous experimental study in which the emissions from the same batch of materials were determined under the same area-specific ventilation rates as in the case of the measurements with PTR-MS. Results show that PTR-MS can be an effective tool for establishing VOC emission signatures of material types and that there were reasonable correlations between the PTR-MS measurements and the acceptability of air quality for the nine materials tested when the sum of selected major individual VOC odor indices was used to represent the emission level measured by PTR-MS.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

The study shows that unique emission patterns may exist for different types of building materials. These patterns, or signatures, can be established by using PTR-MS, an online monitoring device. The sum of selected major individual VOC odor indices determined by PTR-MS correlates well with the acceptability of air quality assessed by human subjects, and hence provides a feasible approach to assessing perceived indoor air quality. This online assessment will open a new gate in understanding the role of VOC emissions from building materials on perceived air quality, forming a good foundation to develop real-time or near real-time methods for standard material emission testing and labeling, quality control of emissions from materials, and assessing the acceptability of air quality in buildings.

Odorant emissions from intensive pig production measured by online proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry

Emission of odorous compounds from intensive livestock production is a cause of nuisance in populated rural areas. Knowledge on the chemical composition of odor and temporal variations in emissions are needed in order to identify factors of importance for emission rates and select proper abatement technologies. In this work, a method based on proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) has been developed and tested for continuous measurements of odorant emissions from intensive pig production facilities. The method is assessed to cover all presently known important odorants from this type of animal production with adequate sensitivity and a time resolution of less than one minute. The sensitivity toward hydrogen sulfide is demonstrated to exhibit a pronounced humidity dependency, which can be included in the calibration procedure in order to achieve quantitative results for this compound. Application of the method at an experimental pig facility demonstrated strong temporal variations in emissions, including diurnal variation. Based on these first results, air exchange and animal activity are suggested to be of importance for emission rates of odorants. Highest emissions are seen for hydrogen sulfide and acetic acid, whereas key odorants are evaluated from tabulated odor threshold values to be hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, 4-methylphenol, and butanoic acid.