Lipid-based nanoparticles for contrast-enhanced MRI and molecular imaging

Nanomedicine Faces Barriers

Targeted nanoparticles have the potential to improve drug delivery efficiencies by more than two orders of magnitude, from the ~ 0.1% which is common today. Most pharmacologically agents on the market today are small drug molecules, which diffuse across the body’s blood-tissue barriers and distribute not only into the lesion, but into almost all organs. Drug actions in the non-lesion organs are an inescapable part of the drug delivery principle, causing “side-effects” which limit the maximally tolerable doses and result in inadequate therapy of many lesions. Nanoparticles only cross barriers by design, so side-effects are not built into their mode of operation. Delivery rates of almost 90% have been reported. This review examines the significance of these statements and checks how far they need qualification. What type of targeting is required? Is a single targeting sufficient? What new types of clinical challenge, such as immunogenicity, might attend the use of targeted nanoparticles?

Nanotheranostics and image-guided drug delivery: current concepts and future directions

Nanomedicine formulations aim to improve the biodistribution and the target site accumulation of systemically applied (chemo-) therapeutics. Various different passively and actively targeted nanomedicines have been evaluated over the years, based e.g. on liposomes, polymers, micelles and antibodies, and a significant amount of (pre-) clinical evidence has been obtained showing that these 5-200 nm sized carrier materials are able to improve the therapeutic index of low-molecular-weight drugs. Besides for therapeutic purposes, however, nanomedicine formulations have also been more and more used for imaging applications, as well as, in recent years, for theranostic approaches, i.e. for systems and strategies in which disease diagnosis and therapy are combined. Potential applications of theranostic nanomedicine formulations range from the noninvasive assessment of the biodistribution and the target site accumulation of low-molecular-weight drugs, and the visualization of drug distribution and drug release at the target site, to the optimization of strategies relying on triggered drug release, and the prediction and real-time monitoring of therapeutic responses. Nanotheranostic systems are consequently considered to be highly suitable systems for (pre-) clinical implementation, not only because they might assist in better understanding various important aspects of the drug delivery process, and in developing better drug delivery systems, but also because they might contribute to realizing the potential of "personalized medicine", and to developing more effective and less toxic treatment regimens for individual patients.

The time window of MRI of murine atherosclerotic plaques after administration of CB2 receptor targeted micelles: inter-scan variability and relation between plaque signal intensity increase and gadolinium content of inversion recovery prepared versus non-prepared fast spin echo

Single fast spin echo scans covering limited time frames are mostly used for contrast-enhanced MRI of atherosclerotic plaque biomarkers. Knowledge on inter-scan variability of the normalized enhancement ratio of plaque (NER(plaque)) and relation between NER(plaque) and gadolinium content for inversion-recovery fast spin echo is limited. Study aims were: evaluation of (1) timing of MRI after intravenous injection of cannabinoid-2 receptor (CB2-R) (expressed by human and mouse plaque macrophages) targeted micelles; (2) inter-scan variability of inversion-recovery fast spin echo and fast spin echo; (3) relation between NER(plaque) and gadolinium content for inversion-recovery fast spin echo and fast spin echo. Inversion-recovery fast spin echo/fast spin echo imaging was performed before and every 15 min up to 48 h after injection of CB2-R targeted or control micelles using several groups of mice measured in an interleaved fashion. NER(plaque) (determined on inversion-recovery fast spin echo images) remained high (∼2) until 48 h after injection of CB2-R targeted micelles, whereas NER(plaque) decreased after 36 h in the control group. The inter-scan variability and relation between NER(plaque) and gadolinium (assessed with inductively coupled plasma- mass spectrometry) were compared between inversion-recovery fast spin echo and fast spin echo. Inter-scan variability was higher for inversion-recovery fast spin echo than for fast spin echo. Although gadolinium and NER(plaque) correlated well for both techniques, the NER of plaque was higher for inversion-recovery fast spin echo than for fast spin echo. In mice injected with CB2-R targeted micelles, NER(plaque) can be best evaluated at 36-48 h post-injection. Because NER(plaque) was higher for inversion-recovery fast spin echo than for fast spin echo, but with high inter-scan variability, repeated inversion-recovery fast spin echo imaging and averaging of the obtained NER(plaque) values is recommended.

Novel multifunctional nanoparticle mediates siRNA tumour delivery, visualisation and therapeutic tumour reduction in vivo

RNA interference (RNAi) is being widely explored as a means of tumour therapy due to the specific and potent silencing of targeted genes. However, in vivo delivery of RNAi effectors, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) and detection of delivery is fraught with problems. Here, we describe novel theranostic PEGylated siRNA nanoparticles termed liposome-entrapped siRNA (LEsiRNA) nanoparticles. Our LEsiRNA nanoparticles are MR sensitive, contain labels for fluorescence microscopy/histology and promote functional siRNA delivery to tumours in mice leading to a significant reduction in both Survivin expression and tumour growth. LEsiRNA nanoparticles, administered by intravenous injection, were shown to accumulate in xenograft tumours by MR contrast image enhancements 24h post-administration. Fluorescence microscopy was used to corroborate the MR results and simultaneously demonstrate co-localisation of nanoparticles and siRNA within the tumours. The LEsiRNA nanoparticle-mediated delivery of the anti-cancer Survivin siRNA causes significant reduction in tumour growth when compared to controls. Our results suggest that LEsiRNA nanoparticles can be valuable as an in vivo delivery agent for siRNA therapy to tumours.

Trafficking macrophage migration using reporter gene imaging with human sodium iodide symporter in animal models of inflammation

The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of nuclear molecular imaging using the human sodium iodide symporter (hNIS) as a reporter gene to monitor macrophage migration toward the inflammatory foci.

METHODS

A stable macrophage cell line coexpressing hNIS and green fluorescent protein (GFP) genes (RAW264.7/hNIS-GFP and R(NIS) cell) was established from an immortalized macrophage cell line (RAW264.7 cells). (125)I uptake was determined (for hNIS protein functional activity), and flow cytometry analysis (to examine GFP gene expression), a cell proliferation assay, a cytokine assay, and a phagocytic activity assay were performed. (99m)Tc-pertechnetate images were acquired at 1 d after subcutaneous inoculation of R(NIS) cells in nude mice. Chemical inflammation was induced for in vivo imaging in the thigh of nude mice by turpentine oil injection. Small-animal PET with (18)F-FDG and (124)I was performed with an intravenous administration of RAW264.7 or R(NIS) cells in inflammation-induced animals.

RESULTS

The expression of hNIS and GFP genes was confirmed in R(NIS) cells by flow cytometry and immunofluorescent staining. (125)I uptake was about 67 times higher in R(NIS) cells than in RAW264.7 cells. No significant difference was observed in cell proliferation, cytokine production, and phagocytic activity between RAW264.7 and R(NIS) cells. (99m)Tc-pertechnetate imaging revealed increased tracer uptake at the inoculation site. PET with (124)I demonstrated a donut-shaped uptake, correlating with uptake shown by the (18)F-FDG PET images, at the inflammation site of mice administered R(NIS) cells. (124)I uptake (percentage injected dose per gram) was about 2.12 times higher at the inflammation site in the R(NIS) mice than in RAW264.7 mice. By immunohistochemistry, the migration of macrophages was further confirmed by positive staining for GFP and hNIS at the inflammation site of R(NIS) mice.

CONCLUSION

These data support the feasibility of hNIS reporter gene imaging to monitor the macrophage migration toward an inflammatory lesion. Macrophages expressing hNIS may provide a new strategy to investigate the cellular behavior seen with inflammatory response in a preclinical model.

Large relaxivity enhancement of paramagnetic lipid nanoparticles by restricting the local motions of the Gd(III) chelates

A Gd(III)-DOTA-like complex bearing two aliphatic chains on adjacent acetic arms was designed, synthesized, and compared with its analogous monofunctionalized complex. A 1/T(1) NMR relaxometric study of the two amphiphilic complexes incorporated into micelles and liposomes showed an unprecedented relaxivity enhancement for the complex with two lipophilic side arms. This remarkable result, which is attributed to a favorable water exchange rate and increased rigidity of the system resulting from limiting of the local motion of the gadolinium center, represents an important advance in the development of highly efficient nanosystems for MRI applications.

A novel pH-sensitive magnetic alginate-chitosan beads for albendazole delivery

BACKGROUND

Drug delivery system using polymer-coated magnetic carriers is considered as an effective strategy for passive targeting, which can not only increase drug utilization but also reduce the adverse reaction. With the carriers, sensitivity to physical stimuli (e.g., magnetic field, pH) has been developed and drugs were conjugated to form incorporating magnetic particles, so that drugs could be located to desire position.

METHOD

Novel magnetic alginate (Alg)-chitosan (CS) beads loaded with albendazole (ABZ) were prepared and evaluated for pH sensitivity and drug release characteristics. The effects of six different factors (Alg concentration, the weight ratio of drug to polymer, the weight ratio of magnetite nanoparticles to polymer, CaCl2 concentration, CS concentration, the volume ratio of Alg to CS) were studied on the swelling ability of the magnetic beads. The magnetic beads were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, and vibrating sample magnetometry. In addition, the delivery behavior of ABZ from the magnetic beads was studied.

RESULT

The magnetic Alg-CS beads had showed unique pH-dependent swelling behaviors and a continuous release of ABZ. From the magnetometer measurements data, the beads also had superparamagnetic property as well as fast magnetic response.

CONCLUSION

The pH-sensitive magnetic beads may be used as a magnetic drug targeting system for ABZ in the gastrointestinal tract.

Exchange kinetics of protein-functionalized micelles and liposomes studied by Förster resonance energy transfer

Protein-functionalized micelles and liposomes are attractive delivery systems for applications ranging from targeted drug delivery to molecular imaging. In particular, systems that use pegylated phospholipids have become popular, but little is known about the stability of these lipid-functionalized proteins toward exchange. In this study, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the fluorescent proteins ECFP and EYFP was used to investigate the lipid exchange behavior of protein-functionalized liposomes and micelles. Native chemical ligation was used as an efficient method to site-specifically couple varying amounts of proteins to pegylated phospholipids. No exchange was observed between protein-functionalized phospholipids in sterically stabilized liposomes. In micelles, however, protein-functionalized lipids were found to exchange with a half-time of exchange ranging from almost 2 h at room temperature to 4 min at 37 degrees C. These pegylated micelles remained intact at lipid concentrations down to 0.15 microM, indicating that they are even more stable than previously assumed. The results obtained in this study provide a useful frame of reference for assessing the potential role of protein exchange in biomedical applications of these lipid-based nanoparticles.

Characterization of MRI contrast agent-loaded polymeric nanocapsules as versatile vehicle for targeted imaging

Various contrast agents (Magnevist, Gadovist and Multihance) loaded into polymeric nanocapsules were synthesized by the inverse miniemulsion technique. The relaxivity of the resultant contrast agents was assessed at 1.5 T magnetic field strength. The ionic relaxivity of the contrast agents could at least be maintained after their encapsulation in different polymer capsules. The chemical composition of the nanocapsules was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The distribution of the contrast agent in the nanocapsules could be identified by energy filtered transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The results indicate entrapment of the gadolinium complex into the inner shell of the polymeric nanocapsules. The payload of contrast agent per nanocapsule resulted in some 2.5 x 10(6) Gd(3+) complexes yielding a particle-based relaxivity of 10.75 x 10(6) mM(-1) s(-1). Maintained or even slightly increased ionic relaxivity of the different contrast agents after encapsulation in combination with high payloads and the possibility of functionalization of the capsules' surface facilitate the application of the nanocapsules as promising targeted contrast agents for MRI.

Multifunctional imaging nanoprobes

Multifunctional imaging nanoprobes have proven to be of great value in the research of pathological processes, as well as the assessment of the delivery, fate, and therapeutic potential of encapsulated drugs. Moreover, such probes may potentially support therapy schemes by the exploitation of their own physical properties, e.g., through thermal ablation. This review will present four classes of nanoparticulate imaging probes used in this area: multifunctional probes (1) that can be tracked with at least three different and complementary imaging techniques, (2) that carry a drug and have bimodal imaging properties, (3) that are employed for nucleic acid delivery and imaging, and (4) imaging probes with capabilities that can be used for thermal ablation. We will highlight several examples where the suitable combination of different (bio)materials like polymers, inorganic nanocrystals, fluorophores, proteins/peptides, and lipids can be tailored to manufacture multifunctional probes to accomplish nanomaterials of each of the aforementioned classes. Moreover, it will be demonstrated how multimodality imaging approaches improve our understanding of in vivo nanoparticle behavior and efficacy at different levels, ranging from the subcellular level to the whole body.

Albumin-based nanoparticles as magnetic resonance contrast agents: II. Physicochemical characterisation of purified and standardised nanoparticles

We are developing a nanoparticulate histochemical reagent designed for histochemistry in living animals (molecular imaging), which should finally be useful in clinical imaging applications. The iterative development procedure employed involves conceptual design of the reagent, synthesis and testing of the reagent, then redesign based on data from the testing; each cycle of testing and development generates a new generation of nanoparticles, and this report describes the synthesis and testing of the third generation. The nanoparticles are based on human serum albumin and the imaging modality selected is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Testing the second particle generation with newly introduced techniques revealed the presence of impurities in the final product, therefore we replaced dialysis with diafiltration. We introduced further testing methods including thin layer chromatography, arsenazo III as chromogenic assay for gadolinium, and several versions of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, for physicochemical characterisation of the nanoparticles and intermediate synthesis compounds. The high grade of chemical purity achieved by combined application of these methodologies allowed standardised particle sizes to be achieved (low dispersities), and accurate measurement of critical physicochemical parameters influencing particle size and imaging properties. Regression plots confirmed the high purity and standardisation. The good degree of quantitative physicochemical characterisation aided our understanding of the nanoparticles and allowed a conceptual model of them to be prepared. Toxicological screening demonstrated the extremely low toxicity of the particles. The high magnetic resonance relaxivities and enhanced mechanical stability of the particles make them an excellent platform for the further development of MRI molecular imaging.

Supramolecular protamine/Gd-loaded liposomes adducts as relaxometric protease responsive probes

A new approach to enzyme-responsive MRI agents based on the use of liposomes loaded with a high number of paramagnetic metal complexes (Gd-HPDO3A) is presented. It relies on the disruption of low relaxivity aggregates formed by liposomes and a macromolecular substrate that is selectively cleaved by the enzyme of interest. The interaction of anionic liposomes composed of POPC:CHOL:DPGS and the cationic protein protamine yields a poorly soluble supramolecular assembly endowed with a low relaxivity. The action of the serine protease trypsin causes the digestion of protamine and the consequent de-assembly of the supramolecular adduct. The process is accompanied by an overall relaxation enhancement of solvent water protons as consequence of the dissolution of the aggregated liposomes. The observed increase of relaxivity is linearly dependent on the enzyme concentration. An illustrative example of the possible use of the herein presented responsive agent has been reported. It consists of the entrapment of the supramolecular assembly in alginate microcapsules that have often been used as envelopes for in vivo applications of stem cells and pancreatic islets. The change in the observed longitudinal relaxation rate R(1) (leading to an hyperintense signal in the corresponding MR images) may act as a sensor of the protease activity in the biological environment in which the capsules is located.

Liver and brain imaging through dimercaptosuccinic acid-coated iron oxide nanoparticles

BACKGROUND & AIM

Uptake, cytotoxicity and interaction of improved superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were studied in cells, tissues and organs after single and multiple exposures.

MATERIAL & METHOD

We prepared dimercaptosuccinic acid-coated iron oxide nanoparticles by thermal decomposition in organic medium, resulting in aqueous suspensions with a small hydrodynamic size (< 100 nm), high saturation magnetization and susceptibility, high nuclear magnetic resonance contrast and low cytotoxicity.

RESULTS

In vitro and in vivo behavior showed that these nanoparticles are efficient carriers for drug delivery to the liver and brain that can be combined with MRI detection.

Quantum dots for multimodal molecular imaging of angiogenesis

Quantum dots exhibit unique optical properties for bioimaging purposes. We have previously developed quantum dots with a paramagnetic and functionalized coating and have shown their potential for molecular imaging purposes. In the current mini-review we summarize the synthesis procedure, the in vitro testing and, importantly, the in vivo application for multimodal molecular imaging of tumor angiogenesis.

Imaging atherosclerosis and vulnerable plaque

Identifying patients at high risk for an acute cardiovascular event such as myocardial infarction or stroke and assessing the total atherosclerotic burden are clinically important. Currently available imaging modalities can delineate vascular wall anatomy and, with novel probes, target biologic processes important in plaque evolution and plaque stability. Expansion of the vessel wall involving remodeling of the extracellular matrix can be imaged, as can angiogenesis of the vasa vasorum, plaque inflammation, and fibrin deposits on early nonocclusive vascular thrombosis. Several imaging platforms are available for targeted vascular imaging to acquire information on both anatomy and pathobiology in the same imaging session using either hybrid technology (nuclear combined with CT) or MRI combined with novel probes targeting processes identified by molecular biology to be of importance. This article will discuss the current state of the art of these modalities and challenges to clinical translation.

Theragnostics for tumor and plaque angiogenesis with perfluorocarbon nanoemulsions

Molecular imaging agents are extending the potential of noninvasive medical diagnosis from basic gross anatomical descriptions to complicated phenotypic characterizations based upon the recognition of unique cell-surface biochemical signatures. Although originally the purview of nuclear medicine, "molecular imaging" is now studied in conjunction with all clinically relevant imaging modalities. Of the myriad of particles that have emerged as prospective candidates for clinical translation, perfluorocarbon nanoparticles offer great potential for combining targeted imaging with drug delivery, much like the "magic bullet" envisioned by Paul Ehrlich 100 years ago. Perfluorocarbon nanoparticles, once studied in Phase III clinical trials as blood substitutes, have found new life for molecular imaging and drug delivery. The particles have been adapted for use with all clinically relevant modalities and for targeted drug delivery. In particular, their intravascular constraint due to particle size provides a distinct advantage for angiogenesis imaging and antiangiogenesis therapy. As perfluorocarbon nanoparticles have recently entered Phase I clinical study, this review provides a timely focus on the development of this platform technology and its application for angiogenesis-related pathologies.

Gadolinium hexanedione nanoparticles for stem cell labeling and tracking via magnetic resonance imaging

The ability to trace transplanted stem cells and monitor their tissue biodistribution is prerequisite to an understanding of cellular migration after transplantation. Therefore, a new magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent made of gadolinium hexanedione nanoparticles (GdH-NPs) was developed as a cell tracking agent. The GdH-NPs were fabricated by the microemulsion process. The physical characteristics, biocompatibility, and T1-MRI signal enhancement of these NPs were analyzed and evaluated for stem cell tracking. In this study, the size of the synthesized GdH-NPs was about 140 nm, and it had greater image enhancement ability than commercial gadolinium diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (Gd-DTPA). From the biocompability test, we found GdH-NPs were nontoxic for human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). The expression of surface antigens of hMSCs after culture with GdH-NPs was examined, and it showed no difference from the control group. The results of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging for labeled hMSCs showed GdH-NPs were accumulated in the cells by the endocytotic pathway. The accumulation of GdH-NPs in hMSCs was three times higher in comparison to Gd-DTPA. Human MSCs labeled with low concentration of GdH-NPs (10 microg/mL) hold better signals in cellular MR image. We conclude GdH-NPs can be used to label hMSCs in vitro with greater T1 image-enhancing property and without affecting cell quality. Finally, GdH-NPs have great potential as a contrast agent for stem cell tracking by MRI methodology.

Paramagnetic liposome nanoparticles for cellular and tumour imaging

In this review we discuss the development of paramagnetic liposomes incorporating MRI contrast agents and show how these are utilized in cellular imaging in vitro. Bi-functional, bi-modal imaging paramagnetic liposome systems are also described. Next we discuss the upgrading of paramagnetic liposomes into bi-modal imaging neutral nanoparticles for in vivo imaging applications. We discuss the development of such systems and show how paramagnetic liposomes and imaging nanoparticles could be developed as platforms for future multi-functional, multi-modal imaging theranostic nanodevices tailor-made for the combined imaging of early stage disease pathology and functional drug delivery.

Development and use of iron oxide nanoparticles (Part 1): Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for MRI

Contrast agents, such as iron oxide, enhance MR images by altering the relaxation times of tissues in which the agent is present. They can also be used to label targeted molecular imaging probes. Unfortunately, no molecular imaging probe is currently available on the clinical MRI market. A promising platform for MRI contrast agent development is nanotechnology, where superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONS) are tailored for MR contrast enhancement, and/or for molecular imaging. SPIONs can be produced using a range of methods and the choice of method will be influenced by the characteristics most important for a particular application. In addition, the ability to attach molecular markers to SPIONS heralds their application in molecular imaging.There are many reviews on SPION synthesis for MRI; however, these tend to be targeted to a chemistry audience. The development of MRI contrast agents attracts experienced researchers from many fields including some researchers with little knowledge of medical imaging or MRI. This situation presents medical radiation practitioners with opportunities for involvement, collaboration or leadership in research depending on their level of commitment and their ability to learn. Medical radiation practitioners already possess a large portion of the understanding, knowledge and skills necessary for involvement in MRI development and molecular imaging. Their expertise in imaging technology, patient care and radiation safety provides them with skills that are directly applicable to research on the development and application of SPIONs and MRI.In this paper we argue that MRI SPIONs, currently limited to major research centres, will have widespread clinical use in the future. We believe that knowledge about this growing area of research provides an opportunity for medical radiation practitioners to enhance their specialised expertise to ensure best practice in a truly multi-disciplinary environment. This review outlines how and why SPIONs can be synthesised and examines their characteristics and limitations in the context of MR imaging.

Surface modification, functionalization and bioconjugation of colloidal inorganic nanoparticles

Inorganic colloidal nanoparticles are very small, nanoscale objects with inorganic cores that are dispersed in a solvent. Depending on the material they consist of, nanoparticles can possess a number of different properties such as high electron density and strong optical absorption (e.g. metal particles, in particular Au), photoluminescence in the form of fluorescence (semiconductor quantum dots, e.g. CdSe or CdTe) or phosphorescence (doped oxide materials, e.g. Y(2)O(3)), or magnetic moment (e.g. iron oxide or cobalt nanoparticles). Prerequisite for every possible application is the proper surface functionalization of such nanoparticles, which determines their interaction with the environment. These interactions ultimately affect the colloidal stability of the particles, and may yield to a controlled assembly or to the delivery of nanoparticles to a target, e.g. by appropriate functional molecules on the particle surface. This work aims to review different strategies of surface modification and functionalization of inorganic colloidal nanoparticles with a special focus on the material systems gold and semiconductor nanoparticles, such as CdSe/ZnS. However, the discussed strategies are often of general nature and apply in the same way to nanoparticles of other materials.

Fluorescent-magnetic hybrid nanoparticles induce a dose-dependent increase in proinflammatory response in lung cells in vitro correlated with intracellular localization

Iron-platinum nanoparticles embedded in a poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA) polymer shell and fluorescently labeled with the dye ATTO 590 (FePt-PMA-ATTO-2%) are investigated in terms of their intracellular localization in lung cells and potential to induce a proinflammatory response dependent on concentration and incubation time. A gold core coated with the same polymer shell (Au-PMA-ATTO-2%) is also included. Using laser scanning and electron microscopy techniques, it is shown that the FePt-PMA-ATTO-2% particles penetrate all three types of cell investigated but to a higher extent in macrophages and dendritic cells than epithelial cells. In both cell types of the defense system but not in epithelial cells, a particle-dose-dependent increase of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) is found. By comparing the different nanoparticles and the mere polymer shell, it is shown that the cores combined with the shells are responsible for the induction of proinflammatory effects and not the shells alone. It is concluded that the uptake behavior and the proinflammatory response upon particle exposure are dependent on the time, cell type, and cell culture.

Magnetic quantum dots for multimodal imaging

Multimodal contrast agents based on highly luminescent quantum dots (QDs) combined with magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) or ions form an exciting class of new materials for bioimaging. With two functionalities integrated in a single nanoparticle, a sensitive contrast agent for two very powerful and highly complementary imaging techniques [fluorescence imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)] is obtained. In this review, the state of the art in this rapidly developing field is given. This is done by describing the developments for four different approaches to integrate the fluorescence and magnetic properties in a single nanoparticle. The first type of particles is created by the growth of heterostructures in which a QD is either overgrown with a layer of a magnetic material or linked to a (superpara, or ferro) MNP. The second approach involves doping of paramagnetic ions into QDs. A third option is to use silica or polymer nanoparticles as a matrix for the incorporation of both QDs and MNPs. Finally, it is possible to introduce chelating molecules with paramagnetic ions (e.g., Gd-DTPA) into the coordination shell of the QDs. All different approaches have resulted in recent breakthroughs and the demonstration of the capability of bioimaging using both functionalities. In addition to giving an overview of the most exciting recent developments, the pros and cons of the four different classes of bimodal contrast agents are discussed, ending with an outlook on the future of this emerging new field.

Modified natural nanoparticles as contrast agents for medical imaging

The development of novel and effective contrast agents is one of the drivers of the ongoing improvement in medical imaging. Many of the new agents reported are nanoparticle-based. There are a variety of natural nanoparticles known, e.g. lipoproteins, viruses or ferritin. Natural nanoparticles have advantages as delivery platforms such as biodegradability. In addition, our understanding of natural nanoparticles is quite advanced, allowing their adaptation as contrast agents. They can be labeled with small molecules or ions such as Gd(3+) to act as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging, (18)F to act as positron emission tomography contrast agents or fluorophores to act as contrast agents for fluorescence techniques. Additionally, inorganic nanoparticles such as iron oxide, gold nanoparticles or quantum dots can be incorporated to add further contrast functionality. Furthermore, these natural nanoparticle contrast agents can be re-routed from their natural targets via the attachment of targeting molecules. In this review, we discuss the various modified natural nanoparticles that have been exploited as contrast agents.

Design and fabrication of magnetic nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery and imaging

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) represent a class of non-invasive imaging agents that have been developed for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. These MNPs have traditionally been used for disease imaging via passive targeting, but recent advances have opened the door to cellular-specific targeting, drug delivery, and multi-modal imaging by these nanoparticles. As more elaborate MNPs are envisioned, adherence to proper design criteria (e.g. size, coating, molecular functionalization) becomes even more essential. This review summarizes the design parameters that affect MNP performance in vivo, including the physicochemical properties and nanoparticle surface modifications, such as MNP coating and targeting ligand functionalizations that can enhance MNP management of biological barriers. A careful review of the chemistries used to modify the surfaces of MNPs is also given, with attention paid to optimizing the activity of bound ligands while maintaining favorable physicochemical properties.

Nanotechnology and MRI contrast enhancement

Technical advances in nanotechnology are creating novel classes of MRI contrast-enhancing agents. These nanomaterials offer much higher relaxivities than most current clinical contrast agents, which translates into greater MRI contrast enhancement. These nanoscale agents also have the potential to revolutionize in vivo applications of contrast-enhanced MRI since they offer the multiple advantages of low toxicities, extremely high relaxivities and cell internalization capabilities. In this review, we discuss three types of such contrast agents currently in use or under development for medical imaging: small particles of iron oxide, fullerenes encapsulating Gd3+ ions (gadofullerenes) and single-walled carbon nanotube nanocapsules encapsulating Gd3+ ion clusters (gadonanotubes). The latest developments and projected future applications of these nanotechnology-inspired contrast agents in the field of medical imaging are also discussed.

Nanomedicine strategies for molecular targets with MRI and optical imaging

The science of 'theranostics' plays a crucial role in personalized medicine, which represents the future of patient management. Over the last decade an increasing research effort has focused on the development of nanoparticle-based molecular-imaging and drug-delivery approaches, emerging as a multidisciplinary field that shows promise in understanding the components, processes, dynamics and therapies of a disease at a molecular level. The potential of nanometer-sized agents for early detection, diagnosis and personalized treatment of diseases is extraordinary. They have found applications in almost all clinically relevant biomedical imaging modality. In this review, a number of these approaches will be presented with a particular emphasis on MRI and optical imaging-based techniques. We have discussed both established molecular-imaging approaches and recently developed innovative strategies, highlighting the seminal studies and a number of successful examples of theranostic nanomedicine, especially in the areas of cardiovascular and cancer therapy.

Chitosan-based systems for molecular imaging

Molecular imaging enables the non-invasive assessment of biological and biochemical processes in living subjects. Such technologies therefore have the potential to enhance our understanding of disease and drug activity during preclinical and clinical drug development. Molecular imaging allows a repetitive and non-invasive study of the same living subject using identical or alternative biological imaging assays at different time points, thus harnessing the statistical power of longitudinal studies, and reducing the number of animals required and cost. Chitosan is a hydrophilic and non-antigenic biopolymer and has a low toxicity toward mammalian cells. Hence, it has great potential as a biomaterial because of its excellent biocompatibility. Conjugated to additional materials, chitosan composites result in a new class of biomaterials that possess mechanical, physicochemical and functional properties, which have potential for use in advanced biomedical imaging applications. The present review will discuss the strengths, limitations and challenges of molecular imaging as well as applications of chitosan nanoparticles in the field of molecular imaging.

Enabling individualized therapy through nanotechnology

Individualized medicine is the healthcare strategy that rebukes the idiomatic dogma of 'losing sight of the forest for the trees'. We are entering a new era of healthcare where it is no longer acceptable to develop and market a drug that is effective for only 80% of the patient population. The emergence of "-omic" technologies (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) and advances in systems biology are magnifying the deficiencies of standardized therapy, which often provide little treatment latitude for accommodating patient physiologic idiosyncrasies. A personalized approach to medicine is not a novel concept. Ever since the scientific community began unraveling the mysteries of the genome, the promise of discarding generic treatment regimens in favor of patient-specific therapies became more feasible and realistic. One of the major scientific impediments of this movement towards personalized medicine has been the need for technological enablement. Nanotechnology is projected to play a critical role in patient-specific therapy; however, this transition will depend heavily upon the evolutionary development of a systems biology approach to clinical medicine based upon "-omic" technology analysis and integration. This manuscript provides a forward looking assessment of the promise of nanomedicine as it pertains to individualized medicine and establishes a technology "snapshot" of the current state of nano-based products over a vast array of clinical indications and range of patient specificity. Other issues such as market driven hurdles and regulatory compliance reform are anticipated to "self-correct" in accordance to scientific advancement and healthcare demand. These peripheral, non-scientific concerns are not addressed at length in this manuscript; however they do exist, and their impact to the paradigm shifting healthcare transformation towards individualized medicine will be critical for its success.

Nanoparticle phagocytosis and cellular stress: involvement in cellular imaging and in gene therapy against glioma

In gene therapy against glioma, targeting tumoral tissue is not an easy task. We used the tumor infiltrating property of microglia in this study. These cells are well adapted to this therapy since they can phagocyte nanoparticles and allow their visualization by MRI. Indeed, while many studies have used transfected microglia containing a suicide gene and other internalized nanoparticles to visualize microglia, none have combined both approaches during gene therapy. Microglia cells were transfected with the TK-GFP gene under the control of the HSP(70) promoter. First, the possible cellular stress induced by nanoparticle internalization was checked to avoid a non-specific activation of the suicide gene. Then, MR images were obtained on tubes containing microglia loaded with superparamagnetic nanoparticles (VUSPIO) to characterize their MR properties, as well as their potential to track cells in vivo. VUSPIO were efficiently internalized by microglia, were found non-toxic and their internalization did not induce any cellular stress. VUSPIO relaxivity r(2) was 224 mM(-1).s(-1). Such results could generate a very high contrast between loaded and unloaded cells on T(2)-weighted images. The intracellular presence of VUSPIO does not prevent suicide gene activity, since TK is expressed in vitro and functional in vivo. It allows MRI detection of gene modified macrophages during cell therapy strategies.

Synergistic targeting of alphavbeta3 integrin and galectin-1 with heteromultivalent paramagnetic liposomes for combined MR imaging and treatment of angiogenesis

Effective and specific targeting of nanoparticles is of paramount importance in the fields of targeted therapeutics and diagnostics. In the current study, we investigated the targeting efficacy of nanoparticles that were functionalized with two angiogenesis-specific targeting ligands, an alpha(v)beta(3) integrin-specific and a galectin-1-specific peptide. We show in vitro, using optical techniques and MRI, that the dual-targeting approach produces synergistic targeting effects, causing a dramatically elevated uptake of nanoparticles as compared to single ligand targeting.

Accelerated blood clearance was not induced for a gadolinium-containing PEG-poly(L-lysine)-based polymeric micelle in mice

PURPOSE

Accelerated blood clearance (ABC) is induced by repeated injections of PEGylated liposomes. In this study, the ABC was investigated for a gadolinium-containing PEG-poly(L-lysine)-based polymeric micelle (Gd-micelle) and PEGylated liposome (Gd-liposome) in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effects of the first injection of Gd-micelle on the tissue distribution of the second dose of Gd-micelle were studied. Additionally, effects of the first injection of Gd-micelle, Gd-liposome, empty liposome, polyethyleneglycol (PEG(500,000)), and PEG-lipid on the distribution of the second dose of the Gd-liposome were evaluated.

RESULTS

Results indicated that the tissue distribution of the second injection of the Gd-micelle at a dose of 33, 5, or 2 micromol Gd/kg was not affected by the first injection of the Gd-micelle at different doses and time intervals or of the empty PEGylated liposome 7 days before. ABC of Gd-liposome at a dose of 2.3 micromol Gd/kg (corresponding to 10 micromol lipids/kg) was observed when the empty PEGylated liposome or Gd-liposome, but not the Gd-micelle, PEG(500,000) or PEG-lipid, was pre-administered.

CONCLUSIONS

The hydrophobic core of the micelle or lipid bilayer of PEGylated liposome has a major effect on this phenomenon. These studies have significant implications for the evaluation of PEG-poly(L-lysine)-based micellar formulation of Gd-based contrast agents.

Conquering the dark side: colloidal iron oxide nanoparticles

Nanomedicine approaches to atherosclerotic disease will have significant impact on the practice and outcomes of cardiovascular medicine. Iron oxide nanoparticles have been extensively used for nontargeted and targeted imaging applications based upon highly sensitive T2* imaging properties, which typically result in negative contrast effects that can only be imaged 24 or more hours after systemic administration due to persistent blood pool interference. Although recent advances involving MR pulse sequences have converted these dark contrast voxels into bright ones, the marked delays in imaging from persistent magnetic background interference and prominent dipole blooming effects of the magnetic susceptibility remain barriers to overcome. We report a T1-weighted (T1w) theranostic colloidal iron oxide nanoparticle platform, CION, which is achieved by entrapping oleate-coated magnetite particles within a cross-linked phospholipid nanoemulsion. Contrary to expectations, this formulation decreased T2 effects thus allowing positive T1w contrast detection down to low nanomolar concentrations. CION, a vascular constrained nanoplatform administered in vivo permitted T1w molecular imaging 1 h after treatment without blood pool interference, although some T2 shortening effects on blood, induced by the superparamagnetic particles, persisted. Moreover, CION was shown to encapsulate antiangiogenic drugs, like fumagillin, and retained them under prolonged dissolution, suggesting significant theranostic functionality. Overall, CION is a platform technology, developed with generally recognized as safe components, that overcomes the temporal and spatial imaging challenges associated with current iron oxide nanoparticle T2 imaging agents and which has theranostic potential in vascular diseases for detecting unstable ruptured plaque or treating atherosclerotic angiogenesis.

Molecular and magnetic resonance imaging: The value of immunoliposomes

Molecular imaging has the potential to transform the field of diagnostic imaging through enabling far more detailed investigation and characterisation of disease processes than is currently possible. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is capable of three-dimensional non-invasive imaging of opaque tissues at near cellular resolution. Among the imaging techniques available today, MRI has, perhaps, the greatest potential to exploit the possibilities that molecular imaging presents. Nanoparticles are the focus of intense research, due to a wide variety of potential applications in the biomedical, optical, and electronic fields. In this article we examine the progress made in the development of nanoparticles as targeted contrast agents for molecular magnetic resonance imaging. In particular, we will examine the potential of antibody-targeted liposomes (immunoliposomes) as vehicles for delivering MRI contrast agents to cellular biomarkers, thus enabling visualisation of structures and processes at the molecular level. We will address some of the challenges that must be faced by researchers in this field before the progress made in the laboratory can be translated into improved clinical diagnostics and therapeutics.

Functionalized 129Xe contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging

The concept of 'xenon biosensor' for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was first proposed by a Berkeley team in 2001, with evidence that hyperpolarized 129Xe bound to a biotin-labeled cryptophane can detect streptavidin at much lower concentrations (nM-microM) than is typical for contrast-enhanced MRI experiments. 129Xe biosensors have undergone many recent developments to address challenges in molecular imaging. For example, cryptophanes that exhibit 10-fold higher xenon affinity with distinct 129Xe magnetic resonance spectra have been synthesized. Also relevant are dendrimeric cryptophane assemblies and inorganic zeolites that localize many 129Xe atoms to rare targets. Finally, this article considers biosensors that produce measurable changes in 129Xe chemical shift based upon the activity of oligonucleotides, proteins, or enzymes, and includes the first cell studies.