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Arce E, Simmons AN, Lovero KL, Stein MB, Paulus MP. Escitalopram effects on insula and amygdala BOLD activation during emotional processing. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 196:661-72. [PMID: 18058090 PMCID: PMC2839135 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-1004-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2007] [Accepted: 10/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The amygdala and insular cortex are integral to the processing of emotionally salient stimuli. We have shown in healthy volunteers that an anxiolytic agent, lorazepam, dose-dependently attenuates activation of limbic structures. OBJECTIVE The current study investigated whether administration of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), escitalopram, alters the activation of limbic structures. We hypothesized that subchronic (21 days) SSRI treatment attenuates the activation of the amygdala and insula during processing of emotional faces. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirteen healthy volunteers participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, randomized study. After 21 days of treatment with either escitalopram or placebo, participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during which all subjects completed an emotion face assessment task, which has been shown to elicit amygdala and insula activation. RESULTS Subjects activated the bilateral insula and amygdala after treatment with both escitalopram and placebo. In subjects who were adherent to the protocol (as evidenced by sufficiently high urine concentrations of escitalopram), a reduction in amygdala activation was seen in the escitalopram condition compared to placebo. CONCLUSION The current investigation provides further evidence for the mechanism of action of SSRIs through the attenuation of activation in brain regions responsible for emotion processing and provides support for the use of blood oxygenation level-dependent fMRI with pharmacological probes to help identify the specific therapeutic effect of these agents in patients with anxiety and mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estibaliz Arce
- Department of Psychiatry, Laboratory of Biology Dynamics and Theoretical Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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Muraki I, Inoue T, Koyama T. Effect of co-administration of the selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY 100,635 and selective 5-HT1B/1D receptor antagonist GR 127,935 on anxiolytic effect of citalopram in conditioned fear stress in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 586:171-8. [PMID: 18423441 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2007] [Revised: 12/10/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of co-administration of the selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist WAY 100,635 and selective 5-HT(1B/1D) receptor antagonist GR 127,935 with a subactive dose of citalopram [selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)] on the expression of conditioned freezing, an index of fear. In the present study, acute administration of citalopram (s.c.) reduced freezing significantly at high doses (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg), while showing no significant effect at low doses (1 and 3 mg/kg). Co-administration of WAY 100,635 (0.15 mg/kg) with citalopram (3 mg/kg) reduced freezing markedly and significantly, as compared with either drug alone. However, the addition of GR 127,935 (4 mg/kg) did not potentiate the effects of citalopram (3 mg/kg) on freezing and did not enhance the effect of WAY 100,635 (0.15 mg/kg) with citalopram (3 mg/kg). Co-administration of WAY 100,635 (0.15 mg/kg) or GR 127,935 (4 mg/kg) gave no effect on high-dose citalopram (30 mg/kg)-induced inhibition of freezing behavior. These results suggest that co-administration of WAY 100,635 (0.15 mg/kg) strengthens the anxiolytic effect of citalopram (3 mg/kg) by facilitating central 5-HT neurotransmission. Since GR 127,935 (4 mg/kg) failed to accelerate the inhibition of freezing induced by citalopram (3 mg/kg) with WAY 100,635 (0.15 mg/kg) or citalopram (3 mg/kg) alone, it is suggested that blocking 5-HT1A receptors is more effective in facilitating the anxiolytic effect of citalopram than blocking 5-HT1B/1D receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ihoko Muraki
- Department of Psychiatry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, North 15, West 7, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan
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Miskowiak K, Inkster B, Selvaraj S, Wise R, Goodwin GM, Harmer CJ. Erythropoietin improves mood and modulates the cognitive and neural processing of emotion 3 days post administration. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:611-8. [PMID: 17473836 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Erythropoietin (Epo) has neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects and is a promising candidate for treatment of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorder. Recently, we demonstrated that Epo modulates memory-relevant hippocampal response and fear processing in human models of antidepressant drug action 1 week post-administration, and improves self-reported mood for 3 days immediately following administration. The present study explored the effects of Epo (40 000 IU) vs saline on self-reported mood and on neural and cognitive function in healthy volunteers 3 days post-administration to test the reliability of the rapid mood improvement and its neuropsychological basis. Neuronal responses during the processing of happy and fearful faces were investigated using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); facial expression recognition performance was assessed after the fMRI scan. Daily ratings of mood were obtained for 3 days after Epo/saline administration. During faces processing Epo enhanced activation in the left amygdala and right precuneus to happy and fearful expressions. This was paired with improved recognition of all facial expressions, in particular of low intensity happiness and fear. This is similar to behavioral effects observed with acute administration of serotonergic antidepressants. Consistent with our previous finding, Epo improved self-reported mood for all 3 days post-administration. Together, these results suggest that characterization of the effects of Epo in a clinically depressed group is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamilla Miskowiak
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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Chapter 5.2 How effective are current drug treatments for anxiety disorders, and how could they be improved? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1569-7339(07)00018-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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The role of 5-HTTLPR in choosing the lesser of two evils, the better of two goods: examining the impact of 5-HTTLPR genotype and tryptophan depletion in object choice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 196:29-38. [PMID: 17940752 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0920-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2007] [Accepted: 08/17/2007] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The serotonin (5-HT) system is considered important for decision-making. However, its role in reward- and punishment-based processing has not yet been clearly determined. OBJECTIVES The present study examines the effect of 5-HTTLPR genotype and tryptophan depletion on reward- and punishment-related processing, using a task that considers decision-making in situations of subtlety of choice. Thus, it considers that response choice often occurs in situations where both options are desirable (e.g., choosing between mousse au chocolat or crème caramel cheesecake from a menu) or undesirable. It also considers that response choice is easier when the reinforcements associated with the options are far apart, rather than close, in value. MATERIALS AND METHODS Healthy volunteers underwent acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) or control procedures and genotyping of the 5-HTTLPR for long and short allele variants. We then examined the effects and interactions of ATD and the serotonin promoter polymorphism genotype on two aspects of decision-making: (a) decision form, choosing between two objects to gain the greater reward or lesser punishment and (b) between-object reinforcement distance, the difference in reinforcements associated with two options. RESULTS ATD and LL homozygosity had comparable interactions with decision form and between-object reinforcement distance. Specifically, both modulated the effect of between-object reinforcement distance when deciding between objects both associated with punishment. Moreover, ATD and genotype interacted with ATD disproportionately affecting the performance of the LL homozygous group. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that serotonin is particularly associated with punishment, rather than reward-related processing, and that individual sensitivity to punishment-related information and tryptophan depletion varies with genotype.
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257
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Cools R, Roberts AC, Robbins TW. Serotoninergic regulation of emotional and behavioural control processes. Trends Cogn Sci 2008; 12:31-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 401] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 10/10/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Merens W, Willem Van der Does AJ, Spinhoven P. The effects of serotonin manipulations on emotional information processing and mood. J Affect Disord 2007; 103:43-62. [PMID: 17363069 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2007.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2006] [Revised: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 01/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serotonin is implicated in both mood and cognition. It has recently been shown that antidepressant treatment has immediate effects on emotional information processing, which is much faster than any clinically significant effects. This review aims to investigate whether the effects on emotional information processing are reliable, and whether these effects are related to eventual clinical outcome. Treatment-efficiency may be greatly improved if early changes in emotional information processing are found to predict clinical outcome following antidepressant treatment. METHODS Review of studies investigating the short-term effects of serotonin manipulations (including medication) on the processing of emotional information, using PubMed and PsycInfo databases. RESULTS Twenty-five studies were identified. Serotonin manipulations were found to affect attentional bias, facial emotion recognition, emotional memory, dysfunctional attitudes and decision making. The sequential link between changes in emotional processing and mood remains to be further investigated. LIMITATIONS The number of studies on serotonin manipulations and emotional information processing in currently depressed subjects is small. No studies yet have directly tested the link between emotional information processing and clinical outcome during the course of antidepressant treatment. CONCLUSIONS Serotonin function is related to several aspects of emotional information processing, but it is unknown whether these changes predict or have any relationship with clinical outcome. Suggestions for future research are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendelien Merens
- Leiden University, Institute for Psychological Research, Clinical Psychology Unit, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands.
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259
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Schmidt HD, Duman RS. The role of neurotrophic factors in adult hippocampal neurogenesis, antidepressant treatments and animal models of depressive-like behavior. Behav Pharmacol 2007; 18:391-418. [PMID: 17762509 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e3282ee2aa8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 494] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by structural and neurochemical changes in limbic structures, including the hippocampus, that regulate mood and cognitive functions. Hippocampal atrophy is observed in patients with depression and this effect is blocked or reversed by antidepressant treatments. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and other neurotrophic/growth factors are decreased in postmortem hippocampal tissue from suicide victims, which suggests that altered trophic support could contribute to the pathophysiology of MDD. Preclinical studies demonstrate that exposure to stress leads to atrophy and cell loss in the hippocampus as well as decreased expression of neurotrophic/growth factors, and that antidepressant administration reverses or blocks the effects of stress. Accumulating evidence suggests that altered neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus mediates the action of antidepressants. Chronic antidepressant administration upregulates neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus and this cellular response is required for the effects of antidepressants in certain animal models of depression. Here, we review cellular (e.g. adult neurogenesis) and behavioral studies that support the neurotrophic/neurogenic hypothesis of depression and antidepressant action. Aberrant regulation of neuronal plasticity, including neurogenesis, in the hippocampus and other limbic nuclei may result in maladaptive changes in neural networks that underlie the pathophysiology of MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heath D Schmidt
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Department of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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260
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Anderson IM, Del-Ben CM, Mckie S, Richardson P, Williams SR, Elliott R, Deakin JFW. Citalopram modulation of neuronal responses to aversive face emotions: a functional MRI study. Neuroreport 2007; 18:1351-5. [PMID: 17762711 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0b013e3282742115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the serotonergic modulation of face emotion processing using blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) functional MRI. In a placebo-controlled, balanced order design, intravenous citalopram (7.5 mg) was given to 12 male volunteers 60 min before a covert face emotion recognition task. Angry, disgusted and fearful faces produced BOLD signal responses, which were broadly consistent with previous findings. Citalopram enhanced the BOLD signal response in the left posterior insula (together with nonprespecified pulvinar and visual cortex) but attenuated activation in the left amygdala to disgusted faces and right amygdala activation to fearful faces. No citalopram modulation of BOLD responses to angry faces were found. These results suggest that serotonin modulates low-level amygdala activation to aversive stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Anderson
- Neuroscience and Psychiatry Unit, The University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK.
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261
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Kemmis L, Hall JK, Kingston R, Morgan MJ. Impaired fear recognition in regular recreational cocaine users. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 194:151-9. [PMID: 17554526 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0829-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Accepted: 05/14/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The ability to read facial expressions is essential for normal human social interaction. The aim of the present study was to conduct the first investigation of facial expression recognition performance in recreational cocaine users. MATERIALS AND METHODS Three groups, comprised of 21 cocaine naïve participants (CN), 30 occasional cocaine (OC), and 48 regular recreational cocaine (RC) users, were compared. An emotional facial expression (EFE) task consisting of a male and female face expressing six basic emotions (happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust) was administered. Mean percent accuracy and latencies for correct responses across eight presentations of each basic emotion were derived. Participants were also assessed with the "Eyes task" to investigate their ability to recognize more complex emotional states and the Symptom CheckList-90-Revised to measure psychopathology. RESULTS There were no group differences in psychopathology or "eyes task" performance, but the RC group, who otherwise had similar illicit substance use histories to the OC group, exhibited impaired fear recognition accuracy compared to the OC and CN groups. The RC group also correctly identified anger, fear, happiness, and surprise, more slowly than CN, but not OC participants. The OC group was slower than CN when correctly identifying disgust. The selective deficit in fear recognition accuracy manifested by the RC group cannot be explained by the subacute effects of cocaine, or ecstasy, because recent and less recent users of these drugs within this group were similarly impaired. Possible parallels between RC users and psychopaths with respect to impaired fear recognition, amygdala dysfunction, and etiology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kemmis
- Department of Psychology, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QG, UK
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262
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Browning M, Reid C, Cowen PJ, Goodwin GM, Harmer CJ. A single dose of citalopram increases fear recognition in healthy subjects. J Psychopharmacol 2007; 21:684-90. [PMID: 17259206 DOI: 10.1177/0269881106074062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that a single dose of intravenous citalopram in healthy volunteers enhances the detection of fearful facial expressions, suggesting an effect of acute selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment on the processing of anxiety-related stimuli. The aim of the present study was to confirm and extend this finding by studying the effects of a single dose of oral citalopram on a range of tasks designed to assess different aspects of emotional processing. A total of 32 healthy volunteers were randomly allocated to double-blind treatment with either citalopram 20 mg orally or placebo. Participants then completed a series of tasks assessing emotional aspects of attention (visual-probe task), perception (categorization of facial affect), memory (emotional memory task) and reactivity to threat (emotion potentiated startle). Relative to placebo-treated subjects, participants treated with citalopram demonstrated improved recognition of fearful faces and increased baseline startle response. However, the citalopram group also showed an attentional bias towards positive words. Our data suggest that acute oral citalopram increases the processing of anxiety-related stimuli in healthy volunteers. This mechanism could underlie the known tendency of SSRIs to increase anxiety in patients early in treatment. Our data also suggests that some of the positive biases in emotional processing produced by SSRI treatment might be detectable at the beginning of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Browning
- Department of Psychiatry, Oxford University, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
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263
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Minzenberg MJ, Fan J, New AS, Tang CY, Siever LJ. Fronto-limbic dysfunction in response to facial emotion in borderline personality disorder: an event-related fMRI study. Psychiatry Res 2007; 155:231-43. [PMID: 17601709 PMCID: PMC2084368 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2006] [Revised: 03/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/14/2007] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Clinical hallmarks of borderline personality disorder (BPD) include social and emotional dysregulation. We tested a model of fronto-limbic dysfunction in facial emotion processing in BPD. Groups of 12 unmedicated adults with BPD by DSM-IV and 12 demographically-matched healthy controls (HC) viewed facial expressions (Conditions) of neutral emotion, fear and anger, and made gender discriminations during rapid event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Analysis of variance of Region of Interest signal change revealed a statistically significant effect of the Group-by-Region-by-Condition interaction. This was due to the BPD group exhibiting a significantly larger magnitude of deactivation (relative to HC) in the bilateral rostral/subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to fear and in the left ACC to fear minus neutral; and significantly greater activation in the right amygdala to fear minus neutral. There were no significant between-group differences in ROI signal change in response to anger. In voxel-wise analyses constrained within these ROIs, the BPD group exhibited significant changes in the fear minus neutral contrast, with relatively less activation in the bilateral rostral/subgenual ACC, and greater activation in the right amygdala. In the anger minus neutral contrast this pattern was reversed, with the BPD group showing greater activation in the bilateral rostral/subgenual ACC and less activation in the bilateral amygdala. We conclude that adults with BPD exhibit changes in fronto-limbic activity in the processing of fear stimuli, with exaggerated amygdala response and impaired emotion-modulation of ACC activity. The neural substrates underlying processing of anger may also be altered. These changes may represent an expression of the volumetric and serotonergic deficits observed in these brain areas in BPD.
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264
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Bediou B, Asri F, Brunelin J, Krolak-Salmon P, D'Amato T, Saoud M, Tazi I. Emotion recognition and genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 191:126-30. [PMID: 17666496 DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.028829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological studies of schizophrenia suggest that this disorder has a substantial genetic component. Cognitive and social abilities, as well as the volumes of brain regions involved in emotion processing, have been found to be distributed along a continuum when comparing patients, siblings and controls, with siblings showing intermediate scores. AIMS To establish whether facial expression recognition is impaired in unaffected siblings of patients. METHOD Emotion and gender recognition were evaluated in a three-group pre-post study design in drug-naive patients with first-episode schizophrenia (n=40) and their unaffected siblings (n=30) compared with controls (n=26). RESULTS Patients and their healthy siblings showed impaired emotion recognition but normal gender recognition compared with controls. Patients'performance did not improve despite effective clinical stabilisation. CONCLUSIONS Impaired performance in healthy siblings and time stability in patients provides evidence of impairment of facial emotion recognition as an actual phenotype of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Bediou
- University of Lyon, Centre Hospitalier Le Vinatier, Bron, France.
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265
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Scrutton H, Carbonnier A, Cowen PJ, Harmer CJ. Effects of alpha-lactalbumin on emotional processing in healthy women. J Psychopharmacol 2007; 21:519-24. [PMID: 17446205 DOI: 10.1177/0269881106075271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of serotonin (5-HT) in the central nervous system is dependent on the availability to the brain of its precursor amino acid, tryptophan (TRP). Recent studies suggest that alpha-lactalbumin, a whey-derived protein with a relatively high TRP content, increases plasma TRP and produces endocrine and cognitive changes consistent with facilitation of brain 5-HT function. In the present study we assessed the biochemical and cognitive effects of alpha-lactalbumin (40 g) in 28 healthy female subjects in a parallel group, placebo-controlled design. Relative to a casein-derived control protein, alpha-lactalbumin increased plasma TRP and the ratio of TRP to neutral amino acids. However, there was no effect on salivary cortisol secretion or tasks of emotional processing shown previously to be sensitive to pharmacological manipulation of 5-HT in healthy volunteers. The results suggest that alpha-lactalbumin produces a relatively modest increase in TRP availability which may not be sufficient to produce the changes in emotional processing seen with administration of pure TRP in healthy subjects. Further studies in subjects more vulnerable to stress are needed to assess the potential therapeutic effects of alpha-lactalbumin in clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Scrutton
- University Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford UK
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266
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Paulus MP, Stein MB. Role of functional magnetic resonance imaging in drug discovery. Neuropsychol Rev 2007; 17:179-88. [PMID: 17436113 PMCID: PMC2841045 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-007-9023-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2007] [Accepted: 03/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we survey the state of the field of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as it relates to drug discovery and drug development. We highlight the advantages and limitations of fMRI for this purpose and suggest ways to improve the use of fMRI for developing new therapeutics, with emphasis on treatments for anxiety disorders. Fundamentally, pharmacological studies with standard psychiatric treatments using standardized behavioral probes during fMRI will need to be carried out to determine characteristic brain signatures that could be used to predict whether novel compounds are likely to have specific therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin P Paulus
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), 8950 Villa La Jolla Drive, Suite C-213, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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267
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Abstract
Never go to sleep on an argument: an old wives' tale or a scientifically proven technique for controlling the memories you store? Recent findings show that sleep selectively enhances emotional memories, creating a long-lasting and potentially traumatic representation of distressing experiences.
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268
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Porter RJ, Bourke C, Gallagher P. Neuropsychological impairment in major depression: its nature, origin and clinical significance. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2007; 41:115-28. [PMID: 17464689 DOI: 10.1080/00048670601109881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Neuropsychological impairment is well established as a feature of major depressive disorder (MDD) but studies have shown a variable pattern of impairment. This paper seeks first to clarify this by examining methodological and clinical factors that give rise to variability in study findings. Second, it examines theories of the origin of these neuropsychological abnormalities. Third, it reviews evidence regarding the clinical significance of different patterns of deficit. A selective review was undertaken of the literature with a particular emphasis on methodological factors, the influence of clinical subtypes and prevalent theories of neuropsychological abnormality. Methodological issues and the heterogeneity of MDD account for considerable variability in results. Specific investigation of the subtypes of psychotic MDD, melancholic MDD and bipolar depression reduces this heterogeneity and results are more consistent in the elderly. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction is associated with neuropsychological dysfunction in MDD although evidence of direct causation is not definitive at present. Impairment of executive and psychomotor function is a consistent finding, particularly in the elderly, and may reflect frontostriatal-limbic dysfunction. There is growing evidence that this may have clinical significance. It is suggested that future research take very careful account of the exact phenotype of MDD. Classification based on neuropsychological profile may, in fact, be useful. Further research should examine further the clinical importance of patterns of neuropsychological impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Porter
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Christchurch School of Medicine and Health Sciences, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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269
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Grillon C, Levenson J, Pine DS. A single dose of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram exacerbates anxiety in humans: a fear-potentiated startle study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:225-31. [PMID: 16971899 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors may increase symptoms of anxiety immediately following treatment initiation. The present study examined whether acute citalopram increased fear-potentiated startle to predictable and/or unpredictable shocks in healthy subjects. Eighteen healthy subjects each received two treatments, placebo and 20 mg citalopram in a crossover design. Participants were exposed to three conditions including one in which predictable aversive shocks were signaled by a cue, a second in which unpredictable shocks were anticipated, and a third in which no shocks were administered. Changes in aversive states were investigated using acoustic startle stimuli. Citalopram did not affect baseline startle. However, the phasic startle potentiation to the threat cue in the predictable condition was robustly increased by acute citalopram. The sustained startle potentiation in the unpredictable conditions was also increased by citalopram, but only when the drug was given during the first session. These results indicate that a single dose of citalopram is not anxiogenic in itself, but can exacerbate the expression of fear and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Grillon
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-2670, USA.
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270
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Marsh AA, Finger EC, Buzas B, Soliman N, Richell RA, Vythilingham M, Pine DS, Goldman D, Blair RJR. Impaired recognition of fear facial expressions in 5-HTTLPR S-polymorphism carriers following tryptophan depletion. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 189:387-94. [PMID: 17013635 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0581-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 08/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Genotype at the 5' promoter region (5-HTTLPR) of the serotonin transporter has been implicated in moderating the effects of acute tryptophan depletion on neurocognitive functioning. Acute tryptophan depletion has been associated with the processing of fear-relevant cues, such as emotional expressions, but the effect of genotype at the 5-HTTLPR has not been assessed. OBJECTIVE The present study investigated the effects of acute tryptophan depletion on the recognition of standardized facial expressions of emotions in healthy volunteers classified as ll homozygotes or s carriers. MATERIALS AND METHODS A double-blind between-groups design was used with volunteers randomly selected to ingest capsules containing an amino acid mixture specifically lacking tryptophan, or placebo capsules containing lactose. 5 h after capsule ingestion, subjects were required to identify anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise expressions that progressed from neutral to each full emotional expression in 5% steps. RESULTS Tryptophan depletion significantly impaired the recognition of fearful facial expressions in s carriers but not ll homozygotes. This impairment was specific to fear expressions. No significant differences in the recognition of other expressions were found. Free tryptophan levels were correlated with fear recognition in s carriers but not ll homozygotes. CONCLUSIONS The effects of acute tryptophan depletion on the processing of emotional expressions varies as a function of genotype at the 5-HTTLPR. Depletion impairs the recognition of fear in s carriers but not ll homozygotes. This finding reinforces the importance of considering genotype when assessing the behavioral effects of pharmacologic modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail A Marsh
- Mood and Anxiety Program, National Institute of Mental Health,National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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271
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Minzenberg MJ, Poole JH, Vinogradov S. Social-emotion recognition in borderline personality disorder. Compr Psychiatry 2006; 47:468-74. [PMID: 17067870 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2005] [Revised: 01/31/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by interpersonal disturbances, but the neurocognitive aspects of these symptoms are poorly understood. We hypothesized that patients with BPD have impaired perception of emotional expressions, which are related to symptoms of interpersonal dysfunction. To control potential confounding factors, this study excluded subjects with comorbid diagnoses known to be associated with impaired affect perception. We tested 43 outpatients with BPD and 26 healthy controls on emotion recognition tasks (facial, prosodic, and integrated facial/prosodic), nonemotional facial feature recognition, and interpersonal antagonism (Buss-Durkee Hostility Index). Patients with BPD showed normal ability to recognize isolated facial or prosodic emotions but had impaired recognition of emotions in integrated facial/prosodic stimuli, as well as impaired discrimination of nonemotional facial features. In patients with BPD, impaired recognition of integrated emotional stimuli was associated with interpersonal antagonism, particularly suspiciousness and assaultiveness. These results suggest that patients with BPD have deficits in higher order integration of social information, which may be related to some of the more serious symptoms of the disorder.
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272
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Kamboj SK, Curran HV. Neutral and emotional episodic memory: global impairment after lorazepam or scopolamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 188:482-8. [PMID: 17047934 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0552-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Benzodiazepines and anticholinergic drugs have repeatedly been shown to impair episodic memory for emotionally neutral material in humans. However, their effect on memory for emotionally laden stimuli has been relatively neglected. OBJECTIVE We sought to investigate the effects of the benzodiazepine, lorazepam, and the anticholinergic, scopolamine, on incidental episodic memory for neutral and emotional components of a narrative memory task in humans. MATERIALS AND METHODS A double-blind, placebo-controlled independent group design was used with 48 healthy volunteers to examine the effects of these drugs on emotional and neutral episodic memory. RESULTS As expected, the emotional memory advantage was retained for recall and recognition memory under placebo conditions. However, lorazepam and scopolamine produced anterograde recognition memory impairments on both the neutral and emotional components of the narrative, although floor effects were obtained for recall memory. Furthermore, compared with placebo, recognition memory for both central (gist) and peripheral (detail) aspects of neutral and emotional elements of the narrative was poorer after either drug. CONCLUSIONS Benzodiazepine-induced GABAergic enhancement or scopolamine-induced cholinergic hypofunction results in a loss of the enhancing effect of emotional arousal on memory. Furthermore, lorazepam- and scopolamine-induced memory impairment for both gist (which is amygdala dependent) and detail raises the possibility that their effects on emotional memory do not depend only on the amygdala. We discuss the results with reference to potential clinical/forensic implications of processing emotional memories under conditions of globally impaired episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunjeev K Kamboj
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Sub-department of Clinical Health Psychology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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273
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Martin L, Clair J, Davis P, O'Ryan D, Hoshi R, Curran HV. Enhanced recognition of facial expressions of disgust in opiate users receiving maintenance treatment. Addiction 2006; 101:1598-605. [PMID: 17034439 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01574.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Accurate recognition of facial expressions of emotion is critical in interpersonal interaction but is impaired in alcoholics, even after a period of abstinence. Little is known of whether other drug-dependent populations also show these impairments. This study aimed to investigate facial expression recognition by chronic opiate users. DESIGN An independent group design was used to compare 20 participants receiving opiate substitution treatment, 20 ex-opiate users in rehabilitation (average abstinence of 6 months) and 21 unemployed healthy controls. MEASUREMENTS The accuracy and speed of recognizing morphed emotional facial expressions were assessed using an emotional hexagon task. FINDINGS Current opiate users were significantly more accurate than ex-users at recognizing expressions of disgust. They were also generally slower than controls in recognizing all expressions, and slower than ex-opiate users in recognizing surprise, happy and fearful expressions. CONCLUSIONS Opiate users in maintenance treatment show a heightened ability to recognize facial expressions of disgust. We suggest that this may reflect increased exposure to other people's expressions of disgust and/or priming by the physical and social environments encountered by opiate-dependent individuals. Further, opiate maintained individuals' global slowness in processing emotional expressions may reflect the sedative effects of methadone.
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274
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Carvalho AF, Köhler CA, Cruz EP, Stürmer PL, Reichman BP, Barea BM, Izquierdo I, Chaves MLF. Acute treatment with the antidepressants bupropion and sertraline do not influence memory retrieval in man. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256:320-5. [PMID: 16683061 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-006-0640-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Accepted: 12/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Several evidences implicate that monoamines play a modulatory role in the brain mechanisms underlying encoding and retrieval of emotional memories. Recent experiments demonstrate that acute monoaminergic potentiation with the antidepressants bupropion or sertraline enhance the retrieval of longterm emotional memory in rodents. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that acute monoaminergic re-uptake inhibition with these antidepressants might enhance retrieval of emotional memory in man. METHODS The central monoaminergic system was stimulated with either bupropion or sertraline in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design with 105 healthy adult subjects divided in three groups (placebo, 150 mg-bupropion and 50 mg-sertraline). Memory was evaluated with a 'surprise' memory test 7 days after the presentation of an emotional story and with a word-cued autobiographical memory test. RESULTS A total of 99 volunteers completed the experimental procedures. Contrasting to our prediction, we found no memory enhancing effect for either drug in both memory tests. All groups showed the expected heightened memory performance to the middle 'emotive' phase of the story. CONCLUSION Stimulation of the central monoaminergic system with the antidepressants bupropion and sertraline did not enhance the retrieval of long-term emotional memories in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- André F Carvalho
- Centro de Memória, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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275
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Booij L, Merens W, Markus CR, Van der Does AJW. Diet rich in alpha-lactalbumin improves memory in unmedicated recovered depressed patients and matched controls. J Psychopharmacol 2006; 20:526-35. [PMID: 16174675 DOI: 10.1177/0269881105057466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Depression is associated with reduced brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) function and with cognitive dysfunctions. A diet rich in alpha-lactalbumin protein has been found to increase the ratio tryptophan /large neutral amino acids (Trp/SigmaLNAA), and to improve cognitive functioning in individuals with high neuroticism scores. Since cognitive dysfunctions sometimes persist after remission of depression, the present study investigated the effects of alpha-lactalbumin-enriched diet on cognition in recovered depressed patients. Twenty-three recovered depressed patients and 20 healthy matched controls without a history of depression consumed meals rich in alpha-lactalbumin or casein protein in a double-blind crossover design. Mood, cognitive function and plasma amino acids were assessed at both sessions before and after dietary intake. Alpha-lactalbumin protein had no effect on mood, but improved abstract visual memory and impaired simple motor performance. These effects were independent of history of depression. Supplements of lactalbumin may be useful for nutrition research in relation to age- or disease-related memory decline. The present findings should be further examined in different (e.g. medicated) samples. The long-term effects of alpha-lactalbumin should also be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Booij
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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276
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Murphy SE, Longhitano C, Ayres RE, Cowen PJ, Harmer CJ. Tryptophan supplementation induces a positive bias in the processing of emotional material in healthy female volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 187:121-30. [PMID: 16767422 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0401-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2006] [Accepted: 04/03/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The serotonin precursor L-tryptophan (TRP) is available as a nutritional supplement and is licensed as an antidepressant in a number of countries. However, evidence of its efficacy as the primary treatment for depression is limited, and the direct action of TRP on the symptoms of depression and anxiety has not been well-characterised. OBJECTIVES The present study assessed whether TRP induces cognitive changes opposite to the negative biases found in depression and characteristic of those induced by serotonergic antidepressants in healthy volunteers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty eight healthy volunteers were randomised to receive 14 days double-blind intervention with TRP (1 g 3x a day) or placebo. On the final day, emotional processing was assessed using four tasks: facial expression recognition, emotion-potentiated startle, attentional probe and emotional categorisation and memory. RESULTS TRP increased the recognition of happy facial expressions and decreased the recognition of disgusted facial expressions in female, but not male, volunteers. TRP also reduced attentional vigilance towards negative words and decreased baseline startle responsivity in the females. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide evidence that TRP supplementation in women induces a positive bias in the processing of emotional material that is reminiscent of the actions of serotonergic antidepressants. This highlights a key role for serotonin in emotional processing and lends support to the use of TRP as a nutritional supplement in people with mild depression or for prevention in those at risk. Future studies are needed to clarify the effect of tryptophan on these measures in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah E Murphy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK
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277
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Kamboj SK, Curran HV. Scopolamine induces impairments in the recognition of human facial expressions of anger and disgust. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 185:529-35. [PMID: 16555061 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0332-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2005] [Accepted: 01/17/2006] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recent psychopharmacological studies lend support to the notion of partially dissociable neuronal systems dedicated to processing specific emotions. For example, GABA-ergic enhancement after an acute dose of the benzodiazepine, diazepam, produces specific impairments in anger and fear recognition. However, it is unclear if these impairments are a general property of benzodiazepines and other drugs that produce a similar profile of neurocognitive impairment to benzodiazepines, such as the anticholinergic, scopolamine. OBJECTIVE We investigated the effects of scopolamine and the benzodiazepine, lorazepam, on emotion-recognition accuracy. METHODS A double-blind independent group design was used with 48 healthy volunteers to compare the effects of scopolamine and lorazepam with an inactive placebo on a commonly used emotion-recognition task. Control measures included an episodic memory task and subjective mood ratings. RESULTS Anger and disgust recognition accuracy was impaired after scopolamine. In contrast, lorazepam produced no impairment in emotion-recognition despite producing similar levels of sedation and anterograde amnesia to scopolamine. CONCLUSIONS Scopolamine-induced cholinergic hypofunction selectively impaired the recognition accuracy of disgust and anger facial expressions. The effects of scopolamine on emotion-recognition are similar to those found in Huntington's disease patients. Furthermore, the impairments in anger and fear recognition previously observed with diazepam do not appear to be a general property of benzodiazepines. This suggests that alterations in emotional processing involving changes in the ability to recognize threat-related emotions (particularly, fear and anger) may not be a principal mechanism underlying anxiolysis or paradoxical aggression seen with benzodiazepines.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Kamboj
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Sub-Department of Clinical Health Psychology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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278
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Harmer CJ, Reid CB, Ray MK, Goodwin GM, Cowen PJ. 5HT(3) antagonism abolishes the emotion potentiated startle effect in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 186:18-24. [PMID: 16572265 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0337-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2005] [Accepted: 01/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The serotonergic system has been implicated in emotional processing in animals and humans. Although the contribution of different receptor subtypes has been hypothesised, there have been few direct tests of this in human subjects. OBJECTIVES The current study aimed to explore the involvement of the serotonin type 3 (5HT3) receptor subtype in a battery of emotional processing tasks previously found to be sensitive to SSRI administration. MATERIALS AND METHODS Healthy volunteers were randomised to receive the 5HT3 antagonist, ondansetron (12 mg, oral), or placebo in a double blind between groups design. Emotional processing was assessed using three tasks: affective modulation of the startle reflex, emotional categorisation and memory and facial expression recognition. Subjective state ratings, blood pressure and pulse were also collected before and after ondansetron and placebo. RESULTS Ondansetron was well tolerated and did not affect subjective measures of mood, anxiety or well-being in these healthy volunteers. However, the emotion potentiated effect was abolished in the volunteers receiving ondansetron. Facial expression recognition and emotional memory were not significantly affected. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest an involvement of 5HT3 receptors in certain aspects of fear processing in humans. These effects are consistent with anxiolytic actions of 5HT3 antagonism in animal models and suggest that the 5HT3 receptor may play a role in the effects of serotonergic manipulations on fear and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Harmer
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, and University Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, OX1 3UD, UK.
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279
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Völlm B, Richardson P, McKie S, Elliott R, Deakin JFW, Anderson IM. Serotonergic modulation of neuronal responses to behavioural inhibition and reinforcing stimuli: an fMRI study in healthy volunteers. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:552-60. [PMID: 16420462 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04571.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin (5-HT) has been implicated in the aetiology of a number of psychiatric conditions, including depression, anxiety and antisocial personality disorder. The development of these disorders may arise from alterations in underlying motivational and cognitive processes such as emotional recognition, reinforcement processing and central inhibitory control. This study aimed to localize where in the brain 5-HT modulates neuropsychological processes relevant to putative 5-HT disorders, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. We examined the effect of the antidepressant mirtazapine on brain activations associated with behavioural inhibition and reinforcement processing in healthy subjects. Forty-five men were randomly allocated to receiving mirtazapine or placebo in a double-blind fashion. A Go/No-Go, Reward/No-Reward and Loss/No-loss task were performed during functional magnetic resonance imaging using a 1.5 Tesla Philips Gyroscan scanner. Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) responses were analysed using SPM2. Task activations were largely consistent with previous findings. Mirtazapine modulated brain activations in the Go/No-Go and Reward/No-Reward task. During behavioural inhibition, enhanced activations were observed in the right orbitofrontal cortex (BA47). Increased activations in bilateral parietal cortex were found during the Reward task while no significant interaction was observed in the Loss task. Our results support the suggestion of an important role of serotonin in modulating basic processes involved in psychiatric disorders. Combining drug challenge with fMRI (pharmacoMRI; pMRI) is a promising tool for investigating these processes in healthy as well as patient groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Völlm
- Neuroscience and Psychiatry Unit, University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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280
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Payton A, Gibbons L, Davidson Y, Ollier W, Rabbitt P, Worthington J, Pickles A, Pendleton N, Horan M. Influence of serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms on cognitive decline and cognitive abilities in a nondemented elderly population. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10:1133-9. [PMID: 16103887 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the serotonergic pathway disrupts normal cognitive functioning and is believed to be the underlying basis for a variety of psychiatric disorders. Two functional polymorphisms within the serotonin transporter (SLC6A4) gene (promoter 44 bp insertion/deletion (HTTLPR) and an intron two 16 or 17 bp variable number tandem repeat (VNTR2)) have been extensively studied in psychiatric conditions but not in the cognitive functioning of normal individuals. We have investigated these two polymorphisms for association with both the level of cognitive abilities and their decline with age using a cohort consisting of over 750 elderly nondemented individuals with a follow-up of up to 15 years. We found that volunteers homozygous for the VNTR2 12 allele had a faster rate of decline for all cognitive tests. This reached significance for both tests of fluid intelligence (novel problem solving) (AH1 P=0.002, AH2 P=0.014), the test of semantic memory (P=0.010) and general cognitive ability (P=0.006). No association was observed between the HTTLPR polymorphism and the rate of cognitive decline when analysed either independently or in combination with the VNTR2 polymorphism based on their influence on expression in vitro. No associations were observed between the two polymorphisms and the baseline level of cognitive abilities. This is only the second gene that has been reported to regulate the rate of cognitive decline in nondemented individuals and may be a target for the treatment of cognitive impairment in the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Payton
- Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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281
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Takahashi H, Yahata N, Koeda M, Takano A, Asai K, Suhara T, Okubo Y. Effects of dopaminergic and serotonergic manipulation on emotional processing: a pharmacological fMRI study. Neuroimage 2005; 27:991-1001. [PMID: 15978846 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2005] [Revised: 04/24/2005] [Accepted: 05/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent neuroimaging studies have demonstrated abnormal central emotional processing in psychiatric disorders. The dopamine (DA) systems and serotonin (5-HT) systems are the main target of psychopharmacotherapy. DA D2 receptor antagonists and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are widely used in psychiatric practice. Investigating the effects of these drugs on emotional processing should lead to a better understanding of the pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy of neuropsychiatric disorders. We aimed to examine effects of dopaminergic and serotonergic manipulation on neural responses to unpleasant pictures in healthy volunteers using pharmacological fMRI. Thirteen healthy male subjects participated in a single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled design study. Each subject participated in three fMRI sessions. In each session, participants were orally administered either 25 mg of sultopride or 50 mg of fluvoxamine or placebo prior to scanning, and neural responses to unpleasant and neutral pictures were recorded. Despite no significant differences being found in the subjective ratings of affective pictures across three sessions, compared to placebo, acute treatments of DA D2 receptor antagonists and SSRIs commonly attenuated the amygdala activity, although both treatments had slightly different modulatory effects on other components of the neural circuit of emotional processing. This study has shown that even acute treatment of drugs that manipulate neurotransmitter systems could affect brain activation associated with emotional processing in human brain. At the same time, our findings suggest that pharmacological fMRI could be a powerful tool for investigating the neurophysiological properties of drugs targeting neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidehiko Takahashi
- Brain Imaging Project, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
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282
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Cryan JF, Page ME, Lucki I. Differential behavioral effects of the antidepressants reboxetine, fluoxetine, and moclobemide in a modified forced swim test following chronic treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 182:335-44. [PMID: 16001105 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-005-0093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2004] [Accepted: 06/06/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The forced swim test (FST) is the most widely used model for assessing potential antidepressant activity in rodents following acute or short-term treatment. However, few studies have compared the effects of short- and long-term antidepressant treatment on behaviors in the test, despite the need to treat patients chronically to produce clinical effects. OBJECTIVES The current studies examined whether antidepressants from different classes produce different behavioral effects following short-term treatment and whether such effects change following administration for a longer duration. METHODS The effects of administering short-term (3 days) and long-term (14 days) treatments of antidepressants from three different chemical classes with distinct mechanisms of action via osmotic minipump were examined: the selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor reboxetine (10 and 60 mg kg(-1) day(-1)), the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine (2.5 and 15 mg kg(-1) day(-1)), and the reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase moclobemide (2.5 and 15 mg kg(-1) day(-1)). All testing was carried out in a 15-min test with no preswim session in order to negate any confounding aspect of an induction procedure. RESULTS The majority of antidepressant-sensitive behavioral changes were observed in the first 5 min of the test. The low dose of reboxetine failed to alter behavior in the test after 3 days but significantly decreased immobility and increased climbing behavior following administration for 14 days, whereas the high dose of reboxetine was equally effective following 3 and 14 days of treatment. In a similar fashion, the low dose of fluoxetine failed to alter behavior in the test following 3 days, but showed an augmented response on immobility and increased swimming following administration for 14 days. The high dose of fluoxetine was slightly more effective at reducing immobility following administration for 14 days than 3 days. The low dose of moclobemide decreased immobility and increased climbing behavior following treatment for 3 days, but increases in both swimming and climbing behaviors were measured following treatment for 14 days. Treatment with the high dose of moclobemide for 3 days decreased immobility and increased swimming, whereas treatment for 14 days significantly increased both active behaviors (swimming and climbing). CONCLUSIONS Antidepressants from three different classes produce different effects on active behaviors in the FST. The effects of antidepressants were augmented following chronic administration for 14 days, especially when given at low doses. This suggests that modifications of the FST can be used to examine the onset of action of antidepressant agents produced by long-term administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Cryan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, 538A Clinical Research Building, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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283
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Kilkens TOC, Honig A, Fekkes D, Brummer RJM. The effects of an acute serotonergic challenge on brain-gut responses in irritable bowel syndrome patients and controls. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 22:865-74. [PMID: 16225497 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02660.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serotonin, a key denominator of the brain-gut axis is involved in the regulation of gastrointestinal function as well as cognition, mood and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis-mediated neuroendocrine responses. AIM To assess the effects of an acutely increased serotonergic activity, using a 20 mg intravenous citalopram challenge test on visceral perception, affective memory performance, mood and neuroendocrine responses, respectively, in diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome patients and controls. METHODS In a randomized, double-blind crossover design, 14 diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome patients and 14 matched controls were studied under citalopram and placebo conditions, respectively. Visceral perception was scored in response to rectal distensions. Affective memory performance, mood, levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol, prolactin and biochemical parameters of serotonergic metabolism were simultaneously assessed. RESULTS Visceral perception did not significantly differ between the citalopram and placebo condition. Citalopram administration enhanced affective memory performance because of a bias towards positive material but no significant changes in mood. Citalopram significantly increased plasma serotonin, adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels compared with placebo. Citalopram did not differentially affect the patient or control group. CONCLUSIONS We have provided evidence that acutely increased serotonergic activity influences neuroendocrine responses and cognition in diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome and controls without a significant effect on visceral perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- T O C Kilkens
- Brain and Behaviour Institute, University Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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284
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Del-Ben CM, Deakin JFW, McKie S, Delvai NA, Williams SR, Elliott R, Dolan M, Anderson IM. The effect of citalopram pretreatment on neuronal responses to neuropsychological tasks in normal volunteers: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30:1724-34. [PMID: 15827569 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Changes in serotonin neurotransmission have also been implicated in the etiology and treatment of impulse control disorders, depression, and anxiety. We have investigated the effect of enhancing serotonin function on fundamental brain processes that we have proposed are abnormal in these disorders. In all, 12 male volunteers received citalopram (7.5 mg intravenously) and placebo pretreatment in a single-blind crossover design before undertaking Go/No-go, Loss/No-loss, and covert (aversive) face emotion recognition tasks during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Blood oxygenation level dependent responses were analyzed using Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM2). The tasks activated prefrontal and subcortical regions generally consistent with literature with lateral orbitofrontal cortex (BA47) common to the three tasks. Citalopram pretreatment enhanced the right BA47 responses to the No-go condition, but attenuated this response to aversive faces. Attenuations were seen following citalopram in the medial orbitofrontal (BA11) responses to the No-go and No-loss (ie relative reward compared with Loss) conditions. The right amygdala response to aversive faces was attenuated by citalopram. These results support the involvement of serotonin in modulating basic processes involved in psychiatric disorders but argue for a process-specific, rather than general effect. The technique of combining drug challenge with fMRI (pharmacoMRI) has promise for investigating human psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Del-Ben
- Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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285
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Cryan JF, Mombereau C, Vassout A. The tail suspension test as a model for assessing antidepressant activity: review of pharmacological and genetic studies in mice. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29:571-625. [PMID: 15890404 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1106] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since its introduction almost 20 years ago, the tail suspension test has become one of the most widely used models for assessing antidepressant-like activity in mice. The test is based on the fact that animals subjected to the short-term, inescapable stress of being suspended by their tail, will develop an immobile posture. Various antidepressant medications reverse the immobility and promote the occurrence of escape-related behaviour. This review focuses on the utility this test as part of a research program aimed at understanding the mechanism of action of antidepressants. We discuss the inherent difficulties in modeling depression in rodents. We describe how the tail suspension differs from the closely related forced swim test. Further, we address some key issues associated with using the TST as a model of antidepressant action. We discuss issues regarding whether it satisfies criteria to be a valid model for assessing depression-related behavioural traits. We elaborate on the tests' ease of use, strain differences observed in the test and gender effects in the test. We focus on the utility of the test for genetic analysis. Furthermore, we discuss the concept of whether immobility maybe a behavioural trait relevant to depression. All of the available pharmacological data using the test in genetically modified mice is collated. Special attention is given to selective breeding programs such as the Rouen 'depressed' mice which have been bred for high and low immobility in the tail suspension test. We provide an extensive pooling of the pharmacological studies published to date using the test. Finally, we provide novel pharmacological validation of an automated system (Bioseb) for assessing immobility. Taken together, we conclude that the tail suspension test is a useful test for assessing the behavioural effects of antidepressant compounds and other pharmacological and genetic manipulations relevant to depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Cryan
- Psychiatry Program, Neuroscience Research, The Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research WSJ 386.344, Novartis Pharma AG., CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
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286
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Cools R, Calder AJ, Lawrence AD, Clark L, Bullmore E, Robbins TW. Individual differences in threat sensitivity predict serotonergic modulation of amygdala response to fearful faces. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 180:670-9. [PMID: 15772862 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-005-2215-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2004] [Accepted: 02/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE In this study we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the effects of acute tryptophan depletion (ATD), a well-recognised method for inducing transient cerebral serotonin depletion, on brain activation to fearful faces. OBJECTIVES We predicted that ATD would increase the responsiveness of the amygdala to fearful faces as a function of individual variation in threat sensitivity. METHODS Twelve healthy male volunteers received a tryptophan depleting drink or a tryptophan balancing amino acid drink (placebo) in a double-blind crossover design. Five hours after drink ingestion participants were scanned whilst viewing fearful, happy and neutral faces. RESULTS Consistent with previous findings, fearful faces induced significant signal change in the bilateral amygdala/hippocampus as well as the fusiform face area and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, ATD modulated amygdala/hippocampus activation in response to fearful relative to happy faces as a function of self-reported threat sensitivity (as measured with the Behavioral Inhibition Scale; Carver CS, White TL (1994) Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 67:319-333). CONCLUSION The data support the hypothesis that individual variation in threat sensitivity interacts with manipulation of 5-HT function to bias the processing of amygdala-dependent threat-relevant stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Cools
- MRC Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Centre.
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287
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Easter J, McClure EB, Monk CS, Dhanani M, Hodgdon H, Leibenluft E, Charney DS, Pine DS, Ernst M. Emotion recognition deficits in pediatric anxiety disorders: implications for amygdala research. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2005; 15:563-70. [PMID: 16190788 DOI: 10.1089/cap.2005.15.563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Anxiety disorders in adults involve aberrant processing of emotional information that is hypothesized to reflect perturbations in the amygdala. This study examines the relationship between face-emotion recognition and anxiety in a sample of children and adolescents participating in a brain-imaging study of amygdala structure and function. METHODS This study recruited 15 children and adolescents with ongoing anxiety disorders and 11 psychiatrically healthy comparisons group-matched on age, gender, and IQ. Face-emotion recognition was assessed using the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy Scale (DANVA). RESULTS Children and adolescents with anxiety disorders exhibited significantly poorer performance on the face-emotion recognition task compared to healthy controls (z = 2.2; p < 0.05). This difference was found only for expressions posed by adults but not children. DISCUSSION Reduced accuracy on a face-emotion recognition test is consistent with perturbed amygdala function in pediatric anxiety disorders. CONCLUSION As this study was conducted in a sample undergoing a neuroimaging investigation of amygdala integrity, future analyses will examine associations among amygdala function, clinical anxiety, and face-recognition abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josh Easter
- Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2670, USA
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288
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Booij L, Van der Does AJW, Haffmans PMJ, Riedel WJ, Fekkes D, Blom MJB. The effects of high-dose and low-dose tryptophan depletion on mood and cognitive functions of remitted depressed patients. J Psychopharmacol 2005; 19:267-75. [PMID: 15888512 DOI: 10.1177/0269881105051538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
It has frequently been demonstrated that acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) induces a transient depressed mood in some patients who are in remission from depression. However, the effects of ATD on cognitive processes in remitted depressed patients have not been investigated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of different extents of depletion on mood and cognitive tasks involving neutral and emotional stimuli. Twenty patients in remission or in partial remission from depression received ATD in a double-blind, crossover design. Mood was assessed at both sessions before, at +6.5 h and +24 h after depletion. Cognitive assessment in both sessions started at +4.75 h, and also before and after the whole procedure. The ATD mixtures induced the expected reductions of plasma tryptophan levels. High-dose ATD induced a depressive response in a subsample of patients and impaired the processing of positive information independent of mood change. Attention for neutral stimuli (Stroop interference) improved in a dose-dependent manner. ATD may affect mood and cognition via different pathways: one implicated in mood regulation and the processing of emotional information, and one for the processing of neutral information. The first pathway may be more important for discriminating vulnerability to impaired serotonin function. The comparison of the effects of high-dose and low-dose ATD is useful for those studies aiming to investigate the relationships among 5-HT, mood and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Booij
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands and Psychomedical Center Parnassia, The Hague, The Netherlands
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289
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Lavergne F, Berlin I, Gamma A, Stassen H, Angst J. Onset of improvement and response to mirtazapine in depression: a multicenter naturalistic study of 4771 patients. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2005; 1:59-68. [PMID: 18568129 PMCID: PMC2426820 DOI: 10.2147/nedt.1.1.59.52296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this open multicenter study of 4771 patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of Major Depressive Episode was to analyse the response to mirtazapine in general practice and primary care. Patients with a baseline score of at least 20 on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) were treated with mirtazapine for 6 weeks (30 mg/day) and clinically assessed by their psychiatrists at weekly intervals through the MADRS and Clinical Global Improvement (CGI) rating scales. The data analysis was carried out on an "intent-to-treat" basis to collect outcome information on all patients. Our results suggested that the efficacy of the antidepressant effect relates to a nonspecific process. Nearly all patients (95%) showed at least slight improvement at the end of the observation period, while the response to treatment was independent of the clinical forms of depression. In particular, all measures of efficacy displayed the maximum change within the first 2 weeks of treatment, with further improvement occurring at much slower rates. Significant improvement within the first 2 weeks of treatment was highly predictive of the final response, and can serve as a guideline for clinicians when deciding about increased dosage, augmentation, or change of medication in unresponsive patients. Detailed analyses of individual MADRS items showed that mirtazapine's pharmacological profile, unlike selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, led relatively quickly to a significant reduction of suicidal thoughts, a fact of particular clinical relevance.
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290
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Bauman MD, Amaral DG. The distribution of serotonergic fibers in the macaque monkey amygdala: An immunohistochemical study using antisera to 5-hydroxytryptamine. Neuroscience 2005; 136:193-203. [PMID: 16182456 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2004] [Revised: 07/17/2005] [Accepted: 07/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Though both the amygdala and the serotonin system appear to play critical roles in regulating fear and anxiety, little is known regarding the organization of serotonergic inputs to the primate amygdala. The present study employed immunohistochemistry to determine the distribution of serotonin fibers in the macaque amygdala. The brains of three adult male Macaca fascicularis monkeys were prepared for histological analysis using a polyclonal antibody to serotonin. The macaque amygdala is densely innervated by serotonergic fibers and demonstrates a distinctive pattern of fiber distribution and density among the 13 nuclei and cortical areas. The highest density of 5-hydroxytryptamine immunoreactive fibers is observed in the central nucleus, the nucleus of the lateral olfactory tract, the paralaminar nucleus, the anterior amygdaloid area and a small region of the amygdalohippocampal area. Moderate fiber densities are found in portions of the basal, lateral, and intercalated nuclei. The lowest fiber densities are observed in the accessory basal, posterior cortical, anterior cortical and medial nuclei, and in subregions of the periamygdaloid cortex. The present study provides evidence that the serotonergic system can have substantial influence on the ongoing activity of the amygdaloid complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Bauman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The M.I.N.D. Institute and the California National Primate Research Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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291
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Abbate Daga G, Gianotti L, Mondelli V, Quartesan R, Fassino S. The psychopharmacotherapy of anorexia nervosa: clinical, neuroendocrine and metabolic aspects. J Endocrinol Invest 2004; 27:975-81. [PMID: 15762050 DOI: 10.1007/bf03347545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a complex mental disorder presenting psychiatric and physical symptoms. Literature recognizes the role of several factors in the pathogenesis of this disorder, according to the biopsychosocial model. Many mechanisms are still partly unclear. Endocrine and metabolic alterations usually occur in AN, probably having a role in its pathogenesis and in the disorder perseverance. In consideration of the multifactorial pathogenesis, a multidisciplinary approach is needed in the treatment of anorexic patients. Up-to-date psychotherapy, psychopharmacological, endocrine and nutritional treatments are considered effective in improving AN. Literature does not however provide evidence of a single validated psychopharmacotherapy for anorexic patients. It is known that psychopharmacotherapy can influence hormonal and metabolic states in some conditions, but for the moment few data are present about these effects in AN. This article aims to review the data about the psychopharmacotherapy role in AN, focusing on the endocrine and metabolic effects of anti-depressants (AD) and novel antipsychotic drugs which seem to be the most effective in AN. Scant data are however available and further research should provide more evidence about these effects and also assess whether the severity of the neuroendocrine, hormonal and metabolic impairments can predict the lack of response to the psychopharmacological treatment with AD and neuroleptics.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Abbate Daga
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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292
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Coupland NJ, Sustrik RA, Ting P, Li D, Hartfeil M, Singh AJ, Blair RJ. Positive and negative affect differentially influence identification of facial emotions. Depress Anxiety 2004; 19:31-4. [PMID: 14978783 DOI: 10.1002/da.10136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Positive and negative affects may bias behavior toward approach to rewards and withdrawal from threat, particularly when the contingencies are ambiguous. The hypothesis was that positive and negative affects would associate predictably with identification of happy, disgusted, or angry expressions that may signal potentially rewarding or aversive social interactions. Healthy volunteers (n=86) completed affect ratings and a facial emotion task that employed morphed continua in which emotional expressions gradually decreased in ambiguity. Relations between mood and intensity thresholds for emotion identification were computed. Anhedonia (low positive affect) predicted thresholds for happy expressions (r=0.24; P=.026) whereas negative affect predicted thresholds for disgust (r=-0.25; P=.022). Even within a normal range of mood, mood predicted emotion identification, supporting constructs of positive and negative affect derived originally from self-report measures.
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293
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Kemp AH, Gray MA, Silberstein RB, Armstrong SM, Nathan PJ. Augmentation of serotonin enhances pleasant and suppresses unpleasant cortical electrophysiological responses to visual emotional stimuli in humans. Neuroimage 2004; 22:1084-96. [PMID: 15219580 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2003] [Revised: 03/11/2004] [Accepted: 03/11/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The serotonergic system is one of the major systems targeted in the pharmacological treatment of a wide range of mood disorders including depression; however, little is known about the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the effects of serotonin (5-HT) on affective phenomena including emotional behaviours, mood and emotional processing. The aim of the current study was to investigate how 5-HT acutely modulates steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEP), heart rate (HR) and verbal ratings associated with the viewing of differently valent emotional images. In a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 17 healthy subjects were tested under two acute treatment conditions: placebo and citalopram (20 mg) (a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, or SSRI). Participants were tested 2 h post treatment whilst viewing 75 images (categorised as pleasant, neutral or unpleasant). Results indicate that under placebo treatment, processing of unpleasant valence [unpleasant (-) neutral images] was associated with decreases in SSVEP amplitude and latency in frontal and occipital cortices, whereas processing of pleasant valence [pleasant (-) neutral images] was associated with amplitude decreases and latency increases within frontal and left temporoparietal cortices. Decreases in both amplitude and latency are both interpreted as surrogate measures of cortical activation or excitation. Citalopram relative to placebo attenuated the electrophysiological activation to unpleasant valence within frontal and occipital cortices, but potentiated electrophysiological activation (amplitude only) to pleasant valence within parietooccipital cortices. Citalopram relative to placebo also suppressed differences in heart rate associated with the viewing of pleasant and unpleasant images, but did not alter subject's subjective responses to emotional images. Results suggest that responsiveness to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli following neurochemical modulation may vary across different response systems (i.e. self-report, HR and SSVEP). Electrophysiological findings suggest that acute serotonergic augmentation with citalopram modulates cortical processing of emotionally valent stimuli such that response to pleasant valence is potentiated and response to unpleasant valence is suppressed. The findings suggest a possible neurophysiological mechanism underlying antidepressant drug action on emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew H Kemp
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn VIC 3122, Australia
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294
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Burghardt NS, Sullivan GM, McEwen BS, Gorman JM, LeDoux JE. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram increases fear after acute treatment but reduces fear with chronic treatment: a comparison with tianeptine. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55:1171-8. [PMID: 15184036 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2003] [Revised: 02/18/2004] [Accepted: 02/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are efficacious in the treatment of a variety of fear or anxiety disorders. Although they inhibit the reuptake of serotonin within hours of administration, therapeutic improvement only occurs after several weeks. In this study, we used fear conditioning to begin to understand how acute and chronic SSRI treatment might differentially affect well-characterized fear circuits. METHODS We evaluated the effects of acute and chronic treatment with the SSRI citalopram on the acquisition of auditory fear conditioning. To further understand the role of serotonin in modulating fear circuits, we compared these effects with those of acute and chronic administration of the antidepressant tianeptine, a purported serotonin reuptake enhancer. RESULTS We found that acute administration of the SSRI citalopram enhanced acquisition, whereas chronic treatment reduced the acquisition of auditory fear conditioning. In comparison, treatment with tianeptine had no effect acutely but also reduced the acquisition of tone conditioning when administered chronically. CONCLUSIONS Our findings with citalopram are consistent with the clinical effects of SSRI treatment seen in patients with anxiety disorders, in which anxiety is often increased during early stages of treatment and decreased after several weeks of treatment. The findings also indicate that auditory fear conditioning can be a useful tool in understanding differences in the effects of short-term and long-term antidepressant treatment with serotonergic medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nesha S Burghardt
- W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory of Neurobiology, Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
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295
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Jobe PC. Affective disorder and epilepsy comorbidity: implications for development of treatments, preventions and diagnostic approaches. Clin EEG Neurosci 2004; 35:53-68. [PMID: 15112464 DOI: 10.1177/155005940403500112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Concepts pertaining to affective disorder and epilepsy comorbidity are contributing appreciably to improvements in patient care. Several antiepileptic treatments have become important components of the management of bipolar affective disorder. In contrast, little progress has emerged in developing clinical applications of the anticonvulsant properties of the antidepressants in the treatment of the epilepsies. The slow onset of action of the antidepressants remains a major impediment to fully effective treatment of depressive episodes. Nevertheless, studies from experimental epileptology demonstrate that the anticonvulsant effects of the antidepressants occur rapidly and as a consequence of noradrenergic and/or serotonergic activation. These studies also demonstrate that adequate initial doses of the antidepressants are essential to rapid onset of anticonvulsant action. Pharmacokinetically valid loading dose paradigms are seemingly avoided with antidepressant drugs in humans because of potential toxicities and/or patient unacceptability. However, substantial progress has been made in reducing the adverse effect liability of the antidepressants. No longer is convulsive liability considered to stem from the therapeutic mechanisms of the anti-depressants. Rather, noradrenergic and serotonergic influences have demonstrable anticonvulsant properties. Other side effects may also be separable from the anticonvulsant and antidepressive effects of antidepressive treatments. The concept that the protracted process of antidepressant-induced beta-noradrenergic down-regulation is an essential prelude to the onset of mood benefit is no longer a sustainable premise. Nevertheless, increasing evidence underlies the possibility that knowledge of serotonergic and noradrenergic regulatory processes can be used to design strategies that will hasten the onset of antidepressive action. Similar optimism pervades efforts to determine the possibility that dual inhibition of serotonin and norepinephrine transporters will hasten onset of antidepressive action. Moreover, because noradrenergic and serotonergic systems are determinants of predisposition to seizures and to dysfunctional affective episodes, augmentation strategies may also be applicable to the use of antidepressant drugs in epilepsy and to the use of antiepileptic drugs such as carbamazepine in mood disorders. Recent studies have demonstrated that, in part, the therapeutic effectiveness of carbamazepine may stem from its marked capacity to elevate serotonin concentrations in the extracellular fluid of the brain via mechanisms that differ from those of the membrane reuptake inhibitors. Evidence suggests that the epilepsies and affective disorders may arise from a multiplicity of neurobiological abnormalities. A disorder in one individual may arise via different mechanisms than a phenomenologically similar disorder in another individual. Thus, diagnostic tools are needed to make mechanistic distinctions among individuals so that treatments can be appropriately developed and selected. In terms of epileptogenesis and affective disorder progression, neuroprotective paradigms for one individual may differ from those needed for another. Moreover, diagnostic technologies that are adequate to detect genetically and/or experientially determined vulnerability before the onset of a seizure or dysfunctional affective episode may be valuable steps toward achieving goals of prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip C Jobe
- Department of Biomedical and Therapeutic Sciences, University of Illinois College of Medicine, PO Box 1649, Peoria, Illinois 61656-1649, USA.
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296
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Janowsky DS. Depression and dysphoria effects on the interpersonal perception of negative and positive moods and caring relationships: effects of antidepressants, amphetamine, and methylphenidate. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2003; 5:451-9. [PMID: 14609500 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-003-0084-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An inverse relationship exists between an individual's degree of negative affect and the interpersonal perception of friendliness, sympathy and empathy, acceptance, warmth, regard, and genuineness, and the converse relationship persists for the perception of sadness and anger. Thus, a "negative interpersonal bias" exists in those with diagnoses of depression or dysphoria. There is evidence that psychostimulants (ie, amphetamine or methylphenidate) and antidepressants can reverse or improve these negative interpersonal perceptions in a positive way, especially in individuals with dysphoria, depression, and anxiety. The theoretic and therapeutic implications of these relationships are discussed herewith.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Janowsky
- Department of Psychiatry, CB# 7175, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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297
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298
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Harmer CJ, Rogers RD, Tunbridge E, Cowen PJ, Goodwin GM. Tryptophan depletion decreases the recognition of fear in female volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 167:411-7. [PMID: 12677354 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-003-1401-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2002] [Accepted: 01/06/2003] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Serotonergic processes have been implicated in the modulation of fear conditioning in humans, postulated to occur at the level of the amygdala. The processing of other fear-relevant cues, such as facial expressions, has also been associated with amygdala function, but an effect of serotonin depletion on these processes has not been assessed. OBJECTIVE The present study investigated the effects of reducing serotonin function, using acute tryptophan depletion, on the recognition of basic facial expressions of emotions in healthy male and female volunteers. METHODS A double-blind between-groups design was used, with volunteers being randomly allocated to receive an amino acid drink specifically lacking tryptophan or a control mixture containing a balanced mixture of these amino acids. Participants were given a facial expression recognition task 5 h after drink administration. This task featured examples of six basic emotions (fear, anger, disgust, surprise, sadness and happiness) that had been morphed between each full emotion and neutral in 10% steps. As a control, volunteers were given a famous face classification task matched in terms of response selection and difficulty level. RESULTS Tryptophan depletion significantly impaired the recognition of fearful facial expressions in female, but not male, volunteers. This was specific since recognition of other basic emotions was comparable in the two groups. There was also no effect of tryptophan depletion on the classification of famous faces or on subjective state ratings of mood or anxiety. CONCLUSIONS These results confirm a role for serotonin in the processing of fear related cues, and in line with previous findings also suggest greater effects of tryptophan depletion in female volunteers. Although acute tryptophan depletion does not typically affect mood in healthy subjects, the present results suggest that subtle changes in the processing of emotional material may occur with this manipulation of serotonin function.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Harmer
- University Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK.
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