251
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Lam PY, Jadhav PK, Eyermann CJ, Hodge CN, Ru Y, Bacheler LT, Meek JL, Otto MJ, Rayner MM, Wong YN. Rational design of potent, bioavailable, nonpeptide cyclic ureas as HIV protease inhibitors. Science 1994; 263:380-4. [PMID: 8278812 DOI: 10.1126/science.8278812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 682] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Mechanistic information and structure-based design methods have been used to design a series of nonpeptide cyclic ureas that are potent inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease and HIV replication. A fundamental feature of these inhibitors is the cyclic urea carbonyl oxygen that mimics the hydrogen-bonding features of a key structural water molecule. The success of the design in both displacing and mimicking the structural water molecule was confirmed by x-ray crystallographic studies. Highly selective, preorganized inhibitors with relatively low molecular weight and high oral bioavailability were synthesized.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Y Lam
- Department of Virology Research, DuPont Merck Pharmaceutical Company, Wilmington, DE 19880
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252
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Zybarth G, Kräusslich HG, Partin K, Carter C. Proteolytic activity of novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proteinase proteins from a precursor with a blocking mutation at the N terminus of the PR domain. J Virol 1994; 68:240-50. [PMID: 8254734 PMCID: PMC236283 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.68.1.240-250.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The mature human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proteinase (PR; 11 kDa) can cleave all interdomain junctions in the Gag and Gag-Pol polyprotein precursors. To determine the activity of the enzyme in its precursor form, we blocked release of mature PR from a truncated Gag-Pol polyprotein by introducing mutations into the N-terminal Phe-Pro cleavage site of the PR domain. The mutant precursor autoprocessed efficiently upon expression in Escherichia coli. No detectable mature PR was released; however, several PR-related products ranging in size from approximately 14 to 18 kDa accumulated. Products of the same size were generated when mutant precursors were digested with wild-type PR. Thus, PR can utilize cleavage sites in the region upstream of the PR domain, resulting in the formation of extended PR species. On the basis of active-site titration, the PR species generated from mutated precursor exhibited wild-type activity on peptide substrates. However, the proteolytic activity of these extended enzymes on polyprotein substrates provided exogenously was low when equimolar amounts of extended and wild-type PR proteins were compared. Mammalian cells expressing the mutated precursor produced predominantly precursor and considerably reduced amounts of mature products. Released particles consisted mostly of uncleaved or partially cleaved polyproteins. Our results suggest that precursor forms of PR can autoprocess but are less efficient in processing of the Gag precursor for formation of mature virus particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Zybarth
- Department of Microbiology, State University of New York at Stony Brook 11794
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253
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254
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Darke PL, Huff JR. HIV protease as an inhibitor target for the treatment of AIDS. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 1994; 25:399-454. [PMID: 8204507 DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(08)60438-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P L Darke
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486
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255
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Lin XL, Lin YZ, Tang J. Relationships of human immunodeficiency virus protease with eukaryotic aspartic proteases. Methods Enzymol 1994; 241:195-224. [PMID: 7854179 DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(94)41066-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- X L Lin
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City 73104
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256
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Affiliation(s)
- J Stebbins
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Smihkline Beecham Pharmaceuticals, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406
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257
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York DM, Bartolotti LJ, Darden TA, Pedersen LG, Anderson MW. Simulations of the solution structure of HIV-1 protease in the presence and absence of bound zinc. J Comput Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.540150108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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258
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von der Helm K, Seelmeier S, Kisselev A, Nitschko H. Identification, purification, and cell culture assays of retroviral proteases. Methods Enzymol 1994; 241:89-104. [PMID: 7854194 DOI: 10.1016/0076-6879(94)41061-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K von der Helm
- Max von Petenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
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259
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Fässler A, Rösel J, Grüther M, Tintelnot-Blomley M, Atteri E, Bold G, Lang M. Novel pseudosymmetric inhibitors of HIV-1 protease. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(01)80775-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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260
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Lang M, Roesel J. HIV-1 protease inhibitors: development, status, and potential role in the treatment of AIDS. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 1993; 326:921-4. [PMID: 8122962 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.19933261202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Lang
- Pharmaceuticals Division, CIBA-GEIGY Limited, Basel, Switzerland
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261
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Kiriyama A, Mimoto T, Kisanuki S, Kiso Y, Takada K. Comparison of a new orally potent tripeptide HIV-1 protease inhibitor (anti-AIDS drug) based on pharmacokinetic characteristics in rats after intravenous and intraduodenal administrations. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1993; 14:697-707. [PMID: 8305629 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.2510140806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Recently, a series of KNI compounds such as KNI-227 and KNI-272 has been synthesized and shows potent and selective HIV-1 protease inhibitory activity in vitro. In this study, we developed an HPLC assay system for KNI-227 and KNI-272 in rat plasma and examined the pharmacokinetic characteristics in rats after both intravenous (i.v.) and intraduodenal (i.d.) administrations to obtain the disposition characteristics and bioavailabilities of these new anti-AIDS drugs. After i.v. administration of KNI-227, 10.0 mg kg-1, the mean terminal elimination half-life, t1/2 lambda zeta, was 0.808 +/- 0.161(SE) h, the total body clearance, CLtot, was 11.7 +/- 3.3 ml min-1 and the distribution volume at steady state (Vd,ss) was 1410 +/- 460 ml kg-1. On the other hand, after i.v. administration of KNI-272, 10.0 mg kg-1, t1/2 lambda zeta was 2.86 +/- 0.78 h, CLtot was 15.3 +/- 1.4 ml min-1 and Vd,ss was 3440 +/- 670 ml kg-1. In the case of the i.d. administration of drugs, the mean peak plasma concentrations, Cmax, of KNI-227 and KNI-272 were 0.374 +/- 0.110 microgram ml-1 and 0.900 +/- 0.093 micrograms ml-1, respectively. The bioavailabilities (BA) of KNI-227 and KNI-272 to infinity, BA(0-infinity), were 5.90% and 42.3%, respectively. As compared with the lead compound, KNI-174, the BA of KNI-272 was improved about 10 times. Although the anti-AIDS virus activity of these two drugs has not been investigated in vivo, KNI-272 is expected to be a better candidate for oral anti-AIDS therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kiriyama
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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262
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Abdel-Meguid
- Department of Macromolecular Sciences, SmithKline Beecham, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406
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263
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Prusoff W, Lin TS, Pivazyan A, Sun AS, Birks E. Empirical and rational approaches for development of inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus--HIV-1. Pharmacol Ther 1993; 60:315-29. [PMID: 8022862 DOI: 10.1016/0163-7258(93)90013-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus, HIV-1, is generally accepted to be responsible for AIDS. It is imperative that all approaches, empirical and rational, be taken for development of a drug for therapy of this disease. These approaches are discussed, with emphasis on the direction being pursued in our laboratory. Empirically, we found 3'-deoxy-2',3'-didehydrothymidine, a compound first synthesized for potential anticancer activity by J. Horwitz in the 1960s, to be a potent inhibitor of HIV-1. It is now in Phase II/III clinical trials. We have also synthesized several 2,5'-anhydro pyrimidine nucleoside analogs, which have interesting chemical and biological properties. We have evaluated a natural product, gossypol and synthesized various derivatives for anti-HIV-1 activity, but none were appreciably more inhibitory than the parent compound. More recently, we have taken the rational approach and synthesized a boron-modified tetrapeptide, Ac-Thr-Leu-Asn-boro-Phe, which corresponds to the COOH-terminal of the Phe-Pro scissle bond of the gag/pol gene polyprotein product. Potent inhibition of the HIV-1 encoded protease was observed. These approaches and findings will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Prusoff
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510
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264
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Rice WG, Schaeffer CA, Graham L, Bu M, McDougal JS, Orloff SL, Villinger F, Young M, Oroszlan S, Fesen MR. The site of antiviral action of 3-nitrosobenzamide on the infectivity process of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993; 90:9721-4. [PMID: 7692451 PMCID: PMC47642 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.90.20.9721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The C-nitroso compound 3-nitrosobenzamide, which has been shown to remove zinc from the retroviral-type zinc finger of p7NC nucleocapsid proteins, inhibits acute infection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in cultured human lymphocytes. The attachment of the virus to lymphocytes and the activities of critical viral enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase, are not affected by 3-nitrosobenzamide. However, the process of reverse transcription to form proviral DNA is effectively abolished by the drug, identifying the mode of action of 3-nitrosobenzamide as interrupting the role of p7NC in accurate proviral DNA synthesis during the infectious phase of the virus life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Rice
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Mechanisms, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, MD 21702
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265
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266
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Hirsch
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
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267
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Abstract
Since the discovery of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in 1983, significant progress has been made toward the discovery, development, and licensing of anti-HIV drugs. In vitro screens against whole virus are now being complemented by screens against specific viral targets, resulting in the development of clinical candidates acting at several critical stages of the viral life cycle. Despite these advances, clinical therapy remains largely palliative. In addition, it has recently been recognized that HIV resistance to most drugs may pose even greater obstacles. Moreover, emerging data on immunopathogenesis raise the possibility that even if virus was eliminated from an infected individual, the patient's immune system might not be capable of restoration to normal function. In the face of such obstacles, deeper insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of disease, aggressive exploitation of those mechanisms for therapeutic gain, and continued commitment of both public and private sectors to support and collaborate in this research are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Johnston
- Basic Research and Development Program, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
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268
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Matthews DJ, Wells JA. Substrate phage: selection of protease substrates by monovalent phage display. Science 1993; 260:1113-7. [PMID: 8493554 DOI: 10.1126/science.8493554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A method is described here for identifying good protease substrates among approximately 10(7) possible sequences. A library of fusion proteins was constructed containing an amino-terminal domain used to bind to an affinity support, followed by a randomized protease substrate sequence and the carboxyl-terminal domain of M13 gene III. Each fusion protein was displayed as a single copy on filamentous phagemid particles (substrate phage). Phage were then bound to an affinity support and treated with the protease of interest. Phage with good protease substrates were released, whereas phage with substrates that resisted proteolysis remained bound. After several rounds of binding, proteolysis, and phagemid propagation, sensitive and resistant substrate sequences were identified for two different proteases, a variant of subtilisin and factor Xa. The technique may also be useful for studying the sequence specificity of a variety of posttranslational modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Matthews
- Department of Protein Engineering, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA 94080
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269
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270
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Abstract
Part I of this article reviewed the targets against which anti-HIV drugs can be directed, problems in assessing active compounds (e.g. resistance development and use of surrogate end-points). and nucleoside analogues effective against HIV reverse transcriptase. Intensive research is currently being undertaken in laboratories and hospitals to design and evaluate new inhibitors of HIV. In this work, combining different drugs is one important approach, both to decrease toxicity and to offset the rate of resistance development, which seems to be a major problem associated with therapy directed against the ever-changing HIV. Therapeutic vaccines and immunomodulators are other modalities being actively evaluated against HIV and AIDS, although this effort has not yet yielded any licensed treatment. It appears likely that new antiviral drugs and immunotherapies will be forthcoming during the next 5 years, that they will be used in a variety of combinations, and that the treatment options available for opportunistic infections will increase. These developments should improve the survival and the quality of life of patients with HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Sandström
- Department of Dermatovenerology, Södersjukhuset, Stockholm, Sweden
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271
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Kiriyama A, Mimoto T, Kiso Y, Takada K. Pharmacokinetic study of a tripeptide HIV-1 protease inhibitor, KNI-174, in rats after intravenous and intraduodenal administrations. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1993; 14:199-207. [PMID: 8490108 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.2510140303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Recently, as a new type of anti-AIDS drug, an HIV-1 protease inhibitor, KNI-174, has been synthesized; it shows a potent and selective HIV-1 protease inhibitory activity in vitro. In this study, we developed an HPLC assay system for KNI-174 in rat plasma and examined the pharmacokinetics of KNI-174 in rats using this assay method after both intravenous (i.v.) and intraduodenal (i.d.) administrations to obtain the disposition characteristics and bioavailability of this new anti-AIDS drug. This HPLC assay method is specific to KNI-174 and the standard curve was linear from 0.02 to 30 micrograms ml-1 plasma. After i.v. administration, 10.0 mg kg-1, KNI-174 disappeared from the rats' plasma in a three-exponential decay. The mean terminal elimination half-life, t1/2 lambda z, was 3.97 +/- 0.19 (S.E.) h, the total body clearance, CLtot, was 9.53 +/- 1.08 ml min-1 and the distribution volume at steady state, Vd,ss, was 7070 +/- 960 ml kg-1. In the case of the i.d. administration, 10.0 mg kg-1, the mean peak plasma concentration, Cmax, and the peak time, tmax, were 0.196 +/- 0.076 micrograms ml-1 and 0.444 +/- 0.193 h, respectively. The bioavailability of KNI-174 till infinity, BA(0-infinity), was 5.37 per cent. Because the IC50 of KNI-174 against HIV-1 in PHA-PBM was 138 ng ml-1, the time needed for maintaining the concentrations above IC50 after a single i.d. administration of KNI-174 is estimated to be 0.350 +/- 0.184 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kiriyama
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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272
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Venable RM, Brooks BR, Carson FW. Theoretical studies of relaxation of a monomeric subunit of HIV-1 protease in water using molecular dynamics. Proteins 1993; 15:374-84. [PMID: 8460108 DOI: 10.1002/prot.340150405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The dynamic behavior of one 99-residue subunit of the dimeric aspartyl protease of HIV-1 was studied in a 160 psec molecular dynamics simulation at 300 K in water. The crystal structure of one of the identical subunits of the dimer was the starting point, with the aqueous phase modeled by 4,331 explicit waters in a restrained spherical droplet. Analysis of the simulations showed that the monomer displayed considerable flexibility in the interfacial portions of the flap (the region which folds over the substrate), the N- and C-termini, and, to a lesser extent, the active site. The flap undergoes significant motion as an independent rigid finger, but without the cantilever previously reported in a simulation of the dimer. The N-terminus displayed the greatest fluctuational disorder whereas the C-terminus exhibited the greatest root mean square movement from the crystal structure. The central core of the monomer had a heavy-atom root mean square deviation from the initial structure of about 3.0 A during the latter half of the simulation. Although this is larger than the 1.6 A found for comparable simulations of typical globular proteins, the general features of the tertiary structure were preserved over the course of the simulation. Overall, these results indicate that the relaxed structure obtained in these simulations may provide a better model for the tertiary structure of the solvated HIV-1 protease monomer than the subunit conformation seen in the X-ray crystallographic structure of the dimer. Except in the flap region, the design of compounds intended to interfere with dimerization should take this relaxation and the flexibility of the solvated monomer, especially at the termini, into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Venable
- Biophysics Laboratory, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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273
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Barrish JC, Zahler R. Chapter 14. Antiviral Agents. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(08)60884-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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274
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275
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Abstract
There are two major stages in the design of drug molecules: lead-molecule development and lead-molecule optimization. Whereas a variety of computational chemistry and molecular modeling (CC/MM) techniques are now routinely and successfully applied to the optimization stage of drug design, the generation of initial lead compounds has proven a more difficult problem for the CC/MM approach. Only recently has the design of lead molecules by this route become a subject of active research. This article looks at the factors which must be considered carefully when incorporating CC/MM methods into different aspects of drug-design strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Dixon
- SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceutical R & D, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406-0939
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276
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Abstract
Most drugs have been discovered in random screens or by exploiting information about macromolecular receptors. One source of this information is in the structures of critical proteins and nucleic acids. The structure-based approach to design couples this information with specialized computer programs to propose novel enzyme inhibitors and other therapeutic agents. Iterated design cycles have produced compounds now in clinical trials. The combination of molecular structure determination and computation is emerging as an important tool for drug development. These ideas will be applied to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and bacterial drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- I D Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco 94143
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