301
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Bureau G, Longpré F, Martinoli MG. Resveratrol and quercetin, two natural polyphenols, reduce apoptotic neuronal cell death induced by neuroinflammation. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:403-10. [PMID: 17929310 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder characterized by a progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Microglia activation and neuroinflammation have been associated with the pathogenesis of PD. Indeed, cytokines have been proposed as candidates that mediate the apoptotic cell death of dopaminergic neurons seen in PD. In this study, we investigated the effect of two natural polyphenols, resveratrol and quercetin, on neuroinflammation. For glial cells, we observed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mRNA levels of two proinflammatory genes, interleukin 1-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, are strongly decreased by treatments with resveratrol or quercetin. We also undertook microglial-neuronal coculture to examine the influence of resveratrol and quercetin on dopaminergic neuronal cell death evoked by LPS-activated microglia. Cytotoxicity assays were performed to evaluate the percentage of cell death, with apoptotic cells identified by both the TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling technique and the detection of cleaved caspase-3. We report that treatment of N9 microglial cells with resveratrol or quercetin successfully reduced the inflammation-mediated apoptotic death of neuronal cells in our coculture system. Altogether our results demonstrate that resveratrol and quercetin diminished apoptotic neuronal cell death induced by microglial activation and suggest that these two phytoestrogens may be potent antiinflammatory compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve Bureau
- Department of Biochemistry and the Neuroscience Group, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada
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302
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Gao X, Hu X, Qian L, Yang S, Zhang W, Zhang D, Wu X, Fraser A, Wilson B, Flood PM, Block M, Hong JS. Formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity via microglial activation: a mediator between peripheral infection and neurodegeneration? ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2008; 116:593-598. [PMID: 18470306 PMCID: PMC2367670 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson disease (PD), a chronic neurodegenerative disease, has been proposed to be a multifactorial disorder resulting from a combination of environmental mechanisms (chemical, infectious, and traumatic), aging, and genetic deficits. Microglial activation is important in the pathogenesis of PD. OBJECTIVES We investigated dopaminergic (DA) neurotoxicity and the underlying mechanisms of formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP), a bacteria-derived peptide, in relation to PD. METHODS We measured DA neurotoxicity using a DA uptake assay and immunocytochemical staining (ICC) in primary mesencephalic cultures from rodents. Microglial activation was observed via ICC, flow cytometry, and superoxide measurement. RESULTS fMLP can cause selective DA neuronal loss at concentrations as low as 10(-13) M. Further, fMLP (10(-13) M) led to a significant reduction in DA uptake capacity in neuron/glia (N/G) cultures, but not in microglia-depleted cultures, indicating an indispensable role of microglia in fMLP-induced neurotoxicity. Using ICC of a specific microglial marker, OX42, we observed morphologic changes in activated microglia after fMLP treatment. Microglial activation after fMLP treatment was confirmed by flow cytometry analysis of major histocompatibility antigen class II expression on a microglia HAPI cell line. Mechanistic studies revealed that fMLP (10(-13) M)-induced increase in the production of extracellular superoxide from microglia is critical in mediating fMLP-elicited neurotoxicity. Pharmacologic inhibition of NADPH oxidase (PHOX) with diphenylene-iodonium or apocynin abolished the DA neurotoxicity of fMLP. N/G cultures from PHOX-deficient (gp91PHOX-/ -) mice were also insensitive to fMLP-induced DA neurotoxicity. CONCLUSION fMLP (10(-13) M) induces DA neurotoxicity through activation of microglial PHOX and subsequent production of superoxide, suggesting a role of fMLP in the central nervous system inflammatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Gao
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Li Qian
- Comprehensive Center for Inflammatory Disorders, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sufen Yang
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Wei Zhang
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dan Zhang
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Xuefei Wu
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alison Fraser
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Belinda Wilson
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Patrick M Flood
- Comprehensive Center for Inflammatory Disorders, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michelle Block
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jau-Shyong Hong
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
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303
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Bick RJ, Poindexter BJ, Kott MM, Liang YA, Dinh K, Kaur B, Bick DLM, Doursout MF, Schiess MC. Cytokines disrupt intracellular patterns of Parkinson's disease-associated proteins alpha-synuclein, tau and ubiquitin in cultured glial cells. Brain Res 2008; 1217:203-12. [PMID: 18501880 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.03.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Revised: 03/25/2008] [Accepted: 03/27/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of specific proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (Il-6), interleukin-1beta (Il-1beta), interferon-gamma (IFN), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), on content and distribution of alpha-synuclein (alpha-synuclein), tau and ubiquitin in human derived cultured glial cells. Exposure paradigms mimicked acute (2 h), intermediate (18 h) and prolonged time frames (96 h); consisting of single or repeated low doses (10 ng/ml) or high doses (50 ng/ml), consistent with either mild or serious systemic infectious/inflammatory responses. Images of intracellular protein content and distribution were reconstructed from emission patterns generated by fluorescence deconvolution microscopy. Minor alterations were seen in protein content with IFN; Il-1beta decreased alpha-synuclein and tau at 18 and 96 h; TNFalpha inversely reduced alpha-synuclein and increased ubiquitin content. Combinations of Il-1beta and IFN produced a robust increase of alpha-synuclein and tau at 2 h. Consecutive low doses of Il-6 produced only minor increases in alpha-synuclein and ubiquitin after 4 h, whereas a single high dose resulted in major increases for all three proteins over the first 18 h. Protein localization patterns were distinctly different and were altered dependent upon cytokine treatment. A high dose exposure (2 x 50 ng/ml) with Il-6 and IFN demonstrated that protein increases and dispersals could be sustained and that the normal perinuclear tau and peripheral alpha-synuclein patterns were disrupted. These results support the postulate that specific cytokines affect temporal protein changes with concomitant pattern disruptions, possibly reflecting a mechanism of cell dysfunction in Parkinson's degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger J Bick
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
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304
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Costa-Mallen P, Checkoway H, Zabeti A, Edenfield MJ, Swanson PD, Longstreth WT, Franklin GM, Smith-Weller T, Sadrzadeh SMH. The functional polymorphism of the hemoglobin-binding protein haptoglobin influences susceptibility to idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:216-22. [PMID: 17918239 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress and iron have been widely implicated in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Hemoglobin is the richest source of iron in the body. The human Haptoglobin (Hp) protein is a plasma alpha-2 glycoprotein that removes free Hemoglobin from the circulation and tissues and is important in protection from oxidative stress, in immune system regulation, and angiogenesis. A common genetic polymorphism of Hp exists in the population, where the Hp 1-1, Hp 2-1, and Hp 2-2 forms exhibit profound functional differences. In this study, the Hp genotype corresponding to phenotypes Hp 1-1, 2-1 and 2-2 was determined in 312 idiopathic PD patients and 420 normal control subjects. A significant increase in the number of subjects carrying the Hp 2-1 genotype was present among PD patients. The distribution of Hp genotypes among PD patients (16.0% Hp 1-1, 56.4% Hp 2-1, 27.6% Hp 2-2) was significantly different from the distribution in controls (15.2% Hp 1-1, 48.1% Hp 2-1, 36.7% Hp 2-2) (chi(2) = 6.99, P = 0.030). The odds ratios for PD risk for Hp 2-1 and Hp 1-1 versus Hp 2-2 genotype were 1.51 (1.07-2.12) and 1.36 (0.86-2.15), respectively. Overall, the association of Hp-1 allele with PD resulted stronger among subjects who were never-smokers as compared to ever-smokers. Also, among ever-smokers, Hp genotypes were significantly associated with PD only among women, but not men, indicating the presence of a gene x gender x smoking interaction. To our knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the association of Hp genotypes with the risk of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Costa-Mallen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98104, USA.
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305
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Koprich JB, Reske-Nielsen C, Mithal P, Isacson O. Neuroinflammation mediated by IL-1beta increases susceptibility of dopamine neurons to degeneration in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2008; 5:8. [PMID: 18304357 PMCID: PMC2292163 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-5-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2007] [Accepted: 02/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains elusive despite identification of several genetic mutations. It is more likely that multiple factors converge to give rise to PD than any single cause. Here we report that inflammation can trigger degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. Methods We examined the effects of inflammation on the progressive 6-OHDA rat model of Parkinson's disease using immunohistochemistry, multiplex ELISA, and cell counting stereology. Results We show that a non-toxic dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced secretion of cytokines and predisposed DA neurons to be more vulnerable to a subsequent low dose of 6-hydroxydopamine. Alterations in cytokines, prominently an increase in interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), were identified as being potential mediators of this effect that was associated with activation of microglia. Administration of an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist resulted in significant reductions in tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ and attenuated the augmented loss of DA neurons caused by the LPS-induced sensitization to dopaminergic degeneration. Conclusion These data provide insight into the etiology of PD and support a role for inflammation as a risk factor for the development of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Koprich
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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306
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Shaftel SS, Griffin WST, O'Banion MK. The role of interleukin-1 in neuroinflammation and Alzheimer disease: an evolving perspective. J Neuroinflammation 2008; 5:7. [PMID: 18302763 PMCID: PMC2335091 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-5-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 02/26/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevation of the proinflammatory cytokine Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is an integral part of the local tissue reaction to central nervous system (CNS) insult. The discovery of increased IL-1 levels in patients following acute injury and in chronic neurodegenerative disease laid the foundation for two decades of research that has provided important details regarding IL-1's biology and function in the CNS. IL-1 elevation is now recognized as a critical component of the brain's patterned response to insults, termed neuroinflammation, and of leukocyte recruitment to the CNS. These processes are believed to underlie IL-1's function in the setting of acute brain injury, where it has been ascribed potential roles in repair as well as in exacerbation of damage. Explorations of IL-1's role in chronic neurodegenerative disease have mainly focused on Alzheimer disease (AD), where indirect evidence has implicated it in disease pathogenesis. However, recent observations in animal models challenge earlier assumptions that IL-1 elevation and resulting neuroinflammatory processes play a purely detrimental role in AD, and prompt a need for new characterizations of IL-1 function. Potentially adaptive functions of IL-1 elevation in AD warrant further mechanistic studies, and provide evidence that enhancement of these effects may help to alleviate the pathologic burden of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon S Shaftel
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA.
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307
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Barabanova SV, Artyukhina ZE, Ovchinnikova KT, Abramova TV, Kazakova TB, Khavinson VK, Malinin VV, Korneva EA. Comparative analysis of the expression of c-Fos and interleukin-2 proteins in hypothalamus cells during various treatments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 38:237-43. [PMID: 18264770 DOI: 10.1007/s11055-008-0035-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2006] [Revised: 12/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to perform a combined analysis of the degree of activation of the anterior hypothalamus of the rat and expression of the interleukin-2 gene during treatments of different types: mild stress ("handling") and adaption to it, as well as intranasal administration of physiological saline and the peptides Vilon (Lys-Glu) and Epitalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly). Changes in the numbers of c-Fos-and IL-2-positive cells in structures of the lateral area (LHA) and anterior (AHN), supraoptic (SON), and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei of the hypothalamus in Wistar rats. Ratios of the quantities of c-Fos-and IL-2-positive cells were determined in intact animals and after activation of brain cells initiated by different treatments; the influences of adaptation to handling on the nature of changes in the expression of these proteins was also studied. Combined analysis of the intensity of expression of these two proteins - c-Fos, a marker of neuron activation and a trans-factor for the IL-2 cytokine gene and other inducible genes, and IL-2 - in intact animals and after various treatments showed that the process of cell activation in most of the hypothalamic structures studied correlated with decreases in the quantity of IL-2-positive cells in these structures; different patterns of changes in the numbers of c-Fos-and IL-2-positive cells were seen in response to different treatments in conditions of stress and adaptation to it.
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Affiliation(s)
- S V Barabanova
- Department of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, State Research Institute of Experimental Medicine, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia.
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308
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Vio K, Rodríguez S, Yulis CR, Oliver C, Rodríguez EM. The subcommissural organ of the rat secretes Reissner's fiber glycoproteins and CSF-soluble proteins reaching the internal and external CSF compartments. Cerebrospinal Fluid Res 2008; 5:3. [PMID: 18218138 PMCID: PMC2265671 DOI: 10.1186/1743-8454-5-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The subcommissural organ (SCO) is a highly conserved brain gland present throughout the vertebrate phylum; it secretes glycoproteins into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), where they aggregate to form Reissner's fiber (RF). SCO-spondin is the major constituent protein of RF. Evidence exists that the SCO also secretes proteins that remain soluble in the CSF. The aims of the present investigation were: (i) to identify and partially characterize the SCO-secretory compounds present in the SCO gland itself and in the RF of the Sprague-Dawley rat and non-hydrocephalic hyh mouse, and in the CSF of rat; (ii) to make a comparative analysis of the proteins present in these three compartments; (iii) to identify the proteins secreted by the SCO into the CSF at different developmental periods. Methods The proteins of the SCO secreted into the CSF were studied (i) by injecting specific antibodies into ventricular CSF in vivo; (ii) by immunoblots of SCO, RF and CSF samples, using specific antibodies against the SCO secretory proteins (AFRU and anti-P15). In addition, the glycosylated nature of SCO-compounds was analysed by concanavalin A and wheat germ agglutinin binding. To analyse RF-glycoproteins, RF was extracted from the central canal of juvenile rats and mice; to investigate the CSF-soluble proteins secreted by the SCO, CSF samples were collected from the cisterna magna of rats at different stages of development (from E18 to PN30). Results Five glycoproteins were identified in the rat SCO with apparent molecular weights of 630, 450, 390, 320 and 200 kDa. With the exception of the 200-kDa compound, all other compounds present in the rat SCO were also present in the mouse SCO. The 630 and 390 kDa compounds of the rat SCO have affinity for concanavalin A but not for wheat germ agglutinin, suggesting that they correspond to precursor forms. Four of the AFRU-immunoreactive compounds present in the SCO (630, 450, 390, 320 kDa) were absent from the RF and CSF. These may be precursor and/or partially processed forms. Two other compounds (200, 63 kDa) were present in SCO, RF and CSF and may be processed forms. The presence of these proteins in both, RF and CSF suggests a steady-state RF/CSF equilibrium for these compounds. Eight AFRU-immunoreactive bands were consistently found in CSF samples from rats at E18, E20 and PN1. Only four of these compounds were detected in the cisternal CSF of PN30 rats. The 200 kDa compound appears to be a key compound in rats since it was consistently found in all samples of SCO, RF and embryonic and juvenile CSF. Conclusion It is concluded that (i) during the late embryonic life, the rat SCO secretes compounds that remain soluble in the CSF and reach the subarachnoid space; (ii) during postnatal life, there is a reduction in the number and concentration of CSF-soluble proteins secreted by the SCO. The molecular structure and functional significance of these proteins remain to be elucidated. The possibility they are involved in brain development has been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Vio
- Instituto de Anatomía, Histología y Patología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.
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309
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Mangano EN, Hayley S. Inflammatory priming of the substantia nigra influences the impact of later paraquat exposure: Neuroimmune sensitization of neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Aging 2008; 30:1361-78. [PMID: 18187236 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2007] [Revised: 10/04/2007] [Accepted: 11/16/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Activation of microglia along with the release of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative factors often accompanies toxin-induced degeneration of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopamine (DA) neurons. Multiple toxin exposure may synergistically influence microglial-dependent DA neuronal loss and, in fact, pre-treatment with one toxin may sensitize DA neurons to the impact of subsequent insults. Thus, we assessed whether priming SNc neurons with the inflammatory agent, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), influenced the impact of later exposure to the pesticide, paraquat, which has been reported to provoke DA loss. Indeed, LPS infusion into the SNc sensitized DA neurons to the neurodegenerative effects of a series of paraquat injections commencing 2 days later. In contrast, LPS pre-treatment actually protected against some of neurodegenerative effects of paraquat when the pesticide was administered 7 days after the endotoxin. These sensitization and de-sensitization effects were associated with altered expression of reactive microglia expressing inducible immunoproteasome subunits, as well as variations of fibroblast growth factor and a time-dependent infiltration of peripheral immune cells. Circulating levels of the inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-2, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma were also time-dependently elevated following intra-SNc LPS infusion. These data suggest that inflammatory priming may influence DA neuronal sensitivity to subsequent environmental toxins by modulating the state of glial and immune factors, and these findings may be important for neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson's disease (PD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily N Mangano
- Institute of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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310
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Rentzos M, Nikolaou C, Andreadou E, Paraskevas GP, Rombos A, Zoga M, Tsoutsou A, Boufidou F, Kapaki E, Vassilopoulos D. Circulating interleukin-15 and RANTES chemokine in Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand 2007; 116:374-9. [PMID: 17986095 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00894.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Interleukin-15 promotes T-cell proliferation, induction of cytolytic effector cells including natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic cells and stimulates B-cell to proliferate and secrete immunoglobulins. RANTES is a C-C beta chemokine with strong chemoattractant activity for T lymphocytes and monocytes. OBJECTIVES The objective of our study was to find out whether IL-15 and RANTES are involved in the possible inflammatory reactions of PD. PATIENTS AND METHODS We measured by immunoassay serum IL-15 and RANTES levels in 41 patients with PD in comparison with serum levels in 19 healthy subjects age and sex-matched. IL-15 and RANTES levels were correlated with sex, age, disease duration. H-Y stage and the UPDRS III score in all the studied groups and were also correlated with treatment status in PD patients. RESULTS The PD group presented with significantly increased RANTES levels as compared to the control group (P = 0.0009). No difference was observed as regards IL-15 levels. A strong and significant correlation between RANTES levels and UPDRS III score was observed in PD patients (R(s) = 0.42, P = 0.007). Untreated patients had significantly higher RANTES levels as compared to the controls. CONCLUSIONS Our findings may suggest a recruitment of activated monocytes, macrophages and T lymphocytes to sites of inflammation in the central nervous system of PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rentzos
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Athens National University, Aeginition Hospital, 72-74 Vas Sophias Avenue, Athens, Greece.
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311
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Tansey MG, McCoy MK, Frank-Cannon TC. Neuroinflammatory mechanisms in Parkinson's disease: potential environmental triggers, pathways, and targets for early therapeutic intervention. Exp Neurol 2007; 208:1-25. [PMID: 17720159 PMCID: PMC3707134 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 412] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2006] [Revised: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 07/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Most acute and chronic neurodegenerative conditions are accompanied by neuroinflammation; yet the exact nature of the inflammatory processes and whether they modify disease progression is not well understood. In this review, we discuss the key epidemiological, clinical, and experimental evidence implicating inflammatory processes in the progressive degeneration of the dopaminergic (DA) nigrostriatal pathway and their potential contribution to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Given that interplay between genetics and environment are likely to contribute to risk for development of idiopathic PD, recent data showing interactions between products of genes linked to heritable PD that function to protect DA neurons against oxidative or proteolytic stress and inflammation pathways will be discussed. Cellular mechanisms activated or enhanced by inflammatory processes that may contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, or apoptosis of dopaminergic (DA) neurons will be reviewed, with special emphasis on tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-1-beta (IL-1beta) signaling pathways. Epigenetic factors which have the potential to trigger neuroinflammation, including environmental exposures and age-associated chronic inflammatory conditions, will be discussed as possible 'second-hit' triggers that may affect disease onset or progression of idiopathic PD. If inflammatory processes have an active role in nigrostriatal pathway degeneration, then evidence should exist to indicate that such processes begin in the early stages of disease and that they contribute to neuronal dysfunction and/or hasten neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway. Therapeutically, if anti-inflammatory interventions can be shown to rescue nigral DA neurons from degeneration and lower PD risk, then timely use of anti-inflammatory therapies should be investigated further in well-designed clinical trials for their ability to prevent or delay the progressive loss of nigral DA neurons in genetically susceptible populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malú G Tansey
- Department of Physiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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312
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Saldaña M, Mullol J, Aguilar E, Bonastre M, Marin C. Nuclear factor kappa-B p50 and p65 subunits expression in dementia with Lewy bodies. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2007; 33:308-16. [PMID: 17442064 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00806.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is the second most common cause of neurodegenerative dementia after Alzheimer's disease (AD). Parkinsonism in DLB is mainly caused by neuronal loss with Lewy bodies (LBs) in the substantia nigra, thereby inducing degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway similar to that in Parkinson's disease (PD). To clarify the pathogenesis of DLB, it is important to investigate the mechanisms involved in the degenerative process of LB-bearing neurones. Several reports suggest a role for nuclear factor kappa-B (NFkappaB) in the manifestation of neurodegenerative conditions such as AD and PD. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether NFkappaB subunits are involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration in DLB by measuring tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), NFkappaB p65 and p50 protein expression in frontal cortex and substantia nigra pars compacta of DLB and control human brains. An increase, although not statistically significant, in nigral TH expression in DLB cases was observed. There were no differences in the cortical and nigral expression levels of NFkappaB p65 subunit between control and DLB cases. Western blots of the frontal cortex showed no differences in the expression levels of NFkappaB p50 subunit. However, NFkappaB p50 levels were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra in the DLB cases in comparison with controls. The decrease in the expression of the p50 subunit in the substantia nigra of DLB cases achieved in the present study may increase the vulnerability of the dopaminergic neurones to a possible neurotoxic effect of p65 subunit. Thus, normal levels of NFkappaB p65 might be toxic in neurones with a low expression of the NFkappaB p50 subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saldaña
- Laboratori de Neurologia Experimental, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
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313
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Wu YR, Feng IH, Lyu RK, Chang KH, Lin YY, Chan H, Hu FJ, Lee-Chen GJ, Chen CM. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter polymorphism is associated with the risk of Parkinson's disease. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144B:300-4. [PMID: 17192953 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory events may contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). We conducted a case-control study in a cohort of 369 PD cases and another cohort of 326 ethnically matched controls to investigate the association of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) promoter single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with the risk of PD. The overall genotype distribution at T-1031C and C-857T sites showed significant difference between PD cases and controls (P = 0.0062 and 0.0035, respectively). However, only the more frequent -1031 CC genotype was evidently associated with PD (P = 0.0085, odds ratio: 2.96; 95% CI: 1.38-7.09). Pairwise SNP linkage disequilibrium showed -1031 and -863 sites are in strong linkage disequilibrium (D' = 0.93, Delta(2) = 0.80). Pairwise haplotype analysis among the four sites showed that -1031C-863A may act as a risk haplotype among PD cases (P = 0.0028, odds ratio: 2.18; 95% CI: 1.33-3.69).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yih-Ru Wu
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
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314
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Mashayekhi F, Salehi Z. Infusion of anti-nerve growth factor into the cisternum magnum of chick embryo leads to decrease cell production in the cerebral cortical germinal epithelium. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14:181-6. [PMID: 17250727 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01612.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There has been considerable recent progress in understanding the processes involved in cerebral cortical development. Several mitogenic and trophic factors have been implicated in the processes of cortical cell proliferation and differentiation. Anti-nerve growth factor (NGF) antibody was administered to 15 days chick foetuses through the cisternum magnum. Control group received phosphate buffered saline (PBS). To identify cells born in the cerebral cortex at the time of antibody or PBS injection, 5'-bromo-2'- deoxyuridine was administered to the foetuses by intravenous injection into an outlying vein using micromanipulation. After injection, the foetuses were re-incubated for another 3 days. All the foetuses were collected on day 18, the brains fixed in paraformaldehyde, cut with a microtome and stained with methyl green pyronin and anti-NGF antibody. Quantitative measurements showed that the thickness of the germinal epithelium (GE) and cerebral cortex in the anti-NGF antibody injected foetuses was decreased when compared with normal control embryos. The number of cells produced in the GE of antibody injected foetuses was decreased when compared with normal control embryos. The results from this study using neutralizing antibody suggests that NGF is an important factor in cerebral cortical development, stimulating neuronal precursor proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mashayekhi
- Department of Biology, The University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.
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315
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Mogi M, Kondo T, Mizuno Y, Nagatsu T. p53 protein, interferon-γ, and NF-κB levels are elevated in the parkinsonian brain. Neurosci Lett 2007; 414:94-7. [PMID: 17196747 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2006] [Revised: 10/21/2006] [Accepted: 12/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We and other workers found markedly increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and apoptosis-related proteins in parkinsonian brain. Although the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains enigmatic, apoptosis might be involved in the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in PD. To investigate the possible presence of other inflammatory cytokines and/or apoptosis-related protein, the levels of p53 protein, interferon-gamma, and NF-kappaB were measured for the first time in the brain (substantia nigra, caudate nucleus, putamen, cerebellum, and frontal cortex) from control and parkinsonian patients by a highly sensitive sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The p53 protein level in the caudate nucleus was significantly higher in parkinsonian patients than in controls (P<0.05), whereas this protein in the substantia nigra, putamen, and cerebral cortex showed no significant difference between parkinsonian and control subjects. The interferon-gamma level was significantly higher in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic regions (substantia nigra, caudate nucleus, and putamen) in parkinsonian patients than in the controls (P<0.05), but was not significantly different in the cerebellum or frontal cortex between the two groups. In accordance with previous immunohistochemical analysis, the NF-kappaB level in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic regions was significantly higher in parkinsonian patients than in the controls (P<0.05). These data suggest that the significant increase in the levels of p53 protein, interferon-gamma, and NF-kappaB reflect apoptosis and the inflammatory state in the parkinsonian brain and that their elevation is involved in the degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makio Mogi
- Department of Medicinal Biochemistry, School of Pharmacy, Aichi-Gakuin University, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan.
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316
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317
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Inamdar NN, Arulmozhi DK, Tandon A, Bodhankar SL. Parkinson's disease: genetics and beyond. Curr Neuropharmacol 2007; 5:99-113. [PMID: 18615181 PMCID: PMC2435348 DOI: 10.2174/157015907780866893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2006] [Revised: 01/29/2007] [Accepted: 02/14/2007] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized clinically by resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia and postural instability due to progressive and selective loss of dopamine neurons in the ventral substantia nigra, with the presence of ubiquitinated protein deposits called Lewy bodies in the neurons. The pathoetiology of cell death in PD is incompletely understood and evidence implicates impaired mitochondrial complex I function, altered intracellular redox state, activation of proapoptotic factors and dysfunction of ubiquitinproteasome pathway. Now it is believed that genetic aberration, an environmental toxin or combination of both leads to a cascade of events culminating in the destruction of myelinated brainstem catecholaminergic neurons. Also the role of production of significant levels of abnormal proteins, which may misfold, aggregate and interfere with intracellular processes causing cytotoxicity has recently been hypothesized. In this article, the diverse pieces of evidence that have linked the various factors responsible for the pathophysiology of PD are reviewed with special emphasis to various candidate genes and proteins. Furthermore, the present therapeutic strategies and futuristic approaches for the pharmacotherapy of PD are critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- NN Inamdar
- Allana College of Pharmacy, Azam Campus, Camp. Pune 411 001, India
| | - DK Arulmozhi
- Department of Pharmacology, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Poona College of Pharmacy, Erandwane, Pune 411 038, India
| | - A Tandon
- Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto, 6 Queen’s Park, Crescent West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3H2
| | - SL Bodhankar
- Department of Pharmacology, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Poona College of Pharmacy, Erandwane, Pune 411 038, India
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318
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Iczkiewicz J, Jackson MJ, Smith LA, Rose S, Jenner P. Osteopontin expression in substantia nigra in MPTP-treated primates and in Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2006; 1118:239-50. [PMID: 16962083 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterised by the loss of dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra (SN) but the pathogenic mechanism remains unknown. Cell death involves oxidative stress and inflammatory mechanisms, and these may be altered by the actions of the glycosylated phosphoprotein osteopontin (OPN). OPN is present in the rat SN, but its presence in human and non-human primate brain has not been extensively studied. Both OPN mRNA and protein were present in the normal marmoset SN, and OPN protein was localised to nigral neurones although these were not dopaminergic cells and it was not present in glial cells. In contrast, OPN protein was found in dopaminergic neurones in the normal human SN but again not in glial cells with some accumulation in the extracellular matrix. Following MPTP treatment of common marmosets, OPN protein expression was decreased, although its mRNA levels were unchanged and it was not present in either activated microglia or astrocytes. In the SN in PD, OPN protein expression was decreased in the remaining dopaminergic neurones and it was present in activated microglia but not in astrocytes. This was not specific to PD as OPN protein expression was also decreased in the SN in multiple system atrophy and progressive supranuclear palsy with an identical localisation of the protein. The presence of OPN in the normal human and non-human primate SN coupled to its decreased expression following nigral cell degeneration suggests that it may play an important role in dopaminergic neurone survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Iczkiewicz
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Centre, Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Biomedical Sciences, King's College, London, UK
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319
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Liu B. Modulation of microglial pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic activity for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. AAPS JOURNAL 2006; 8:E606-21. [PMID: 17025278 PMCID: PMC2668934 DOI: 10.1208/aapsj080369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating movement disorder resulting from a progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway and depletion of neurotransmitter dopamine in the striatum. Molecular cloning studies have identified nearly a dozen genes or loci that are associated with small clusters of mostly early onset and genetic forms of PD. The etiology of the vast majority of PD cases remains unknown, and the precise molecular and biochemical processes governing the selective and progressive degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway are poorly understood. Current drug therapies for PD are symptomatic and appear to bear little effect on the progressive neurodegenerative process. Studies of postmortem PD brains and various cellular and animal models of PD in the last 2 decades strongly suggest that the generation of pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic factors by the resident brain immune cells, microglia, plays a prominent role in mediating the progressive neurodegenerative process. This review discusses literature supporting the possibility of modulating the activity of microglia as a neuroprotective strategy for the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, the McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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320
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Salehi Z, Mashayekhi F. The role of cerebrospinal fluid on neural cell survival in the developing chick cerebral cortex: an in vivo study. Eur J Neurol 2006; 13:760-4. [PMID: 16834707 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01358.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is secreted by the choroid plexuses located in the lateral, third and fourth ventricles. The fluid flows through the ventricular system, passing over all the regions of germinal activity. CSF contains growth factors and other neurotrophic factors, which are important for cell survival and proliferation. It has been shown that nerve growth factor deprivation induces apoptosis in the developing cerebral cortex. In this study, disruption of normal CSF flow on neural cell survival in the developing cortex has been investigated. Draining CSF from the ventricles of the brain during development increases the number of neural cell deaths and thinning of the cerebral cortex compared with normal ones. These data from our study indicate that normal CSF circulation is important for the survival of cells in the developing cerebral cortex and thus of CSF in the normal chick cerebral cortex development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Salehi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Guilan University, Rasht, Iran
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321
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322
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Mashayekhi F, Salehi Z. The importance of cerebrospinal fluid on neural cell proliferation in developing chick cerebral cortex. Eur J Neurol 2006; 13:266-72. [PMID: 16618344 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01208.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is mainly produced by the choroid plexuses within the ventricles of the brain. The CSF circulates in a regular manner after the ventricular system and the choroids plexuses have developed, and the foramina in the fourth ventricle have opened to enable it to carry chemical information. CSF flows through the ventricular system passing over all regions of germinal activity. In this study, chick embryos were used to show the importance of CSF on neural cell proliferation in the developing cerebral cortex. The chick embryos were cannulated in situ with a fine capillary tube to drain CSF out of the ventricular system. At the same time, BrdU was administered to the embryos. After surgery the embryos were incubated for another 3 days. Quantitative measurements showed that the thicknesses of the germinal epithelium and cerebral cortex in CSF-drained embryos were less than those in the control group at the same age. The number of cells produced in the germinal epithelium of CSF-drained embryos was decreased when compared with the normal group. This study provides confirmatory evidence that CSF is important for neural cell proliferation and therefore normal development of the cerebral cortex. It is proposed that CSF is vital in controlling development of the cerebral cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mashayekhi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, The University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.
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323
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Ruano D, Revilla E, Gavilán MP, Vizuete ML, Pintado C, Vitorica J, Castaño A. Role of p38 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the in vivo dopaminergic cells' degeneration induced by inflammatory processes after lipopolysaccharide injection. Neuroscience 2006; 140:1157-68. [PMID: 16713109 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.02.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 02/25/2006] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidences suggest that neuroinflammation is involved in the progressive death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease. Several studies have shown that intranigral injection of lipopolysaccharide induces inflammation in the substantia nigra leading to death of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells. To better understand how the inflammatory response gives rise to neurotoxicity we induced inflammation in substantia nigra by injecting lipopolysaccharide. The damage of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons was evaluated by immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription-PCR and Western blot analysis of tyrosine hydroxylase. In parallel, activation of microglial cells, a hallmark of inflammation in CNS, was revealed by immunohistochemistry. Similarly the expression of molecules involved in the inflammatory response and apoptotic pathway was also tested, such as cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6), inducible nitric oxide synthase and caspase-11. Tyrosine hydroxylase expression (both mRNA and protein) started to decrease around 3 days post-injection. At the mRNA level, our results showed that the cytokines expression peaked shortly (3-6 h) after lipopolysaccharide injection, followed by the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase and caspase-11 (14 h). However, inducible nitric oxide synthase protein peaked at 24 h and lasted for 14 days. The lipopolysaccharide-induced loss of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons was partially inhibited by co-injection of lipopolysaccharide with S-methylisothiourea, an inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor. Co-injections of lipopolysaccharide with SB203580, a p38 MAP kinase inhibitor, reduced inducible nitric oxide synthase and caspase-11 mRNA expression, and also rescued dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra. In summary, this is the first report to describe in vivo the temporal profile of the expression of these inflammatory mediators and proteins involved in dopaminergic neuronal death after intranigral injection of lipopolysaccharide. Moreover data strongly support that lipopolysaccharide-induced dopaminergic cellular death in substantia nigra could be mediated, at least in part, by the p38 signal pathway leading to activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and caspase-11.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Ruano
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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324
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Sriram K, Matheson JM, Benkovic SA, Miller DB, Luster MI, O'Callaghan JP. Deficiency of TNF receptors suppresses microglial activation and alters the susceptibility of brain regions to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity: role of TNF-alpha. FASEB J 2006; 20:670-82. [PMID: 16581975 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-5106com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Enhanced expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) -alpha, is associated with the neuropathological effects underlying disease-, trauma- and chemically induced neurodegeneration. Previously, we have shown that deficiency of TNF receptors protects against MPTP-induced striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity, findings suggestive of a role for TNF-alpha in neurodegeneration. Here, we demonstrate that deficiency of TNF receptors suppresses microglial activation and alters the susceptibility of brain regions to MPTP. MPTP-induced expression of microglia-derived factors, TNF-alpha, MCP-1, and IL-1alpha, preceded the degeneration of striatal dopaminergic nerve terminals and astrogliosis, as assessed by loss of striatal dopamine and TH, and an increase in striatal GFAP. Pharmacological neuroprotection with the dopamine reuptake inhibitor, nomifensine, abolished striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity and associated microglial activation. Similarly, in mice lacking TNF receptors, microglial activation was suppressed, findings consistent with a role for TNF-alpha in striatal MPTP neurotoxicity. In the hippocampus, however, TNF receptor-deficient mice showed exacerbated neuronal damage after MPTP, as evidenced by Fluoro Jade-B staining (to identify degenerating neurons) and decreased microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP-2) immunoreactivity. These effects were not accompanied by microglial activation, but were associated with increased oxidative stress (nitrosylation of tyrosine residues). These findings suggest that TNF-alpha exerts a neurotrophic/neuroprotective effect in hippocampus. The marked differences we observed in the regional density, distribution and/or activity of microglia and microglia-derived factors may influence the region-specific role for this cell type. Taken together, our results are indicative of a region-specific and dual role for TNF-alpha in the brain: a promoter of neurodegeneration in striatum and a protector against neurodegeneration in hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnan Sriram
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, USA
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325
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McNaught KSP, Olanow CW. Protein aggregation in the pathogenesis of familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 27:530-45. [PMID: 16207501 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2005] [Revised: 07/25/2005] [Accepted: 08/20/2005] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a slowly progressive, age-related, neurodegenerative disorder. The cause and mechanism of neuronal death have been elusive. However, recent genetic, postmortem and experimental evidence show that protein accumulation and aggregation are prominent occurrences in both sporadic and familial PD. The relevance of these events to other cellular and biochemical changes, and to the neurodegenerative process, is being unraveled. It is increasingly evident that one or a combination of defects, including mutations, oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment and dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, lead to an excess production and aggregation of abnormal proteins in PD. In this respect, altered protein handling appears to be a central factor in the pathogenic process occurring in the various hereditary and sporadic forms of PD. This suggests that manipulation of proteolytic systems is a rational approach in the development of neuroprotective therapies that could modify the pathological course of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin St P McNaught
- Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Annenberg 14-73, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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326
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Simard AR, Rivest S. Neuroprotective properties of the innate immune system and bone marrow stem cells in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11:327-35. [PMID: 16491130 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The role of innate immunity and microglia in the brain is currently a matter of great debate and controversy. While several studies have provided evidence that they contribute to neurodegeneration in various animal models of brain diseases and traumas, others have shown that their inhibition may in contrast be associated with more damages or less repair. We have recently reported the existence of two different types of microglia, the resident and the newly differentiated microglia that derive from the bone marrow stem cells. Of great interest is the fact that blood-derived microglial cells are associated with amyloid plaques and these cells are able to prevent the formation or eliminate the presence of amyloid deposits in mice that develop the major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). These newly recruited cells are specifically attracted to the beta-amyloid 40/42 isoforms in vivo and they participate in the elimination of these proteins by phagocytosis. This review presents the mechanisms involved in the control of the innate immune response by microglia and the beneficial properties of such a response in brain diseases, such as AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Simard
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, CHUL Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Laval University, QC, Canada
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327
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Ling Z, Zhu Y, Tong CW, Snyder JA, Lipton JW, Carvey PM. Progressive dopamine neuron loss following supra-nigral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) infusion into rats exposed to LPS prenatally. Exp Neurol 2006; 199:499-512. [PMID: 16504177 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2005] [Revised: 12/08/2005] [Accepted: 01/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Toxin-induced animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD) exhibit many of the same neuroinflammatory changes seen in patients suggesting a role for inflammation in DA neuron loss. Yet, despite this inflammation, the progressive loss of DA neurons that characterizes PD is rarely seen in animals. We infused lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline into 7-month-old rats that had been exposed to LPS or saline prenatally and assessed them for DA neuron loss and inflammatory measures (interleukin 1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, glutathione, and activated microglia) over a period of 84 days to examine the role of pre-existing inflammation in progressive DA neuron loss. LPS infusion into both prenatal treatment groups produced neuroinflammation during the 14 days of LPS infusion that subsequently reverted toward normal over the next 70 days. In animals with pre-existing inflammation (i.e., prenatal LPS), however, the acute changes seen were attenuated, but took much longer to return to normal suggesting a prolonged inflammatory response. These inflammatory changes were consistent with the greater acute DA neuron loss seen in the prenatal saline controls and the progressive DA neuron loss seen only in the animals exposed to LPS prenatally. Interestingly, both prenatal treatment groups exhibited increases in microglia over the entire 84-day course of the study. These data suggest that pre-existing neuroinflammation prolongs the inflammatory response that occurs with a second toxic exposure, which may be responsible for progressive DA neuron loss. This provides further support for the "multiple hit" hypothesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaodung Ling
- Department of Pharmacology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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328
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Sriram K, Miller DB, O'Callaghan JP. Minocycline attenuates microglial activation but fails to mitigate striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity: role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. J Neurochem 2006; 96:706-18. [PMID: 16405514 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03566.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Activated microglia are implicated in the pathogenesis of disease-, trauma- and toxicant-induced damage to the CNS, and strategies to modulate microglial activation are gaining impetus. A novel action of the tetracycline derivative minocycline is the ability to inhibit inflammation and free radical formation, factors that influence microglial activation. Minocycline is therefore being tested as a neuroprotective agent to alleviate CNS damage, although findings so far have yielded mixed results. Here, we showed that administration of a single low dose of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or methamphetamine (METH), a paradigm that causes selective degeneration of striatal dopaminergic nerve terminals without affecting the cell body in substantia nigra, increased the expression of mRNAs encoding microglia-associated factors F4/80, interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1, CCL2) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Minocycline treatment attenuated MPTP- or METH-mediated microglial activation, but failed to afford neuroprotection. Lack of neuroprotection was shown to be due to the inability of minocycline to abolish the induction of TNF-alpha and its receptors, thereby failing to modulate TNF signaling. Thus, TNF-alpha appeared to be an obligatory component of dopaminergic neurotoxicity. To address this possibility, we examined the effects of MPTP or METH in mice lacking genes encoding IL-6, CCL2 or TNF receptor (TNFR)1/2. Deficiency of either IL-6 or CCL2 did not alter MPTP neurotoxicity. However, deficiency of both TNFRs protected against the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of MPTP. Taken together, our findings suggest that attenuation of microglial activation is insufficient to modulate neurotoxicity as transient activation of microglia may suffice to initiate neurodegeneration. These findings support the hypothesis that TNF-alpha may play a role in the selective vulnerability of the nigrostriatal pathway associated with dopaminergic neurotoxicity and perhaps Parkinson's disease.
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MESH Headings
- 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine/pharmacology
- 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic Acid/metabolism
- Animals
- Blotting, Western/methods
- Cell Count/methods
- Chemokine CCL2/genetics
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid/methods
- Corpus Striatum/cytology
- Dopamine/metabolism
- Dopamine Agents/toxicity
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Interactions
- Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein/metabolism
- Homovanillic Acid/metabolism
- Interleukin-6/genetics
- Male
- Methamphetamine/toxicity
- Mice
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Microglia/drug effects
- Minocycline/pharmacology
- Neurons/drug effects
- Neurons/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/physiology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
- Time Factors
- Tyrosine 3-Monooxygenase/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnan Sriram
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
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329
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Abstract
It had long been thought that the central nervous system was isolated from the immune system owing to the blood-brain barrier and that this organ was unable to mount an immune reaction of its own when challenged by invading pathogens. It is now clear that the immune system has a profound impact on the central nervous system, because immune molecules found in the blood stream are able to stimulate cells within the brain. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that cells within the central nervous system have the capacity to produce molecules of the innate immune system and that this organ is able to generate a proper immune reaction. This topic has been extensively studied in recent years, and it is becoming clear that the innate immune system is an important modulator of the fate of neurons. Indeed, the precise role(s) of the innate immune response in neurodegenerative diseases is currently under intensive debate. In this review paper, we present evidence either supporting or opposing a role for the innate immune response in these events. The mechanisms by which pathogens interact with the brain and whether such an interaction leads to neurodegenerative disorders are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain R Simard
- Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, CHUL Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Laval University, 2705 boul. Laurier, Québec, Canada G1V 4G2
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330
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Barcia C, de Pablos V, Bautista-Hernández V, Sánchez-Bahillo A, Bernal I, Fernández-Villalba E, Martín J, Bañón R, Fernández-Barreiro A, Herrero MT. Increased plasma levels of TNF-α but not of IL1-β in MPTP-treated monkeys one year after the MPTP administration. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005; 11:435-9. [PMID: 16154791 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The cause of Parkinson's disease remains unknown although some evidence suggests that an inflammatory reaction, mediated by cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-1beta, is related with dopaminergic degeneration in the brain. In the present work we measured the plasma levels of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta in parkinsonian monkeys one year after MPTP administration. TNF-alpha levels were seen to have increased in parkinsonian monkeys reflecting the clinical symptoms observed, while IL-1beta levels remained unchanged. These results suggest that TNF-alpha plays a role in sustaining of dopaminergic degeneration in chronic parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Barcia
- Experimental Neurology and Neurosurgery, Department of Human Anatomy and Psychobiology, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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331
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Baba Y, Kuroiwa A, Uitti RJ, Wszolek ZK, Yamada T. Alterations of T-lymphocyte populations in Parkinson disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005; 11:493-8. [PMID: 16154792 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Accepted: 07/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Immune reaction-related inflammation may be important in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). To elucidate peripheral immunologic alterations in PD, we characterized extended peripheral T-lymphocyte populations in 33 patients with PD and 34 normal subjects. Patients with PD had significantly decreased CD4+:CD8(+)T-cell ratios (P<0.001), fewer CD4(+)CD25(+)T cells (P<0.01), and significantly increased ratios of IFN-gamma-producing to IL-4-producing T cells (P<0.001). The characteristics of predominant expression of CD8(+)T cells, depletion of CD4(+)CD25(high) cells, and a shift to a T(H)1-type immune response in the peripheral immune system in PD patients may reflect an immune reaction-associated inflammatory process in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiko Baba
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, 7-45-1 Nanakuma, Johnan-ku, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
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332
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Iravani MM, Leung CCM, Sadeghian M, Haddon CO, Rose S, Jenner P. The acute and the long-term effects of nigral lipopolysaccharide administration on dopaminergic dysfunction and glial cell activation. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 22:317-30. [PMID: 16045485 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04220.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Sustained reactive microgliosis may contribute to the progressive degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD), in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) exposed human and in non-human primates. However, the temporal relationship between glial cell activation and nigral cell death is relatively unexplored. Consequently, the effects of acute (24 h) and chronic (30 days) glial cell activation induced by unilateral supranigral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration were studied in rats. At 24 h, LPS administration caused a marked reduction in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) but striatal TH-ir was unaffected. By 30 days, the loss of TH-positive neurons in the LPS-treated nigra was no greater than at 24 h although a heterogeneous loss of striatal TH-ir was present. The loss of nigrostriatal neurons was of functional significance, as at 30 days, LPS-treated rats exhibited ipsiversive circling in response to (+)-amphetamine administration. At 24 h, there was a moderate increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-ir astrocytes in the SN but a marked elevation of p47phox positive OX-42-ir microglia, and intense inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-ir and 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT)-ir was present. However, by 30 days the morphology of OX-42-ir microglia returned to a resting state, the numbers were greatly reduced and no 3-NT-ir was present. At 30 days, GFAP-ir astrocytes were markedly increased in number and iNOS-ir was present in fibrillar astrocyte-like cells. This study shows that acute glial activation leading to dopaminergic neuron degeneration is an acute short-lasting response that does not itself perpetuate cell death or lead to prolonged microglial activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud M Iravani
- Neurodegenerative Disease Research Centre, GKT School of Biomedical Sciences, King's College, London, SE1 1UL, UK
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333
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Pathophysiology: biochemistry of Parkinson's disease. NEURODEGENER DIS 2005. [DOI: 10.1017/cbo9780511544873.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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334
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Docagne F, Campbell SJ, Bristow AF, Poole S, Vigues S, Guaza C, Perry VH, Anthony DC. Differential regulation of type I and type II interleukin-1 receptors in focal brain inflammation. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 21:1205-14. [PMID: 15813930 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.03965.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most pathologies of the brain have an inflammatory component, associated with the release of cytokines such as interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) from resident and infiltrating cells. The IL-1 type I receptor (IL-1RI) initiates a signalling cascade but the type II receptor (IL-1RII) acts as a decoy receptor. Here we have investigated the expression of IL-1beta, IL-1RI and IL-1RII in distinct inflammatory lesions in the rat brain. IL-1beta was injected into the brain to generate an inflammatory lesion in the absence of neuronal cell death whereas neuronal death was specifically induced by the microinjection of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). Using TaqMan RT-PCR and ELISA, we observed elevated de novo IL-1beta synthesis 2 h after the intracerebral microinjection of IL-1beta; this de novo IL-1beta remained elevated 24 h later. There was a concomitant increase in IL-1RI mRNA but a much greater increase in IL-1RII mRNA. Immunostaining revealed that IL-1RII was expressed on brain endothelial cells and on infiltrating neutrophils. In contrast, although IL-1beta and IL-1RI were elevated to similar levels in response to NMDA challenge, the response was delayed and IL-1RII mRNA expression was unchanged. The lesion-specific expression of IL-1 receptors suggests that the receptors are differentially regulated in a manner not directly related to the endogenous level of IL-1 in the CNS.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western/methods
- Chemokines, CXC/genetics
- Chemokines, CXC/metabolism
- Encephalitis/etiology
- Encephalitis/genetics
- Encephalitis/metabolism
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/methods
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Immunohistochemistry/methods
- Immunoprecipitation/methods
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism
- Interleukin-1/administration & dosage
- Interleukin-1/genetics
- Interleukin-1/metabolism
- Male
- N-Methylaspartate/administration & dosage
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/chemistry
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-1 Type I
- Receptors, Interleukin-1 Type II
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
- Statistics, Nonparametric
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Docagne
- Molecular Neuropathology Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, UK.
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335
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Zou JY, Crews FT. TNF alpha potentiates glutamate neurotoxicity by inhibiting glutamate uptake in organotypic brain slice cultures: neuroprotection by NF kappa B inhibition. Brain Res 2005; 1034:11-24. [PMID: 15713255 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate and the proinflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha), have been suggested to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. We investigated the interaction of TNF alpha and glutamate on neuronal cell death using fluorescence propidium iodide uptake in rat organotypic hippocampal-entorhinal cortex (HEC) brain slice culture that maintains the cytoarchitecture of the intact brain. Time course and concentration studies indicate that glutamate produced significant neuronal cell death in all four brain areas examined, for example, entorhinal cortex, hippocampal CA1 and CA3 fields, and dentate gyrus. TNF alpha alone at concentration of 20 ng/ml caused little or no detectable neuronal cell death, however, when combined with submaximal glutamate (3.3 mM), TNF alpha significantly increased and accelerated glutamate neurotoxicity. TNF alpha potentiation of glutamate neurotoxicity is blocked by NMDA receptor antagonists but not by AMPA antagonists CNQX and NBQX. Studies directly measuring [14C]-glutamate uptake in HEC slices indicate that TNF alpha dose-dependently inhibited glutamate uptake. Further, inhibitors of glial glutamate transporters potentiated glutamate neurotoxicity similar to TNF alpha. The antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and the NF kappa B inhibitor PTD-p65 peptide inhibit NF kappa B activation and TNF alpha potentiation of glutamate neurotoxicity. BHT prevented the inhibition of TNFalpha on glutamate transport in HEC slices and also blocked nuclear translocation of NF kappa B subunit p65. These data indicate that TNF alpha and glutamate can act synergistically to induce neuronal cell death. TNF alpha potentiation of glutamate neurotoxicity through the blockade of glutamate transporter activity may represent an important mechanism of neurodegeneration associated with neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Y Zou
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, CB #7178 Thurston-Bowles Building, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7178, USA
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336
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Bolin LM, Zhaung A, Strychkarska-Orczyk I, Nelson E, Huang I, Malit M, Nguyen Q. Differential inflammatory activation of IL-6 (−/−) astrocytes. Cytokine 2005; 30:47-55. [PMID: 15804595 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2004.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2004] [Revised: 11/22/2004] [Accepted: 11/29/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
IL-6 is a major immunomodulatory cytokine with neuroprotective activity. The absence of interleukin-6 (IL-6) results in increased vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons to the neurotoxicant, MPTP, and a compromised reactive microgliosis. To determine how astrogliosis may contribute to nigrostriatal degeneration in IL-6 (-/-) mice, the inflammatory profiles of astrocytes of IL-6 genotype were compared. Fourteen cytokines and four chemokines were simultaneously assayed in the supernatants of LPS-stimulated primary astrocyte cultures. In a time course of 6, 18 and 48 h and LPS stimulations of 0, 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 ng/ml, IL-6 (-/-) astrocytes secreted significantly greater amounts of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and TNFalpha than did IL-6 (+/+) cells. Elevated levels of IL-10 and IL-12p40 were only detected at 48 h post-stimulation with greater IL-10 in IL-6 (-/-) supernatants and greater IL-12p40 in IL-6 (+/+) supernatants. IL-6 (+/+) astrocytes produced more G-CSF and GM-CSF when compared with IL-6 (-/-) astrocytes. Chemokine levels were greater in supernatants of IL-6 (+/+) astrocytes than IL-6 (-/-) cells prior to 48 h post-stimulation. At that time, higher levels of MIP-1alpha were maintained in IL-6 (+/+) supernatant, while similar levels of MCP-1 in supernatants of both IL-6 (+/+) and IL-6 (-/-) cells were measured. Additionally, LPS (100 ng/ml) resulted in greater levels of KC and Rantes in IL-6 (-/-) astrocyte supernatants compared with IL-6 (+/+) supernatants at that time. These results suggest that the autocrine modulatory activities of IL-6 affect multiple cytokine secretory pathways, which could participate in neurodegenerative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Bolin
- The Parkinson's Institute, 1170 Morse Avenue, Sunnyvale, CA 94089-1605, USA.
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337
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Iczkiewicz J, Rose S, Jenner P. Increased osteopontin expression following intranigral lipopolysaccharide injection in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2005; 21:1911-20. [PMID: 15869484 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nigral cell death in Parkinson's disease is characterized by glial cell activation leading to inflammatory changes. Osteopontin (OPN) is a glycosylated phosphoprotein that is induced by inflammatory mediators and which we have previously shown to be present in the substantia nigra. However, the role of OPN in the nigral inflammation is not known. We now report on the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced glial cell activation in the substantia nigra of rats on OPN expression. LPS administration induced dopaminergic cell death as shown by reduced nigral tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. There was a corresponding time-dependent increase in both OPN mRNA, which was maximal at 48 h, and protein levels, which peaked at 72 h before returning to control levels by 120 h. This increase was accompanied by marked reactive gliosis as shown by increased OX-42, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and ED1 immunoreactivity. OX-42-positive cells increased in a time-dependent manner, peaking at 72 h before returning to control levels at 120 h. Similarly, ED1-positive cells were present in their greatest numbers at 24 h but then gradually declined. These changes mirrored the alterations occurring in OPN protein and OPN mRNA, respectively. In contrast, GFAP-positive cells only started to increase in number at 120 h. Colocalization studies showed that OPN was present in both ED1- and OX-42-positive cells but not in GFAP-positive cells. These data confirm that intranigral injection of LPS induces a rapid and marked gliosis that accompanies the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurones and suggest that, after glial cell activation, enhanced expression of OPN occurs linked to increased numbers of microglia and/or macrophages. This suggests that OPN may be functionally important in the control of inflammatory changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Iczkiewicz
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Centre, Guy's, King's and St Thomas School of Biomedical Sciences, King's College, London SE1 1UL, UK
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338
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Håkansson A, Westberg L, Nilsson S, Buervenich S, Carmine A, Holmberg B, Sydow O, Olson L, Johnels B, Eriksson E, Nissbrandt H. Interaction of polymorphisms in the genes encoding interleukin-6 and estrogen receptor beta on the susceptibility to Parkinson's disease. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005; 133B:88-92. [PMID: 15635591 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The multifunctional cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) is involved in inflammatory processes in the central nervous system and increased levels of IL-6 have been found in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). It is known that estrogen inhibits the production of IL-6, via action on estrogen receptors, thereby pointing to an important influence of estrogen on IL-6. In a previous study, we reported an association between a G/A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at position 1730 in the gene coding for estrogen receptor beta (ERbeta) and age of onset of PD. To investigate the influence of a G/C SNP at position 174 in the promoter of the IL-6 gene, and the possible interaction of this SNP and the ERbeta G-1730A SNP on the risk for PD, the G-174C SNP was genotyped, by pyrosequencing, in 258 patients with PD and 308 controls. A significantly elevated frequency of the GG genotype of the IL-6 SNP was found in the patient group and this was most obvious among patients with an early age of onset (</=50 years) of PD. When the GG genotypes of the IL-6 and ERbeta SNPs were combined, the combination was much more robustly associated with PD, and especially with PD with an early age of onset, than respective GG genotype when analyzed separately. Our results indicate that the G-174C SNP in the IL-6 promoter may influence the risk for developing PD, particularly regarding early age of onset PD, and that the effect is modified by interaction of the G-1730A SNP in the ERbeta gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Håkansson
- Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden.
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339
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Shen YQ, Hébert G, Moze E, Li KS, Neveu PJ. Asymmetrical distribution of brain interleukin-6 depends on lateralization in mice. Neuroimmunomodulation 2005; 12:189-94. [PMID: 15905628 DOI: 10.1159/000084852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2004] [Accepted: 12/01/2004] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system can regulate the peripheral immune system. Moreover, differences between left and right hemispheres (neurochemical brain asymmetries) and behavioral lateralization (functional brain asymmetries) affect immune responses. The molecular basis of brain-immune interactions remains insufficiently understood. Cytokines regulate immune responses, possibly through activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. HPA axis activities are related to behavioral lateralization and brain asymmetry. Given IL-6 plays a role in asymmetrical brain immunomodulation, one might expect the IL-6 distribution in brain to be asymmetrical and to depend on behavioral lateralization. In order to start to test this hypothesis, male C57BL/6J mice were selected for paw preference and assessed for IL-6 levels in right and left cortex and hippocampus by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. The results showed asymmetrical distribution of brain IL-6 in left-pawed animals and ambidextrous animals, but not in right-pawed animals, both in cortex and hippocampus. Furthermore, we found a correlation between IL-6 hemispheric distribution and the degree of behavioral lateralization both in cortex and hippocampus. Altogether, these results suggest that brain IL-6 could be a mediator of asymmetrical immunomodulation by the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Qin Shen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, People's Republic of China.
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340
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Abstract
Interleukins 1alpha and 1beta (IL-1) are very potent signaling molecules that are expressed normally at low levels, but are induced rapidly in response to local or peripheral insults. IL-1 coordinates systemic host defense responses to pathogens and to injury and not surprisingly it has similar effects within the central nervous system (CNS). Numerous reports have correlated the presence of IL-1 in the injured or diseased brain, and its effects on neurons and nonneuronal cells in the CNS, but it is only recently that the importance of IL-1 signaling has been recognized. This article reviews studies that demonstrate that IL-1 is at or near the top of the hierarchical cytokine signaling cascade in the CNS that results in the activation of endogenous microglia and vascular endothelial cells to recruit peripheral leukocytes (i.e., neuroinflammation). The IL-1 system thus provides an attractive target for therapeutic intervention to ameliorate the destructive consequences of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anirban Basu
- National Brain Research Center, Manesar, Gurgaon, India.
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341
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Arai H, Furuya T, Yasuda T, Miura M, Mizuno Y, Mochizuki H. Neurotoxic effects of lipopolysaccharide on nigral dopaminergic neurons are mediated by microglial activation, interleukin-1beta, and expression of caspase-11 in mice. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:51647-53. [PMID: 15383538 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m407328200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of the Gram-negative bacterial cell wall, selectively induces degeneration of substantia nigral (SN) dopaminergic neurons via activation of microglial cells in rats and mice. Caspase-11 plays a crucial role in LPS-induced septic shock in mice. We examined the mechanism of LPS neurotoxicity on SN dopaminergic neurons in C57BL/6 mice and caspase-11 knockout mice. Mice were stereotaxically injected with LPS into the SN on one side and vehicle into the SN of the other side. Immunohistochemistry, Western blotting analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and reverse transcriptase-PCR were performed to evaluate damage of SN dopaminergic neurons and activation of microglial cells. Intranigral injection of LPS at 1 or 3 microg/microl/site decreased tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons and increased microglial cells in the SN compared with the contralateral side injected with vehicle at days 7 and 14 post-injection in C57BL/6 mice. Intranigral injection of LPS at 3 microg/microl/site induced the expression of caspase-11 mRNA in the ventral midbrain at 6, 8, and 12 h post-injection, and the expression of caspase-11-positive cells in the SN at 8 and 12 h post-injection. Moreover, LPS at 3 microg/microl/site increased interleukin-1beta content in the ventral midbrain at 12 and 24 h post-injection. LPS failed to elicit these responses in caspase-11 knockout mice. Our results indicate that the neurotoxic effects of LPS on nigral dopaminergic neurons are mediated by microglial activation, interleukin-1beta, and caspase-11 expression in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Arai
- Research Institute for Diseases of Old Ages, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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342
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Tomás-Camardiel M, Rite I, Herrera AJ, de Pablos RM, Cano J, Machado A, Venero JL. Minocycline reduces the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory reaction, peroxynitrite-mediated nitration of proteins, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, and damage in the nigral dopaminergic system. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 16:190-201. [PMID: 15207276 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2004.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2003] [Revised: 01/08/2004] [Accepted: 01/14/2004] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We have evaluated the potential neuroprotectant activity of minocycline in an animal model of Parkinson's disease induced by intranigral injection of lipopolysaccharide. Minocycline treatment was very effective in protecting number of nigral dopaminergic neurons and loss of reactive astrocytes at 7 days postlesion. Evaluation of microglia revealed that minocycline treatment highly prevented the lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of reactive microglia as visualized by OX-42 and OX-6 immunohistochemistry. Short-term RT-PCR analysis demonstrated that minocycline partially prevented the lipopolysaccharide-induced increases of mRNA levels for interleukin-1alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In addition, lipopolysaccharide highly induced protein nitration as seen by 3-nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in the ventral mesencephalon. Minocycline treatment strongly diminished the extent of 3-nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity. We also found a direct correlation between location of IgG immunoreactivity-a marker of blood-brain barrier disruption-and neurodegenerative processes including death of nigral dopaminergic cells and reactive astrocytes. There was also a precise spatial correlation between disruption of blood-brain barrier and 3-nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity. We discuss potential involvement of lipopolysaccharide-induced formation of peroxynitrites and cytokines in the pathological events in substantia nigra in response to inflammation. If inflammation is proved to be involved in the ethiopathology of Parkinson's disease, our data support the use of minocycline in parkinsonian patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayka Tomás-Camardiel
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, E-41012-Seville, Spain
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343
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Kim S, Jeon BS, Heo C, Im PS, Ahn TB, Seo JH, Kim HS, Park CH, Choi SH, Cho SH, Lee WJ, Suh YH. Alpha-synuclein induces apoptosis by altered expression in human peripheral lymphocyte in Parkinson's disease. FASEB J 2004; 18:1615-7. [PMID: 15289452 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-1917fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Though the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains unclear, alpha-synuclein (alpha-SN) is regarded as a major causative agent of PD. Several lines of evidence indicate that immunological abnormalities are associated with PD for unknown reasons. The present study was performed to assess whether peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) show altered alpha-SN expression in PD patients and to identify its functions, which may be related to peripheral immune abnormalities in PD. alpha-SN was found to be expressed more in 151 idiopathic PD (IPD) patients than in 101 healthy controls, who nevertheless showed as age-dependent increases. By in vitro transfection, alpha-SN expression was shown to be correlated with glucocorticoid sensitive apoptosis, possibly caused by the enhanced expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), caspase activations (caspase-8, caspase-9), CD95 up-regulation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. An understanding of the correlation between alpha-SN levels and apoptosis in the presence of the coordinated involvement of multiple processes would provide an insight into the molecular basis of the disease. The present study provides a clue that the alpha-SN may be one of the primary causes of the immune abnormalities observed in PD and offers new targets for pharmacotherapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seonghan Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Creative Research Initiative Center for Alzheimer's Dementia and Neuroscience Research Institute, MRC, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
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344
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Huang Y, Cheung L, Rowe D, Halliday G. Genetic contributions to Parkinson's disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 46:44-70. [PMID: 15297154 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by the loss of midbrain dopamine neurons and Lewy body inclusions. It is thought to result from a complex interaction between multiple predisposing genes and environmental influences, although these interactions are still poorly understood. Several causative genes have been identified in different families. Mutations in two genes [alpha-synuclein and nuclear receptor-related 1 (Nurr1)] cause the same pathology, and a third locus on chromosome 2 also causes this pathology. Other familial PD mutations have identified genes involved in the ubiquitin-proteasome system [parkin and ubiquitin C-terminal hydroxylase L1 (UCHL1)], although such cases do not produce Lewy bodies. These studies highlight critical cellular proteins and mechanisms for dopamine neuron survival as disrupted in Parkinson's disease. Understanding the genetic variations impacting on dopamine neurons may illuminate other molecular mechanisms involved. Additional candidate genes involved in dopamine cell survival, dopamine synthesis, metabolism and function, energy supply, oxidative stress, and cellular detoxification have been indicated by transgenic animal models and/or screened in human populations with differing results. Genetic variation in genes known to produce different patterns and types of neurodegeneration that may impact on the function of dopamine neurons are also reviewed. These studies suggest that environment and genetic background are likely to have a significant influence on susceptibility to Parkinson's disease. The identification of multiple genes predisposing to Parkinson's disease will assist in determining the cellular pathway/s leading to the neurodegeneration observed in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Huang
- Prince of Wales Medical Research Institute and the University of New South Wales, Barker Street, Randwick, Sydney 2031, Australia
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345
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Kim S, Seo JH, Suh YH. Alpha-synuclein, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004; 10 Suppl 1:S9-13. [PMID: 15109581 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2003.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2003] [Accepted: 11/30/2003] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Alpha synuclein (alpha-SN) is a ubiquitous protein that is especially abundant in the brain and has been postulated to play a central role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease, and other neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we show that alpha-SN plays dual role of neuroprotection and neurotoxicity depending on its concentration or level of expression. In addition, our study shows that alpha-synuclein is differentially expressed in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. PD patients expressed more alpha-synuclein than healthy controls. Thus, the alpha-synuclein expression in the peripheral immune system might be one of the primary causes of immune abnormalities in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seonghan Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Neuroscience Research Institute, MRC, National Creative Research Initiative Center for Alzheimer's Dementia, Seoul National University, 28 Yongon-dong, Chongno-gu, Seoul 110-799, South Korea
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346
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Furuya T, Hayakawa H, Yamada M, Yoshimi K, Hisahara S, Miura M, Mizuno Y, Mochizuki H. Caspase-11 mediates inflammatory dopaminergic cell death in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 2004; 24:1865-72. [PMID: 14985426 PMCID: PMC6730410 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3309-03.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was designed to elucidate the inflammatory and apoptotic mechanisms of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced neurotoxicity in a model of Parkinson's disease. Our results showed that mutant mice lacking the caspase-11 gene were significantly more resistant to the effects of acute treatment with MPTP than their wild-type mice. Thus, the neurotoxicity of MPTP seems to be mediated by the induction of both mitochondrial dysfunction and free radical generation. Previously, we showed that overexpression of the Apaf-1 dominant-negative inhibitor inhibited the mitochondrial apoptotic cascade in chronic MPTP treatment but not in acute MPTP treatment. The present results indicate that MPTP neurotoxicity may be mediated via activation of the caspase-11 cascade and inflammatory cascade, as well as the mitochondrial apoptotic cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Furuya
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
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347
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Ross OA, O'Neill C, Rea IM, Lynch T, Gosal D, Wallace A, Curran MD, Middleton D, Gibson JM. Functional promoter region polymorphism of the proinflammatory chemokine IL-8 gene associates with Parkinson's disease in the Irish. Hum Immunol 2004; 65:340-6. [PMID: 15120188 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2004.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2003] [Revised: 01/09/2004] [Accepted: 01/20/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders and is characterized by the progressive loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. There is increasing evidence to suggest the inflammatory response of the brain contributes to the pathogenesis of PD. This study investigated the frequency of polymorphism located in the critical promoter region of the proinflammatory cytokine genes: interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) within a cohort of patients with PD in comparison to a group of healthy elderly individuals. No association was observed for single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter regions of the IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-alpha genes. The single nucleotide polymorphism in the chemokine IL-8 gene was observed to associate with PD and appeared to be independent of age at onset. This association further supports the theory that the proinflammatory response in the brains of patients with PD plays a role in the pathogenesis of the disease and warrants further investigation into the role of chemokines in the brain, and a more detailed analysis of the genetics involved in the immune response of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen A Ross
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Belfast, Ireland.
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348
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Mandel S, Grünblatt E, Riederer P, Gerlach M, Levites Y, Youdim MBH. Neuroprotective strategies in Parkinson's disease : an update on progress. CNS Drugs 2003; 17:729-62. [PMID: 12873156 DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200317100-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In spite of the extensive studies performed on postmortem substantia nigra from Parkinson's disease patients, the aetiology of the disease has not yet been established. Nevertheless, these studies have demonstrated that, at the time of death, a cascade of events had been initiated that may contribute to the demise of the melanin-containing nigro-striatal dopamine neurons. These events include increased levels of iron and monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B activity, oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, glutamatergic excitotoxicity, nitric oxide synthesis, abnormal protein folding and aggregation, reduced expression of trophic factors, depletion of endogenous antioxidants such as reduced glutathione, and altered calcium homeostasis. To a large extent, the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) animal models of Parkinson's disease confirm these findings. Furthermore, neuroprotection can be afforded in these models with iron chelators, radical scavenger antioxidants, MAO-B inhibitors, glutamate antagonists, nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, calcium channel antagonists and trophic factors. Despite the success obtained with animal models, clinical neuroprotection is much more difficult to accomplish. Although the negative studies obtained with the MAO-B inhibitor selegiline (deprenyl) and the antioxidant tocopherol (vitamin E) may have resulted from an inappropriate choice of drug (selegiline) or an inadequate dose (tocopherol), the niggling problem that still remains is why these drugs, and others, do work in animals while they fail in the clinic. One reason for this may be related to the fact that in normal human brains the number of dopaminergic neurons falls by around 3-5% every decade, while in Parkinson's disease this decline is greater. Brain autopsy studies have shown that by the time the disease is identified, some 70-75% of the dopamine-containing neurons have been lost. More sensitive reliable methods and clinical correlative markers are required to discern between confoundable symptomatic effects versus a possible neuroprotective action of drugs, namely, the ability to delay or forestall disease progression by protecting or rescuing the remaining dopamine neurons or even restoring those that have been lost.A number of other possibilities for the clinical failure of potential neuroprotectants also exist. First, the animal models of Parkinson's disease may not be totally reflective of the disease and, therefore, the chemical pathologies established in the animal models may not cause, or contribute to, the progression of the disease clinically. Second, because of the series of events occurring in neurodegeneration and our ignorance about which of these factors constitutes the primary event in the pathogenic process, a single drug may not be adequate to induce neuroprotection and, as a consequence, use of a cocktail of drugs may be more appropriate. The latter concept receives support from recent complementary DNA (cDNA) microarray gene expression studies, which show the existence of a gene cascade of events occurring in the nigrostriatal pathway of MPTP, 6-OHDA and methamphetamine animal models of Parkinson's disease. Even with the advent of powerful new tools such as genomics, proteomics, brain imaging, gene replacement therapy and knockout animal models, the desired end result of neuroprotection is still beyond our current capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Mandel
- Department of Pharmacology, Technion - Faculty of Medicine, Eve Topf and US National Parkinson's Foundation Centers for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bruce Rappaport Family Research Institute, Haifa, Israel
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349
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Liu B, Gao HM, Hong JS. Parkinson's disease and exposure to infectious agents and pesticides and the occurrence of brain injuries: role of neuroinflammation. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2003; 111:1065-73. [PMID: 12826478 PMCID: PMC1241555 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.6361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) is a devastating movement disorder characterized by selective degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. Neurodegeneration usually starts in the fifth decade of life and progresses over 5-10 years before reaching the fully symptomatic disease state. Despite decades of intense research, the etiology of sporadic PD and the mechanism underlying the selective neuronal loss remain unknown. However, the late onset and slow-progressing nature of the disease has prompted the consideration of environmental exposure to agrochemicals, including pesticides, as a risk factor. Moreover, increasing evidence suggests that early-life occurrence of inflammation in the brain, as a consequence of either brain injury or exposure to infectious agents, may play a role in the pathogenesis of PD. Most important, there may be a self-propelling cycle of inflammatory process involving brain immune cells (microglia and astrocytes) that drives the slow yet progressive neurodegenerative process. Deciphering the molecular and cellular mechanisms governing those intricate interactions would significantly advance our understanding of the etiology and pathogenesis of PD and aid the development of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
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350
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Collier TJ, Steece-Collier K, McGuire S, Sortwell CE. Cellular models to study dopaminergic injury responses. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 991:140-51. [PMID: 12846983 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07472.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The study of immature midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons and dopaminergic cell lines in culture provides an opportunity to analyze mechanisms of cell death and avenues of potential intervention relevant to Parkinson's disease (PD) in a controlled environment. Use of cell culture models has provided evidence for different sets of intracellular changes associated with DA neuron death following exposure to the neurotoxins 6-hydroxydopamine and MPP+, supporting roles for oxidative stress and impaired energy metabolism as significant factors endangering these cells. Interference with death of cultured DA neurons has provided an initial test system that has yielded all the identified neurotrophic factors for DA neurons. More recent work suggests that combinations of molecules secreted by myelinating glial cells and their precursors provide even greater neuroprotection for DA neurons. Most recently, culture systems have been used to implicate microglial activation in DA neuron injury, providing impetus to the investigation of antiinflammatory agents as potential therapeutics for PD. Thus, cell culture models provide an important bidirectional link between mechanistic studies and clinically relevant observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Collier
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA.
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