Role of ginsenosides, the main active components of Panax ginseng, in inflammatory responses and diseases

Panax ginseng: a candidate herbal medicine for autoimmune disease

Panax ginseng Meyer (P. ginseng; Korean ginseng) is well known for its medicinal properties. It can alleviate pathological symptoms, promote health, and prevent potential diseases via its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, homeostatic, and other positive effects on biological metabolism. Although many studies have determined effects of P. ginseng on various diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurological, and immunological diseases, little is known about the effect of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases. Here, we review a few reports about effects of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, atopic dermatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis) and suggest the possibility of P. ginseng as a candidate herbal medicine to prevent and treat autoimmune diseases as well as the need to study it.

The effect of Xiang-Sha-Liu-Jun-Zi tang (XSLJZT) on irritable bowel syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterized by chronic, recurrent abdominal pain or abdominal discomfort and changes in defecation habits. Xiang-Sha-Liu-Jun-Zi tang (XSLJZT) is a traditional Chinese medical formula that can modulate gastrointestinal disturbance.

PURPOSE

To investigate the therapeutic effect of XSLJZT on IBS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was designed as a double-blind, randomized, controlled preliminary study. Eighty patients with IBS were assigned to a control group (CG, 40 patients) that received oral administration of an XSLJZT 10% comparator (3.0 g three times daily) for 28 days or to a treatment group (TG, 40 patients) that received XSLJZT. The primary outcome measure was changes in scores on the Gastrointestinal System Rating Scale-IBS. The secondary outcome measures were changes in scores on the irritable bowel syndrome-quality of life (IBS-QOL) and World Health Organization-quality of life-brief.

RESULTS

A total of 63 patients completed the study (n = 31 for the CG; n = 32 for the TG). The TG were discovered to have significantly lower diarrhea scores than the CG at V2 (second assessment) compared with V1 (first assessment, baseline) (mean change ± SD: CG: 0.19 ± 1.33 vs. TG: -0.38 ± 0.91, p = 0.05). The scores for Item 28 on the IBS-quality of life (QOL) scale ("I feel frustrated that I cannot eat when I want because of my bowel problems") were lower in the CG at V3 (third assessment) compared with V1 but slightly higher in the TG (CG: -0.48 ± 0.89 vs. TG: 0.03 ± 0.65, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Oral administration of XSLJZT (3.0 g) for 28 days lowered the mean diarrhea score in patients with IBS, indicating that the patients in the TG had greater diarrhea improvement than those in the CG. The present study used 10% XSLJZT as a comparator, and the different items of the Gastrointestinal System Rating Scale-IBS, IBS-QOL, and World Health Organization Quality of Life-Brief were scored separately. Therefore, the selection of an appropriate comparator or placebo and score assessment are crucial issues for future study.

Diol-ginsenosides from Korean Red Ginseng delay the development of type 1 diabetes in diabetes-prone biobreeding rats

Background

The effects of diol-ginsenoside fraction (Diol-GF) and triol-ginsenoside fraction (Triol-GF) from Korean Red Ginseng on the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D) were examined in diabetes-prone biobreeding (DP-BB) rats that spontaneously develop T1D through an autoimmune process.

Methods

DP-BB female rats were treated with Diol-GF or Triol-GF daily from the age of 3-4 weeks up to 11-12 weeks (1 mg/g body weight).

Results

Diol-GF delayed the onset, and reduced the incidence, of T1D. Islets of Diol-GF-treated DP-BB rats showed significantly lower insulitis and preserved higher plasma and pancreatic insulin levels. Diol-GF failed to change the proportion of lymphocyte subsets such as T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages in the spleen and blood. Diol-GF had no effect on the ability of DP-BB rat splenocytes to induce diabetes in recipients. Diol-GF and diol-ginsenoside Rb1 significantly decreased tumor necrosis factor α production, whereas diol-ginsenosides Rb1 and Rd decreased interleukin 1β production in RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, mixed cytokine- and chemical-induced β-cell cytotoxicity was greatly inhibited by Diol-GF and diol-ginsenosides Rc and Rd in RIN5mF cells. However, nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 cells was unaffected by diol-ginsenosides.

Conclusion

Diol-GF, but not Triol-GF, significantly delayed the development of insulitis and T1D in DP-BB rats. The antidiabetogenic action of Diol-GF may result from the decrease in cytokine production and increase in β-cell resistance to cytokine/free radical-induced cytotoxicity.

Protium javanicum Burm. Methanol Extract Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammatory Activities in Macrophage-Like RAW264.7 Cells

Protium javanicum Burm. f. is a medicinal plant used in traditional medicine. Gum and oleoresins from this plant have been used as anti-inflammatory agents for treating ulcers, headaches, eyelid inflammation, and rheumatic pain. However, its anti-inflammatory mechanism of action is still unknown. To better understand the mechanism, we used lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) treated RAW264.7 cells to measure inflammatory mediators with the Griess assay and to identify target signaling molecules by immunoblot analysis. In this study, we report that the Protium javanicum methanol extract (Pj-ME) plays an important role in suppressing nitric oxide (NO) levels without cytotoxicity. The effect of Pj-ME in LPS-induced expression leads to reduced inflammatory cytokine expression, specifically inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). Pj-ME significantly inhibited LPS-induced protein expression of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway in a time-dependent manner. Syk and Src were identified as putative signaling molecules of Pj-ME-mediated anti-inflammatory activity, which were inhibited by Pj-ME. We demonstrated that Pj-ME controls the STAT3 signaling pathway by suppressing STAT3 and JAK phosphorylation and also downregulates the gene expression of IL-6. Therefore, these results elucidate Pj-ME as a novel anti-inflammatory naturally derived drug with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties which may be subject to therapeutic and prognostic relevance.

Effects of ginseng on C-reactive protein level: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this meta-analysis was to assess effects of ginseng supplementation on CRP/hs-CRP levels in clinical trial studies.

DESIGN

A systematic literature search was carried out for clinical trials published in ISI web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and Cochrane Library databases from the beginning to 16th February 2018. Of 83 articles found in the first step of the systematic search, seven studies with nine arms included in this meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Results of pooled random-effect size analysis of nine trials showed non-significant decreasing effects of ginseng supplementation on CRP level (WMD: -0.1 mg/l, 95% CI, -0.26, 0.1; P = 0.27) with significant heterogeneity shown within the studies. The subgroup analysis showed that ginseng supplementation could significantly reduce CRP level by 0.51 (95% CI: -0.68, -0.34; P < 0001, test for heterogeneity: P = 0.44, I² = 0.0%) in patients with a baseline serum CRP level of greater than 3 mg/dl. Trial duration and dose of ginseng supplementation included no significant effects on CRP level in this meta-analysis.

CONCLUSION

Results of the current meta-analysis study have shown that ginseng supplementation can decrease significantly serum CRP/hsCRP levels in patients with elevated serum level of this inflammatory marker.

Ginsenoside Rb1 improves learning and memory ability through its anti-inflammatory effect in Aβ1-40 induced Alzheimer's disease of rats

This study measured amyloid-beta (Aβ), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression in the hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease (AD) rat models to elucidate the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effect of ginsenoside Rb1 in AD. Eighty-four male Wistar rats were randomly divided into seven groups, learning and memory impairment was induced by Ap1-40 to establish AD rat model. Learning and memory abilities were assessed by a Morris water maze experiment. Immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR and Western blotting were used to measure IL-1β, Aβ and GFAP expression. Nissl staining and methenamine silver staining were performed to observe the morphology of neurons and Nissl Body, and to detect amyloid protein particle deposition. ELISA and LC-MS/MS were applied to detect Aβ1-42 and byproducts of S/MS were applied to IAT, VIV, ITL, VVIA, TVI, and VIT). Ginsenoside Rb1 administration could relieve cognitive deficit, and decrease expressions of IL-1β, Aβ, and GFAP. Neurons and Nissl Body were improved and plaques deposition was decreased obviously after treatment of ginsenoside Rb1, especially in medium dose of ginsenoside Rb1. Ginsenoside Rb1 can increase productions of Aβ1-42 and byproducts of β- and γ-secretase. Collected evidence supported that ginsenoside Rb1 improves learning and memory in AD rat by altering the amyloidogenic process of APP into non-amyloidogenic process, to exert its anti-inflammatory function.

Ginsenoside metabolite compound-K regulates macrophage function through inhibition of β-arrestin2

Ginsenoside metabolite compound-K (C-K), which is an active metabolite of ginsenoside in vivo, can produce anti-inflammatory affects by activating glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) to inhibit the expression of β-arrestin2. Studies have shown that C-K can inhibit the function of immune cells including macrophage polarization and phagocytosis. However, the mechanism by which C-K regulates macrophage polarization is currently unclear. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the pattern recognition receptors on the membrane of immune cells, with TLR4 being especially important in polarization of macrophages. The Gαi-mediated activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by TLR4 promotes inflammation and phagocytosis in macrophages by increasing the proportion of type I phenotypic macrophages (M1). Whether C-K inhibits the signal transduction of TLR4-Gαi-NF-κB and how that effects macrophage polarization regulation in murine models of RA is not reported. The coupling of G proteins with receptors is regulated by β-arrestin2, but it has been unclear whether C-K modulates the TLR4 interaction with G proteins by inhibiting the expression of β-arrestin2. To explore these questions, the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model was employed, and mice were treated with C-K (112 mg/kg/day). The results depict that C-K treatment inhibits macrophage phagocytosis and reduces the proportion of M1. C-K decreases the overexpressed β-arrestin2, Gαi, TLR4 and NF-κB in macrophages of CIA mice, while increasing the expression of Gαs. Furthermore, C-K promotes TLR4-Gαs coupling and inhibits TLR4-Gαi coupling through β-arrestin2 regulation in macrophages, leading to a decrease in the proportion of M1 to M2 macrophages and improved outcomes in CIA mice.

Panax ginseng (Korea Red Ginseng) repairs diabetic sensorineural damage through promotion of the nerve growth factor pathway in diabetic zebrafish

Background

Diabetic sensorineural damage is a complication of the sensory neural system, resulting from long-term hyperglycemia. Red ginseng (RG) has shown efficacy for treatment of various diseases, including diabetes mellitus; however, there is little research about its benefit for treating sensorineural damage. Therefore, we aim to evaluate RG efficacy in alloxan-induced diabetic neuromast (AIDN) zebrafish.

Methods

In this study, we developed and validated an AIDN zebrafish model. To assess RG effectiveness, we observed morphological changes in live neuromast zebrafish. Also, zebrafish has been observed to have an ultrastructure of hair-cell cilia under scanning electron microscopy. Thus, we recorded these physiological traits to assess hair cell function. Finally, we confirmed that RG promoted neuromast recovery via nerve growth factor signaling pathway markers.

Results

First, we established an AIDN zebrafish model. Using this model, we showed via live neuromast imaging that RG fostered recovery of sensorineural damage. Damaged hair cell cilia were recovered in AIDN zebrafish. Furthermore, RG rescued damaged hair cell function through cell membrane ion balance.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that RG potentially facilitates recovery in AIDN zebrafish, and its mechanism seems to be promotion of the nerve growth factor pathway through increased expression of topomyosin receptor kinase A, transient receptor potential channel vanilloid subfamily type 1, and mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation.

Anti-inflammatory functions of the CDC25 phosphatase inhibitor BN82002 via targeting AKT2

This study presents BN82002 as an anti-inflammatory drug candidate. It was found that BN82002 inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in RAW 264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages that were activated by toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). BN82002 dose-dependently down-regulated mRNA levels of nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor-α, and cyclooxygenase-2. The nuclear translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (p65 and p50) was also blocked by BN82002 in RAW265.7 cells stimulated by LPS. According to reporter gene assay performed with NF-κB construct, BN82002 clearly reduced increased level of luciferase activity mediated by transcription factor NF-κB in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells and in MyD88- and AKT2-overexpressing HEK293 cells. However, BN82002 did not inhibit NF-κB activity in AKT1- or IKKβ-overexpressing HEK293 cells. NF-κB upstream signaling events specifically targeted AKT2 but had no effect on AKT1. The specific target of BN82002 was Tyr-178 in AKT2. BN82002 bound to Tyr-178 and interrupted the kinase activity of AKT2, according to a cellular thermal shift assay analysis of the interaction of BN82002 with AKT2 and an AKT2 mutant (Tyr-178 mutated to Ala; AKT2 Y178A). These results suggest that BN82002 could reduce inflammatory pathway by controlling NF-κB pathway and specifically targeting AKT2.

Dehydroabietic Acid Suppresses Inflammatory Response Via Suppression of Src-, Syk-, and TAK1-Mediated Pathways

Dehydroabietic acid (DAA) is a naturally occurring diterpene resin acid derived from coniferous plants such as Pinus and Picea. Various bioactive effects of DAA have been studied including antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities. However, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of DAA remains unclear. We evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of DAA in macrophage cell lines. Dehydroabietic acid clearly reduced nitric oxide (NO) production and inflammatory gene expression decreased according to RT-PCR results. Dehydroabietic acid displayed anti-inflammatory activity at the transcriptional level in results from NF-κB- or AP-1-mediated luciferase assays. To identify the DAA target protein, we investigated NF-κB and AP-1 pathways by Western blotting analysis. Dehydroabietic acid suppressed the activity of proto-oncogene tyrosine protein kinase (Src) and spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) in the NF-κB cascade and transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) in the AP-1 cascade. Using overexpression strategies, we confirmed that DAA targeted these kinases. Our findings demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effects and molecular mechanism of DAA. This suggests that DAA has potential as a drug or supplement to ameliorate inflammation.

Rg6, a rare ginsenoside, inhibits systemic inflammation through the induction of interleukin-10 and microRNA-146a

The immunobiological functions of Rg6, a rare ginsenoside from ginseng, have been largely unreported. In this paper, we demonstrate that Rg6 has a significant immunosuppressive function on Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4-induced systemic inflammatory responses. Rg6 was found to negatively regulate pro-inflammatory responses and severity in vivo, and thus induced recovery in mice with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced septic shock and cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis. Rg6 treatment also facilitated recovery in mice with LPS-induced lung damage via reduced neutrophil infiltration and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in lung tissues. Rg6 injection also downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased the levels of interleukin (IL)-10 in the serum of septic mice. Mechanistically, Rg6 did not induce TLR negative regulators, such as A20 and IRAK-M, in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Instead, addition of Rg6 to LPS-activated BMDMs augmented IL-10 expression, whereas it inhibited inflammatory signaling, such as by nuclear factor κB activation and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Furthermore, Rg6 significantly induced miR-146a, an operator miRNA for anti-inflammation, in BMDMs. Collectively, these data indicate that Rg6 inhibits inflammatory responses through the induction of IL-10 and miR-146a.

Anti-Wrinkling and Anti-Melanogenic Effect of Pradosia mutisii Methanol Extract

Ultraviolet (UV) exposure causes skin photoaging leading to skin wrinkling and sagging via production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). For this reason, protection from photoaging is an important feature in cosmeceutical and dermatological products. Natural product-derived biomaterials are highly desired as future possible ingredients, because these biomaterials are often safe and effective. In this study, we aimed to characterize the skin protective activity of Pradosia mutisii, traditionally used to treat sunburn and erythema. We determined the free radical scavenging, anti-melanogenic, and moisturizing effects of a methanol extract of Pradosia mutisii (Pm-ME) in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), melanocytes (B16F10 cells), and fibroblasts (human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs)) at non-cytotoxic concentrations. Pradosia mutisii methanol extract contains coumaric acid as a major component, and the extract exhibited protective activity against UVB- and H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity. This extract also suppressed the expression of metalloproteinases (MMPs) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in HaCaT cells. A reduction of Sirt-1 expression under UVB- and H₂O₂-treated conditions was recovered in HaCaT cells by Pm-ME. This extract displayed significant free radical scavenging activity according to the 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) assay. The Pm-ME also upregulated the expression levels of hyaluronic acid synthase (HAS) and transglutaminase-1 (TGM-1) in HaCaT cells, indicating a putative moisturizing activity. Interestingly, the expression of collagen type 1 (Col1A1) gene and its promoter activity, as assessed by a reporter gene assay, were found to be increased in HDF and HEK293 cells. Similarly, Pm-ME helped recover collagen levels after UVB and H₂O₂ treatment in HDFs as well as decreased the synthesis and secretion of melanin from B16F10 melanoma cells, which may indicate a beneficial whitening cosmetic value. The p38 inhibitor SB203580 and the JNK inhibitor SP600125 suppressed MMP-9 and COX-2 expression in H₂O₂-treated HaCaT cells. Similarly, the ERK inhibitor U0126 inhibited HAS-2 in Pm-ME/H₂O₂-treated HaCaT cells. These findings suggested that inhibition of JNK and p38 and activation of ERK could be targeted by Pm-ME. Therefore, Pm-ME may exert anti-photoaging and anti-melanogenic properties via the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase, which could be beneficial in the cosmeceutical industry.

Comparative transcriptome analyses on terpenoids metabolism in field- and mountain-cultivated ginseng roots

BACKGROUND

There exist differences in morphological traits and phytochemical compositions between field- and mountain-cultivated Panax ginseng (FCG and MCG), which might be attributed to variations of terpenoids metabolism adapting to different growth conditions. The present work aims to uncover these variations.

RESULTS

Among 26,648 differentially expressed genes, 496 genes distributed in seven dominant terpenoids pathways were identified. Diterpenoids and triterpenoids biosynthesis genes were significantly higher-expressed in FCG root. Conversely, biosynthesis of carotenoids was significantly more active in MCG root. Additionally, terpenoids backbones, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and terpenoid-quinones biosyntheses were neither obviously inclined. Our determination also revealed that there were more gibberellins and steroids accumulated in FCG root which might be responsible for its quick vegetative growth, and enriched abscisic acid and germacrenes as well as protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides might be major causes of enhanced stress-resistance in MCG root.

CONCLUSIONS

The study firstly provided an overview of terpenoids metabolism in roots of FCG and MCG in elucidating the underlying mechanisms for their different morphological appearances and phytochemical compositions.

Less SO2 residue may not indicate higher quality, better efficacy and weaker toxicity of sulfur-fumigated herbs: Ginseng, a pilot study

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is a hazardous residue in sulfur-fumigated herbs. Standards limiting SO₂ content have been adopted worldwide for quality control of sulfur-fumigated herbs, and herbs with less SO₂ are believed to be better. However, the standards are based only on the safe dose of SO₂ and may not characterize changes in herbal quality, thereby the efficacy and toxicity, resulting from sulfur fumigation. To confirm this, here the correlation of residual SO₂ content with the quality/efficacy/toxicity of sulfur-fumigated herb was investigated, and ginseng was selected as a pilot study object. Four sulfur-fumigated ginseng samples with different SO₂ contents were systemically compared regarding their quality, anti-inflammatory, anti-shock and anti-stress efficacies, as well as acute and chronic toxicities. The results demonstrated that the SO₂ content did not correlate with the quality, efficacy and toxicity changes of ginseng; more specifically, less SO₂ residue did not indicate higher quality, better efficacy nor weaker toxicity. This fact suggests that SO₂ content cannot characterize the variations in quality, efficacy and toxicity of sulfur-fumigated herbs. Therefore, the standard limiting SO₂ content alone may be inadequate for quality control of sulfur-fumigated herbs, and new standards including other indicators that can exactly reflect herbal efficacy and safety are necessary.

Morinda citrifolia noni water extract enhances innate and adaptive immune responses in healthy mice, ex vivo, and in vitro

Although Morinda citrifolia (noni) has long been used in traditional medicines for human diseases, its molecular and cellular mechanism of immunostimulatory ability to improve human health under normal healthy conditions is not fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro and in vivo immunostimulatory activity of M. citrifolia fruit water extract treated with enzymes (Mc-eWE). In vitro studies revealed that Mc-eWE stimulated the cells by inducing nitric oxide (NO) production and the expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The immunostimulatory activity was mediated by activation of NF-κB and AP-1. Ex vivo studies showed that Mc-eWE stimulated splenocytes isolated from mice by inducing NO production and expression of immunostimulatory cytokines and by downregulating the expression of the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 without cytotoxicity. In vivo demonstrated that Mc-eWE induced immunostimulation by modulating populations of splenic immune cells, especially by increasing the population of IFN-γ⁺ NK cells. Mc-eWE enhanced the expression of inflammatory genes and immunostimulatory cytokines and inhibited the expression of IL-10 in the mouse splenocytes and sera. Taken together, these results suggest that Mc-eWE plays an immunostimulatory role by activating innate and adaptive immune responses.

Transcriptome analysis of Panax ginseng response to high light stress

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is an essential source of pharmaceuticals and functional foods. Ginseng productivity has been compromised by high light (HL) stress, which is one of the major abiotic stresses during the ginseng cultivation period. The genetic improvement for HL tolerance in ginseng could be facilitated by analyzing its genetic and molecular characteristics associated with HL stress.

Methods

Genome-wide analysis of gene expression was performed under HL and recovery conditions in 1-year-old Korean ginseng (P. ginseng cv. Chunpoong) using the Illumina HiSeq platform. After de novo assembly of transcripts, we performed expression profiling and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Furthermore, putative functions of identified DEGs were explored using Gene Ontology terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome pathway enrichment analysis.

Results

A total of 438 highly expressed DEGs in response to HL stress were identified and selected from 29,184 representative transcripts. Among the DEGs, 326 and 114 transcripts were upregulated and downregulated, respectively. Based on the functional analysis, most upregulated and a significant number of downregulated transcripts were related to stress responses and cellular metabolic processes, respectively.

Conclusion

Transcriptome profiling could be a strategy to comprehensively elucidate the genetic and molecular mechanisms of HL tolerance and susceptibility. This study would provide a foundation for developing breeding and metabolic engineering strategies to improve the environmental stress tolerance of ginseng.

Piper cubeba L. Methanol Extract Has Anti-Inflammatory Activity Targeting Src/Syk via NF-κB Inhibition

Piper cubeba L. is a plant in the Piperaceae family that is generally found in tropical countries and acts as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity has not been fully investigated. In this study, we elucidated the anti-inflammatory mechanism by focusing on NF-κB signaling, which is considered a prototypical inflammatory signaling pathway in both innate and adaptive immune functions. Cellular activity and the molecular target of Pc-ME were identified in macrophage RAW264.7 cells and HEK293T cells by assessing NO production, cytokine expression by RT-PCR, luciferase gene reporter assay, and protein regulation in cytoplasm by Western blot upon NF-κB activation. Pc-ME reduced NO production without any cell toxicity; inhibited expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as iNOS and IL-6; downregulated NF-κB activation mediated by both MyD88 and TRIF; and diminished the phosphorylation of IκBα, IKKα/β, Akt, p85, Src, and Syk. Pc-ME inhibited Syk and Src autophosphorylation during overexpression in HEK cells, which confirmed our hypothesis that Syk and Src were signaling targets of Pc-ME. These findings indicate that Piper cubeba L. has anti-inflammatory activity by targeting Src/Syk in the NF-κB pathway.

Screening and determination for potential acetylcholinesterase inhibitory constituents from ginseng stem-leaf saponins using ultrafiltration (UF)-LC-ESI-MS2

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have demonstrated that several ginsenosides have remarkable inhibitory effect on acetylcholinesterase (AChE). In the present study, ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) can improve learning and memory of Alzheimer's disease patients. However, much comprehensive information regarding AChE inhibition of GSLS and its metabolites is yet unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to screen and determine the potential of AChE inhibitors (AChEIs) from GSLS.

METHODOLOGY

The active fraction of the GSLS detected in vitro AChE inhibition assays was selected as a starting material for the screening of the potential of AChEIs using ultrafiltration liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (UF-LC-ESI-MS² ).

RESULTS

The results showed that 31 ginsenosides were identified with analysis using rapid resolution liquid chromatography with a diode array detector combined with electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (RRLC-DAD-ESI-MS² ) from the active fraction, and there are 27 compounds with AChE binding activity. Among them, 11 ginsenosides were evaluated and confirmed using in vitro enzymatic assay, and ginsenosides F₁ , Rd, Rk₃ , 20(S)-Rg₃ , F₂ and Rb₂ were found to possess strong AChE inhibitory activities.

CONCLUSION

The proposed UF-LC-ESI-MS² method was a powerful tool for the discovery of AChEIs from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Insight into the Hydrolytic Selectivity of β-Glucosidase to Enhance the Contents of Desired Active Phytochemicals in Medicinal Plants

Most glycosides in herbal medicines become pharmacologically active after hydrolysis or subsequent metabolism to respective aglycones. Hence, the hydrolytic efficiency of glycosidase is a crucial determinant of the pharmacological efficacy of herbal glycosides. In this study, we investigated the enzymatic conversion of the four herbal extracts and their glycosides using the glycoside hydrolase family 3 β-glucosidase from Lactobacillus antri (rBGLa). We show that β-glucosidase substrate specificity depends on the arrangements and linkage types of sugar residues in glycosides. The enzyme rBGLa showed higher hydrolytic selectivity for glucopyranoside than for glucuronide and rhamnopyranoside, and specificity for 1→6 rather than 1→2 linkages. In addition, in silico 3D structural models suggested that D243 and E426 of rBGLa act as catalytic nucleophile and acid/base residues, respectively. These experiments also suggested that substrate specificity is determined by interactions between the C6 residue of the sugar moiety of the substrate glycoside and the oxygen OD1 of D56 in rBGLa. Therefore, despite the broad substrate spectrum of β-glucosidase, differences in hydrolytic selectivity of β-glucosidases for glycoside structures could be exploited to enhance the hydrolysis of the desired medicinal glycosides in herbs using tailored β-glucosidases, allowing for improvement of specific potencies of herbal medicines.

The Effects of Environmental Factors on Ginsenoside Biosynthetic Enzyme Gene Expression and Saponin Abundance

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer is one of the most important medicinal plants in Northeast China, and ginsenosides are the main active ingredients found in medicinal ginseng. The biosynthesis of ginsenosides is regulated by environmental factors and the expression of key enzyme genes. Therefore, in this experiment, ginseng in the leaf opened stage, the green fruit stage, the red fruit stage, and the root growth stage was used as the test material, and nine individual ginsenosides and total saponins (the sum of the individual saponins) were detected by HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography). There was a trend of synergistic increase and decrease, and saponin accumulation and transfer in different tissues. The expression of key enzyme genes in nine synthetic pathways was detected by real-time PCR, and the correlation between saponin content, gene expression, and ecological factors was analyzed. Correlation analysis showed that in root tissue, PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) and soil water potential had a greater impact on ginsenoside accumulation, while in leaf tissue, temperature and relative humidity had a greater impact on ginsenoside accumulation. The results provide a theoretical basis for elucidating the relationship between ecological factors and genetic factors and their impact on the quality of medicinal materials. The results also have guiding significance for realizing the quality of medicinal materials.

Phosphatidylinositide 3-Kinase Contributes to the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Abutilon crispum L. Medik Methanol Extract

Abutilon crispum L. Medik, better known as bladdermallow, is used as a traditional remedy in India, for its anti-inflammatory effect due to its high content of flavonoids. However, research about its anti-inflammatory effect at the molecular level has not been performed. In this study, we aimed to investigate the mechanism of Abutilon crispum methanol extract (Ac-ME) in inhibiting the inflammatory response by conducting several experiments including cellular and molecular assays. Ac-ME inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO) in RAW264.7 cells during treatment of LPS and Pam3CSK4 without exhibiting cytotoxicity. Ac-ME also suppressed the mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. Moreover, Ac-ME was shown to inhibit the NF-κB pathway, according to the luciferase reporter gene assay performed with a NF-κB-Luc construct containing NF-κB-binding promoter regions under MyD88 and TRIF overexpression conditions, and immunoblotting analysis by determining the phospho-form levels of IκBα, IKKα/β, and p85, a regulatory domain of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). Finally, we observed that the level of phospho-p85 induced by the overexpression of spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) and Src was decreased by Ac-ME at 200 μg/ml. Therefore, these results suggest that Ac-ME has an anti-inflammatory effect by targeting PI3K in the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Effects of Red Ginseng Extract on the Pharmacokinetics and Elimination of Methotrexate via Mrp2 Regulation

We aimed to investigate the effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) on the expression of efflux transporters and to study the pharmacokinetics of representative substrate. For this, rats received single or repeated administration of RGE (1.5 g/kg/day) for 1 and 2 weeks via oral gavage. mRNA and protein levels of multidrug resistance-associated protein2 (Mrp2), bile salt export pump (Bsep), and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in the rat liver were measured via real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. Ginsenosides concentrations from the rat plasma were also monitored using a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) system. Plasma concentrations of ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd following repeated administration of RGE for 1 and 2 weeks were comparable but significantly higher than those after single administration of RGE. These dosing regimens did not induce significant biochemical abnormalities in the liver, kidneys, and lipid homeostasis. In the RGE repeated oral administration groups, the mRNA and protein levels of Mrp2 significantly decreased. Accordingly, we investigated the changes in the pharmacokinetics of methotrexate, a probe substrate for Mrp2, following intravenous administration of 3 mg/kg methotrexate to rats in the RGE 1-week repeated oral administration group, compared to that in the control group. Biliary excretion, but not urinary excretion, of methotrexate decreased in the RGE repeated administration group, compared to that in the control group. Consequently, the plasma concentrations of methotrexate slightly increased in the RGE repeated administration group. In conclusion, repeated administration of RGE for 1 week resulted in a decrease in Mrp2 expression without inducing significant liver or kidney damage. Pharmacokinetic herb–drug interaction between RGE and methotrexate might occur owing to the decrease in the mRNA and protein levels of Mrp2.

Ginsenoside Rg5 overcomes chemotherapeutic multidrug resistance mediated by ABCB1 transporter: in vitro and in vivo study

Background

Multidrug resistance (MDR) to chemotherapy drugs remains a major challenge in clinical cancer treatment. Here we investigated whether and how ginsenoside Rg5 overcomes the MDR mediated by ABCB1 transporter in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

Cytotoxicity and colon formation as well as the intracellular accumulation of ABCB1 substrates were carried out in MDR cancer cells A2780/T and A549/T for evaluating the reversal effects of Rg5. The expressions of ABCB1 and Nrf2/AKT pathway were determined by Western blotting. An A549/T cell xenograft model was established to investigate the MDR reversal activity of Rg5 in vivo.

Results

Rg5 significantly reversed ABCB1-mediated MDR by increasing the intracellular accumulation of ABCB1 substrates without altering protein expression of ABCB1. Moreover, Rg5 activated ABCB1 ATPase and reduced verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity, suggesting a high affinity of Rg5 to ABCB1 binding site which was further demonstrated by molecular docking analysis. In addition, co-treatment of Rg5 and docetaxel (TXT) suppressed the expression of Nrf2 and phosphorylation of AKT, indicating that sensitizing effect of Rg5 associated with AKT/Nrf2 pathway. In nude mice bearing A549/T tumor, Rg5 and TXT treatment significantly suppressed the growth of drug-resistant tumors without increase in toxicity when compared to TXT given alone at same dose.

Conclusion

Therefore, combination therapy of Rg5 and chemotherapy drugs is a strategy for the adjuvant chemotherapy, which encourages further pharmacokinetic and clinical studies.

Tolerability and pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, and compound K after single or multiple administration of red ginseng extract in human beings

Background

We investigated the tolerability and pharmacokinetic properties of various ginsenosides, including Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, and compound K, after single or multiple administrations of red ginseng extract in human beings.

Methods

Red ginseng extract (dried ginseng > 60%) was administered once and repeatedly for 15 days to 15 healthy Korean people. After single and repeated administration of red ginsengextract, blood sample collection, measurement of blood pressure and body temperature, and routine laboratory test were conducted over 48-h test periods.

Results

Repeated administration of high-dose red ginseng for 15 days was well tolerated and did not produce significant changes in body temperature or blood pressure. The plasma concentrations of Rb1, Rb2, and Rc were stable and showed similar area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) values after 15 days of repeated administration. Their AUC values after repeated administration of red ginseng extract for 15 days accumulated 4.5- to 6.7-fold compared with single-dose AUC. However, the plasma concentrations of Rd and compound K showed large interindividual variations but correlated well between AUC of Rd and compound K. Compound K did not accumulate after 15 days of repeated administration of red ginseng extract.

Conclusion

A good correlation between the AUC values of Rd and compound K might be the result of intestinal biotransformation of Rb1, Rb2, and Rc to Rd and subsequently to compound K, rather than the intestinal permeability of these ginsenosides. A strategy to increase biotransformation or reduce metabolic intersubject variability may increase the plasma concentrations of Rd and compound K.

Protective roles of ginseng against bacterial infection

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a well-known traditional herbal medicine that plays a protective role against microbial attack. Several studies have revealed its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory effects. Ginseng contains several components that vary according to the year of cultivation and the processing method used, such as heating, drying, and steaming, which induce different degrees of pharmacological activities. This review discusses the antibacterial effects of ginseng against pathogenic bacterial infections. We describe how ginseng regulates pathogenic factors that are harmful to the host and discuss the therapeutic potential of ginseng as a natural antibacterial drug to combat bacterial infectious disease, which is a global public health challenge. The components of ginseng could be novel alternatives to solve the growing problem of antibiotic resistance and toxicity.

Ginsenosides: the need to move forward from bench to clinical trials

Panax ginseng, known as Koran ginseng, one of the most commonly used traditional plants, has been demonstrated to show a wide range of pharmacological applications. Ginsenosides are the major active ingredients found in ginseng and are responsible for the biological and pharmacological activities, such as antioxidation, antiinflammation, vasorelaxation, and anticancer actions. Existing studies have mostly focused on identifying and purifying single ginsenosides and investigating pharmacological activities and molecular mechanisms in cells and animal models. However, ginsenoside studies based on clinical trials have been very limited. Therefore, this review aimed to discuss the currently available clinical trials on ginsenosides and provide insights and future directions for developing ginsenosides as efficacious and safe drugs for human disease.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Enhances Keratinocyte Migration by a Sphingosine-1-Phosphate-Dependent Mechanism

The cutaneous wound healing process is tightly regulated by a range of cellular responses, including migration. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a signaling lipid produced in keratinocytes (KC) and it is known to stimulate skin wound repair through increased KC migration. Of the multifunctional triterpene ginsenosides, Rb1 enhances cutaneous wound healing process by increasing KC migration, but cellular mechanisms responsible for the Rb1-mediated increase in KC migration are largely unknown. Therefore, we hypothesized that, and assessed whether, Rb1 could stimulate KC migration through S1P-dependent mechanisms. Rb1 significantly increases S1P production by regulating the activity of metabolic conversion enzymes associated with S1P generation and degradation, sphingosine kinase 1 (SPHK1) and S1P lyase, respectively, in parallel with enhanced KC migration. However, blockade of ceramide to S1P metabolic conversion using a specific inhibitor of SPHK1 attenuated the expected Rb1-mediated increase in KC migration. Furthermore, a pan-S1P receptor inhibitor pertussis toxin significantly attenuated Rb1-induced stimulation of KC migration. Moreover, the Rb1-induced increases in KC migration required S1P receptor(s)-mediated activation of ERK1/2 and NF-κB, leading to production of key cutaneous migrating proteins, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. Taken together, the results show that Rb1 stimulates KC migration through an S1P→S1P receptor(s)→ERK1/2→NF-κB→MMP-2/-9 pathway. This research revealed a previously unidentified cellular mechanism for Rb1 in enhancing KC migration and pointing to a new therapeutic approach to stimulate the cutaneous wound healing process.

UPLC-QTOF/MS-Based Metabolomics Applied for the Quality Evaluation of Four Processed Panax ginseng Products

In the food industry and herbal markets, it is critical to control the quality of processed Panax ginseng products. In this study, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS)-based metabolomics was applied for the quality evaluation of white ginseng (WG), tae-geuk ginseng (TG), red ginseng (RG), and black ginseng (BG). Diverse metabolites including ginsenosides were profiled by UPLC-QTOF/MS, and the datasets of WG, TG, RG, and BG were then subjected to multivariate analyses. In principal component analysis (PCA), four processed ginseng products were well-differentiated, and several ginsenosides were identified as major components of each product. S-plot also characterized the metabolic changes between two processed ginseng products, and the major ginsenosides of each product were found as follows: WG (M-Rb1, M-Rb2, M-Rc, Re, Rg1), TG (Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1), RG (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1), and BG (Rd, Rk1, Rg5, Rg3). Furthermore, the quantitative contents of ginsenosides were evaluated from the four processed ginseng products. Finally, it was indicated that the proposed metabolomics approach was useful for the quality evaluation and control of processed ginseng products.

A Comprehensive In Vivo and In Vitro Assessment of the Drug Interaction Potential of Red Ginseng

Purpose: Red ginseng is one of the world's most popular herbal medicines; it exhibits a wide range of pharmacologic activities and is often co-ingested with other herbal and conventional medicines. This open-label, randomized, 3-period study investigated the in vivo herb-drug interaction potential for red ginseng extract with cytochrome P-450 (CYP) enzymes and organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1.

METHODS

Fifteen healthy male volunteers (22-28 years; 57.1-80.8 kg) were administered a single dose of cocktail probe substrates (caffeine 100 mg, losartan 50 mg, omeprazole 20 mg, dextromethorphan 30 mg, midazolam 2 mg, and pitavastatin 2 mg) and single or multiple doses of red ginseng extract for 15 days.

FINDINGS

The pharmacokinetic profiles of the probe substrates and metabolites after single- or multiple-dose administration of red ginseng extracts were comparable to the corresponding profiles of the control group. The geometric mean ratio of AUC_0-t and 90% CIs for the probe substrate drugs between the control and multiple doses of red ginseng for 15 days were within 0.8 to 1.25 (CYP2C9, CYP3A4, and OATP1B1 probe substrates) or slightly higher (CYP1A2, CYP2C19, and CYP2D6 probe substrates). Additional assessments of the in vitro drug interaction potential of red ginseng extracts and the ginsenoside Rb1 on drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters using human liver microsomes, cryopreserved human hepatocytes, and transporter-overexpressed cells were negative.

IMPLICATIONS

Red ginseng poses minimal risks for clinically relevant CYP- or OATP-mediated drug interactions and is well tolerated. Clinical Research Information Service registry no.

Protective Effects of Sesquiterpenoids from the Root of Panax ginseng on Fulminant Liver Injury Induced by Lipopolysaccharide/d-Galactosamine

It is reported that sesquiterpenoids from Panax ginseng (SPG) possess various pharmacological activities, for example, antidepressant, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the hepatoprotective effects of SPG (2.5 and 10 mg/kg, i.g.) on fulminant liver injury induced by d-galactosamine (d-GalN) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and discuss its mechanisms of action. After 24 h of d-GalN (400 mg/kg, i.p.) and LPS (25 μg/kg, i.p.) exposure, the serum levels of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) level, hepatic activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH), and hepatic tissue histology were measured. Expression levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time polymerase chain reaction. Moreover, the nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), sirtuin type 1 (Sirt 1), and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) were determined by western blotting. The results indicated that SPG evidently restrained the increase of serum ALT and AST levels induced by d-GalN/LPS. SPG obviously downregulated TNF-α and IL-1β levels and their mRNA expression in liver. In addition, d-GalN/LPS injection induced severe oxidative stress in liver by boosting the MDA level as well as decreasing CAT, GSH, and SOD capacities, and SPG reversed these changes. Meanwhile, SPG inhibited NF-κB activation induced by d-GalN/LPS and upregulated Sirt 1, Nrf2, and HO-1 expression levels. Therefore, SPG might protect against the fulminant liver injury induced by d-GalN/LPS via inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress. The protective effect of SPG on fulminant liver injury induced by d-GalN/LPS might be mediated by the Sirt 1/Nrf2/NF-κB signaling pathway. All of these results implied that SPG might be a promising food additive and therapeutic agent for fulminant liver injury.

Impact of HIV-1 subtype and Korean Red Ginseng on AIDS progression: comparison of subtype B and subtype D

Background

To date, no study has described disease progression in Asian patients infected with HIV-1 subtype D.

Methods

To determine whether the disease progression differs in patients infected with subtypes D and B prior to starting combination antiretroviral therapy, the annual decline (AD) in CD4⁺ T cell counts over 96 ± 59 months was retrospectively analyzed in 163 patients and compared in subtypes D and B based on the nef gene.

Results

CD4⁺ T cell AD was significantly higher in the six subtype D–infected patients than in the 157 subtype B–infected patients irrespective of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) treatment (p < 0.001). Of these, two subtype D–infected patients and 116 subtype B–infected patients had taken KRG. AD was significantly lower in patient in the KRG-treated group than in those in the KRG-naïve group irrespective of subtype (p < 0.05). To control for the effect of KRG, patients not treated with KRG were analyzed, with AD found to be significantly greater in subtype D–infected patients than in subtype B–infected patients (p < 0.01). KRG treatment had a greater effect on AD in subtype D–infected patients than in subtype B–infected patients (4.5-fold vs. 1.6-fold). Mortality rates were significantly higher in both the 45 KRG-naïve (p < 0.001) and all 163 (p < 0.01) patients infected with subtype D than subtype B.

Conclusion

Subtype D infection is associated with a >2-fold higher risk of death and a 2.9-fold greater rate of progression than subtype B, regardless of KRG treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg1 promotes browning by inducing UCP1 expression and mitochondrial activity in 3T3-L1 and subcutaneous white adipocytes

Background

Panax ginseng Meyer is known as a conventional herbal medicine, and ginsenoside Rg1, a steroid glycoside, is one of its components. Although Rg1 has been proved to have an antiobesity effect, the mechanism of this effect and whether it involves adipose browning have not been elucidated.

Methods

3T3-L1 and subcutaneous white adipocytes from mice were used to access the thermogenic effect of Rg1. Adipose mitochondria and uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression were analyzed by immunofluorescence. Protein level and mRNA of UCP1 were also evaluated by Western blotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively.

Results

Rg1 dramatically enhanced expression of brown adipocyte–specific markers, such as UCP1 and fatty acid oxidation genes, including carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1. In addition, it modulated lipid metabolism, activated 5′ adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase, and promoted lipid droplet dispersion.

Conclusions

Rg1 increases UCP1 expression and mitochondrial biogenesis in 3T3-L1 and subcutaneous white adipose cells isolated from C57BL/6 mice. We suggest that Rg1 exerts its antiobesity effects by promoting adipocyte browning through activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase pathway.

A comparative study on immune-stimulatory and antioxidant activities of various types of ginseng extracts in murine and rodent models

Background

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a widely used traditional herbal supplement that possesses various health-enhancing efficacies. Various ginseng products are available in market, especially in the Korean peninsula, in the form of drinks, tablets, and capsules. The different ginseng types include the traditional red ginseng extract (RGE), white ginseng, and black red ginseng extract (BRGE). Their fermented and enzyme-treated products are also available. Different treatment regimens alter the bioavailability of certain compounds present in the respective ginseng extracts. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to compare the antioxidant and immune-stimulating activities of RGE, BRGE, and fermented red ginseng extract (FRGE).

Methods

We used an acetaminophen-induced oxidative stress model for investigating the reduction of oxidative stress by RGE, BRGE, and FRGE in Sprague Dawley rats. A cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression model was used to evaluate the immune-stimulating activities of these ginseng extracts in BALB/c mice.

Results

Our results showed that most prominently, RGE (in almost all experiments) exhibited excellent antioxidant effects via increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in the liver and decreasing serum 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels compared with the groups treated with FRGE and BRGE. Moreover, RGE significantly increased the number of white blood cells, especially T and B lymphocytes, and antibody-forming cells in the spleen and thymus, and it also activated a number of immune cell subtypes.

Conclusion

Taken together, these results indicate that RGE is the best supplement for consumption in everyday life for overall health-enhancing properties.

Preparation and evaluation of self-microemulsions for improved bioavailability of ginsenoside-Rh1 and Rh2

Due to intestinal cytochrome P450 (CYP450)-mediated metabolism and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux, poor oral bioavailability hinders ginsenoside-Rh1 (Rh1) and ginsenoside-Rh2 (Rh2) from clinical application. In this study, Rh1 and Rh2 were incorporated into two self-microemulsions (SME-1 and SME-2) to improve oral bioavailability. SME-1 contained both CYP450 and P-gp inhibitory excipients while SME-2 only consisted of P-gp inhibitory excipients. Results for release, cellular uptake, transport, and lymph node distribution demonstrated no significant difference between either self-microemulsions in vivo, but were elevated significantly in comparison to the free drug. The pharmaceutical profiles in vivo showed that the bioavailability of Rh1 in SME-1 (33.25%) was significantly higher than that in either SME-2 (21.28%) or free drug (12.92%). There was no significant difference in bioavailability for Rh2 between SME-1 (48.69%) or SME-2 (41.73%), although they both had remarkable increase in comparison to free drug (15.02%). We confirmed that SME containing CYP450 and P-gp inhibitory excipient could distinctively improve the oral availabilities of Rh1 compared to free drug or SME containing P-gp inhibitory excipient. No notable increase was observed between either SME for Rh2, suggesting that Rh2 undergoes P-gp-mediated efflux, but may not undergo distinct CYP450-mediated metabolism.

Cardioprotection by ginseng: experimental and clinical evidence and underlying mechanisms

Protection of the ischemic and reperfused myocardium represents a major therapeutic challenge. Translating results from animal studies to the clinical setting has been disappointing, yet the need for effective intervention, particularly to limit heart damage following infarction or surgical procedures such as coronary artery bypass grafting, is substantial. Among the many compounds touted as cardioprotective agents is ginseng, a medicinal herb belonging to the genus Panax, which has been used as a medicinal agent for thousands of years, particularly in Asian societies. The biological actions of ginseng are very complex and reflect composition of many bioactive components, although many of the biological and therapeutic effects of ginseng have been attributed to the presence of steroid-like saponins termed ginsenosides. Both ginseng and many ginsenosides have been shown to exert cardioprotective properties in experimental models. There is also clinical evidence that traditional Chinese medications containing ginseng exert cardioprotective properties, although such clinical evidence is less robust primarily owing to the paucity of large-scale clinical trials. Here, we discuss the experimental and clinical evidence for ginseng, ginsenosides, and ginseng-containing formulations as cardioprotective agents against ischemic and reperfusion injury. We further discuss potential mechanisms, particularly as these relate to antioxidant properties.

Regulatory Roles of Flavonoids on Inflammasome Activation during Inflammatory Responses

Inflammation is an innate immune response to noxious stimuli to protect the body from pathogens. Inflammatory responses consist of two main steps: priming and triggering. In priming, inflammatory cells increase expressions of inflammatory molecules, while in triggering, inflammasomes are activated, resulting in cell death and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Inflammasomes are protein complexes comprising intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) (e.g., nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2), and caspases-4/5/11) and pro-caspase-1 with or without a bipartite adaptor molecule ASC. Inflammasome activation induces pyroptosis, inflammatory cell death, and stimulates caspase-1-mediated secretion of interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-18. Flavonoids are secondary metabolites found in various plants and are considered as critical ingredients promoting health and ameliorating various disease symptoms. Anti-inflammatory activity of flavonoids and underlying mechanisms have been widely studied. This review introduces current knowledge on different types of inflammasomes and their activation during inflammatory responses and discusses recent studies regarding anti-inflammatory roles of flavonoids as suppressors of inflammasomes in inflammatory conditions. Understanding the regulatory effects of flavonoids on inflammasome activation will increase our knowledge of flavonoid-mediated anti-inflammatory activity and provide new insights into the development of flavonoid preparations to prevent and treat human inflammatory diseases.

Ameliorative effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on rheumatic diseases

Background

Inflammation is a host-defensive innate immune response to protect the body from pathogenic agents and danger signals induced by cellular changes. Although inflammation is a host-defense mechanism, chronic inflammation is considered a major risk factor for the development of a variety of inflammatory autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatic diseases. Rheumatic diseases are systemic inflammatory and degenerative diseases that primarily affect connective tissues and are characterized by severe chronic inflammation and degeneration of connective tissues. Ginseng and its bioactive ingredients, genocides, have been demonstrated to have antiinflammatory activity and pharmacological effects on various rheumatic diseases by inhibiting the expression and production of inflammatory mediators.

Methods

Literature in this review was searched in a PubMed site of National Center for Biotechnology Information.

Results

The studies reporting the preventive and therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases were discussed and summarized.

Conclusion

Ginseng and ginsenosides play an ameliorative role on rheumatic diseases, and this review provides new insights into ginseng and ginsenosides as promising agents to prevent and treat rheumatic diseases.

Use of Plant and Herb Derived Medicine for Therapeutic Usage in Cardiology

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have become prominent in mortality and morbidity rates. Prevalent cardiovascular conditions, such as hypertension, atherosclerosis and oxidative stress, are increasing at an alarming rate. Conventional drugs have been associated with adverse effects, suggesting a need for an alternative measure to ameliorate CVD. A number of plant- and herb-derived preventative food and therapeutic drugs for cardiovascular conditions are progressively used for their various benefits. Naturally derived food and drugs have fewer side effects because they come from natural elements; preventative food, such as grape seed, inhibits changes of histopathology and biomarkers in vital organs whereas therapeutic drugs, for instance Xanthone, improve heart functions by suppressing oxidative stress of myocyte. This review closely examines the various plant- and herb-derived drugs that have assumed an essential role in treating inflammation and oxidative stress for prevalent cardiovascular conditions. Furthermore, the use of plant-derived medicine with other synthetic particles, such as nanoparticles, for targeted therapy is investigated for its effective clinical use in the future.

The Multivariate Regression Statistics Strategy to Investigate Content-Effect Correlation of Multiple Components in Traditional Chinese Medicine Based on a Partial Least Squares Method

Amultivariate regression statisticstrategy was developed to clarify multi-components content-effect correlation ofpanaxginseng saponins extract and predict the pharmacological effect by components content. In example 1, firstly, we compared pharmacological effects between panax ginseng saponins extract and individual saponin combinations. Secondly, we examined the anti-platelet aggregation effect in seven different saponin combinations of ginsenoside Rb1, Rg1, Rh, Rd, Ra3 and notoginsenoside R1. Finally, the correlation between anti-platelet aggregation and the content of multiple components was analyzed by a partial least squares algorithm. In example 2, firstly, 18 common peaks were identified in ten different batches of panax ginseng saponins extracts from different origins. Then, we investigated the anti-myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury effects of the ten different panax ginseng saponins extracts. Finally, the correlation between the fingerprints and the cardioprotective effects was analyzed by a partial least squares algorithm. Both in example 1 and 2, the relationship between the components content and pharmacological effect was modeled well by the partial least squares regression equations. Importantly, the predicted effect curve was close to the observed data of dot marked on the partial least squares regression model. This study has given evidences that themulti-component content is a promising information for predicting the pharmacological effects of traditional Chinese medicine.

Antigastritis effects of Armillariella tabescens (Scop.) Sing. and the identification of its anti-inflammatory metabolites

Objectives

This study demonstrates the biological and chemical analysis of the mushroom Armillariella tabescens (Scop.) Sing. (Tricholomataceae).

Methods

Chemical structures of the isolates were determined by 1D and 2D NMR, and ESI-MS, as well as comparison with previously reported data. All isolates were tested for anti-inflammatory effects based on their ability to inhibit LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW264.7 cells.

Key findings

We found that the MeOH extract of the fruiting bodies of A. tabescens showed antigastritis activity against ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats and notably reduced the gastric damage index compared to control in a concentration-dependent manner. Chemical investigation of the MeOH extract led to the isolation of four steroids (1–4), three alkaloids (5–7), two nucleic acids (8–9) and four fatty acids (10–13). This is the first study to report the identification of all isolates, except for compound 7, from A. tabescens. Compounds 1, 2, 3, 4 and 10 showed inhibition on LPS-stimulated NO production. Treatment with compound 10 inhibited expression of iNOS, COX-2, phospho-IKKα, IKKα, phospho-IκBα, IκBα and NF-kappa B in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

Conclusions

Compound 10 likely contributes to the health benefits of A. tabescens as an antigastritis agent through its anti-inflammatory effects.

Simultaneous determination and difference evaluation of 14 ginsenosides in Panax ginseng roots cultivated in different areas and ages by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction-monitoring mode combined with multivariate statistical analysis

Background

Ginsenosides are not only the principal bioactive components but also the important indexes to the quality assessment of Panax ginseng Meyer. Their contents in cultivated ginseng vary with the growth environment and age. The present study aimed at evaluating the significant difference between 36 cultivated ginseng of different cultivation areas and ages based on the simultaneously determined contents of 14 ginsenosides.

Methods

A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) method was developed and used in the multiple reaction–monitoring (MRM) mode (HPLC-MRM/MS) for the quantitative analysis of ginsenosides. Multivariate statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis, was applied to discriminate ginseng samples of various cultivation areas and ages and to discover the differentially accumulated ginsenoside markers.

Results

The developed HPLC-MRM/MS method was validated to be precise, accurate, stable, sensitive, and repeatable for the simultaneous determination of 14 ginsenosides. It was found that the 3- and 5-yr-old ginseng samples were differentiated distinctly by all means of multivariate statistical analysis, whereas the 4-yr-old samples exhibited similarity to either 3- or 5-yr-old samples in the contents of ginsenosides. Among the 14 detected ginsenosides, Rg1, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, 20(S)-Rf, 20(S)-Rh1, and Rb3 were identified as potential markers for the differentiation of cultivation ages. In addition, the 5-yr-old samples were able to be classified in cultivation area based on the contents of ginsenosides, whereas the 3- and 4-yr-old samples showed little differences in cultivation area.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that the HPLC-MRM/MS method combined with multivariate statistical analysis provides deep insight into the accumulation characteristics of ginsenosides and could be used to differentiate ginseng that are cultivated in different areas and ages.