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Manzoor S, Saalim M, Imran M, Resham S, Ashraf J. Hepatitis B virus therapy: What’s the future holding for us? World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21:12558-12575. [PMID: 26640332 PMCID: PMC4658610 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v21.i44.12558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B is one of the leading causes of liver cancer worldwide and unfortunately the number of people affected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is still on the rise. Although the HBV has been known to cause fatal illness since decades but the population effected by this lethal virus have still only a few options for its management. The major treatment strategies include interferons and nucleos(t)ide analogues. These agents have so far produced unsatisfactory results in terms of complete virus eradication. Interferons cannot be used for long term therapy because of their potential side effects. Prolong treatment with nucleos(t)ide analogues has also been reported to cause serious side effects besides the increasing resistance by the virus. The need for new innovative solutions for treatment of HBV has been realized by global research institutes and pharmaceutical industry. Present review focuses in detail on the new ideas that are being transformed into therapeutic tools for use as future therapies in HBV infection. Modern drug designing and screening methods have made the drug discovery process shorter and more reliable. HBV therapeutics will take a new turn in coming years owing to these intelligent drug designing and screening methods. Future therapy of HBV is aiming to include the use of vaccines (both prophylactic and therapeutic), immunomodulators such as antibodies, non-nucleoside antivirals such as RNAi and inhibitors of viral life cycle.
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302
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Renna MS, Figueredo CM, Rodríguez-Galán MC, Icely PA, Cejas H, Cano R, Correa SG, Sotomayor CE. Candida albicans up-regulates the Fas-L expression in liver Natural Killer and Natural Killer T cells. Immunobiology 2015; 220:1210-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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303
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Testoni B, Zoulim F. Liver capsule: Validated and potential novel targets to treat hepatitis B virus. Hepatology 2015; 62:1619. [PMID: 26340325 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Testoni
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, INSERM U1052, Lyon, France
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304
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Luangsay S, Ait-Goughoulte M, Michelet M, Floriot O, Bonnin M, Gruffaz M, Rivoire M, Fletcher S, Javanbakht H, Lucifora J, Zoulim F, Durantel D. Expression and functionality of Toll- and RIG-like receptors in HepaRG cells. J Hepatol 2015; 63:1077-85. [PMID: 26144659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS HepaRG cells are considered as the best surrogate model to primary human hepatocyte (PHH) culture to investigate host-pathogen interactions. Yet their innate immune functions remain unknown. In this study, we explored the expression and functionality of Toll-like (TLR) and retinoic acid-inducible gene-1 (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLR) in these cells. METHODS Gene and protein expression levels of TLR-1 to 9 and RLR in HepaRG were mainly compared to PHH, by RT-qPCR, FACS, and Western blotting. Their functionality was assessed, by measuring the induction of toll/rig-like themselves and several target innate gene expressions, as well as the secretion of IL-6, IP-10, and type I interferon (IFN), upon agonist stimulation. Their functionality was also shown by measuring the antiviral activity of some TLR/RLR agonists against hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. RESULTS The basal gene and protein expression profile of TLR/RLR in HepaRG cells was similar to PHH. Most receptors, except for TLR-7 and 9, were expressed as proteins and functionally active as shown by the induction of some innate genes, as well as by the secretion of IL-6 and IP-10, upon agonist stimulation. The highest levels of IL-6 and IP-10 secretion were obtained by TLR-2 and TLR-3 agonist stimulation respectively. The highest preventive anti-HBV activity was obtained following TLR-2, TLR-4 or RIG-I/MDA-5 stimulations, which correlated with their high capacity to produce both cytokines. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that HepaRG cells express a similar pattern of functional TLR/RLR as compared to PHH, thus qualifying HepaRG cells as a surrogate model to study pathogen interactions within a hepatocyte innate system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souphalone Luangsay
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France; Pharma Research & Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Malika Ait-Goughoulte
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France; Pharma Research & Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maud Michelet
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Océane Floriot
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Marc Bonnin
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Marion Gruffaz
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Michel Rivoire
- Centre Léon Bérard (CLB), 69008 Lyon, France; INSERM U1032, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Simon Fletcher
- Pharma Research & Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hassan Javanbakht
- Pharma Research & Early Development (pRED), Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julie Lucifora
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Fabien Zoulim
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France; Hospices Civils de Lyon (HCL), 69002 Lyon, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 75005 Paris, France.
| | - David Durantel
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR_5286, Cancer Research Centre of Lyon (CRCL), 69008 Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude Bernard (UCBL), UMR_S1052, 69008 Lyon, France.
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305
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Effective intrahepatic CD8+ T-cell immune responses are induced by low but not high numbers of antigen-expressing hepatocytes. Cell Mol Immunol 2015; 13:805-815. [PMID: 26412123 PMCID: PMC5101449 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2015.80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver infections with hepatotropic viruses, such as hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus are accompanied by viral persistence and immune failure. CD8+ T cells are crucial mediators of the intrahepatic antiviral immune response. Chronic infections of the liver and other organs correlate with T-cell exhaustion. It was previously suggested that high antigen load could result in T-cell exhaustion. We aimed at elucidating the impact of different intrahepatic antigen loads on the quality of CD8+ T-cell-mediated immunity by employing an infection-free transgenic mouse model expressing ovalbumin (Ova) as the target antigen. Adoptive transfer of OT-I cells induced a transient intrahepatic immune response toward both high and low Ova levels. However, antigen clearance was achieved only in mice expressing low antigen levels. In contrast, T cells exposed to high antigen levels underwent exhaustion and became depleted, causing antigen persistence. Moreover, when functional T cells were exposed to high intrahepatic antigen levels, a complete transition toward exhaustion was observed. Thus, this study shows that the antigen expression level in the liver correlates inversely with T-cell immunity in vivo and governs the efficiency of immune responses upon antigen presentation.
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306
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Dinney CM, Zhao LD, Conrad CD, Duker JM, Karas RO, Hu Z, Hamilton MA, Gillis TR, Parker TM, Fan B, Advani AH, Poordad FB, Fauceglia PL, Kirsch KM, Munk PT, Ladanyi MP, Bochner BA, Bekelman JA, Grandori CM, Olson JC, Lechan RD, Abou GMA, Goodarzi MA. Regulation of HBV-specific CD8(+) T cell-mediated inflammation is diversified in different clinical presentations of HBV infection. J Microbiol 2015; 53:718-24. [PMID: 26428923 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-015-5314-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic HBV infection is the leading cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatic cancer, but the individual responses toward HBV infection are highly variable, ranging from asymptomatic to chronic active hepatitis B inflammation. In this study, we hypothesized that the different individual responses to HBV infection was associated with differences in HBV-specific CD8(+) T cell-mediated inflammation and cytotoxicity. Blood samples were collected from subjects with asymptomatic HBV-infection, subjects undergoing active chronic HBV flares (active CHB), and subjects with HBV-infected hepatocellular carcinoma (HBV-HCC). By tetramer staining, we found that all three groups had similar frequencies of HBVspecific CD8(+) T cells. However, after HBV peptide stimulation, the HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells in asymptomatic subjects had significantly stronger interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and CD107a expression than those in active CHB and HBV-HCC patients. Examination of surface marker expression revealed that the PD-1(-)Tim-3(-) double-negative cell population was the main contributor to HBV-specific inflammation. In active CHB patients and HBV-HCC patients, however, the frequencies of activated PD-1(-)Tim-3(-) cells were significantly reduced. Moreover, the serum HBV DNA titer was not correlated with the frequencies of HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells but was inversely correlated with the frequencies of IFN-g-expressing and CD107a-express cells in response to HBV stimulation. Together, our data demonstrated that the status of HBVspecific CD8(+) T cell exhaustion was associated with different clinical outcomes of chronic HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin M Dinney
- Wayne State University Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, 48201, USA
| | - Lu-Dong Zhao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Linyi People's Hospital, Shandong, 276000, P. R. China
| | - Charles D Conrad
- Wayne State University Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, 48201, USA
| | - Jay M Duker
- Wayne State University Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, 48201, USA
| | - Richard O Karas
- Wayne State University Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, 48201, USA
| | - Zhibin Hu
- Wayne State University Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, 48201, USA
| | - Michele A Hamilton
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland, Medscientist Group, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Thomas R Gillis
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland, Medscientist Group, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | | | - Bing Fan
- Tufts University, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
| | | | - Fred B Poordad
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada
| | | | | | - Peter T Munk
- Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - James C Olson
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2B5, Canada.
| | | | - Ghassan M A Abou
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland, Medscientist Group, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
| | - Mark A Goodarzi
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland, Medscientist Group, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
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307
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Dargel C, Bassani-Sternberg M, Hasreiter J, Zani F, Bockmann JH, Thiele F, Bohne F, Wisskirchen K, Wilde S, Sprinzl MF, Schendel DJ, Krackhardt AM, Uckert W, Wohlleber D, Schiemann M, Stemmer K, Heikenwälder M, Busch DH, Richter G, Mann M, Protzer U. T Cells Engineered to Express a T-Cell Receptor Specific for Glypican-3 to Recognize and Kill Hepatoma Cells In Vitro and in Mice. Gastroenterology 2015; 149:1042-52. [PMID: 26052074 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.05.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Cancer therapies are being developed based on our ability to direct T cells against tumor antigens. Glypican-3 (GPC3) is expressed by 75% of all hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC), but not in healthy liver tissue or other organs. We aimed to generate T cells with GPC3-specific receptors that recognize HCC and used them to eliminate GPC3-expressing xenograft tumors grown from human HCC cells in mice. METHODS We used mass spectrometry to obtain a comprehensive peptidome from GPC3-expressing hepatoma cells after immune-affinity purification of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A2 and bioinformatics to identify immunodominant peptides. To circumvent GPC3 tolerance resulting from fetal expression, dendritic cells from HLA-A2-negative donors were cotransfected with GPC3 and HLA-A2 RNA to stimulate and expand antigen-specific T cells. RESULTS Peptide GPC3367 was identified as a predominant peptide on HLA-A2. We used A2-GPC3367 multimers to detect, select for, and clone GPC3-specific T cells. These clones bound the A2-GPC3367 multimer and secreted interferon-γ when cultured with GPC3367, but not with control peptide-loaded cells. By genomic sequencing of these T-cell clones, we identified a gene encoding a dominant T-cell receptor. The gene was cloned and the sequence was codon optimized and expressed from a retroviral vector. Primary CD8(+) T cells that expressed the transgenic T-cell receptor specifically bound GPC3367 on HLA-A2. These T cells killed GPC3-expressing hepatoma cells in culture and slowed growth of HCC xenograft tumors in mice. CONCLUSIONS We identified a GPC3367-specific T-cell receptor. Expression of this receptor by T cells allows them to recognize and kill GPC3-positive hepatoma cells. This finding could be used to advance development of adoptive T-cell therapy for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Dargel
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | | | - Julia Hasreiter
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Fabio Zani
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Garching, Germany
| | - Jan-Hendrik Bockmann
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich Site, Germany
| | - Frank Thiele
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich Site, Germany
| | - Felix Bohne
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Karin Wisskirchen
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Susanne Wilde
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Martin F Sprinzl
- I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universitätsmedizin der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz, Germany
| | - Dolores J Schendel
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Groups Antigen Specific Immunotherapy and Immune Monitoring, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Angela M Krackhardt
- Clinical Cooperation Groups Antigen Specific Immunotherapy and Immune Monitoring, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; 3rd Medical Department, University Hospital Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Uckert
- Max-Delbrück-Centrum for Molecular Medicine (MDC) and Institute of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, Berlin-Buch, Germany
| | - Dirk Wohlleber
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, University Hospital Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Matthias Schiemann
- Clinical Cooperation Groups Antigen Specific Immunotherapy and Immune Monitoring, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Kerstin Stemmer
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Garching, Germany
| | - Mathias Heikenwälder
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany
| | - Dirk H Busch
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich Site, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Groups Antigen Specific Immunotherapy and Immune Monitoring, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Günther Richter
- Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Matthias Mann
- Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Ulrike Protzer
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich Site, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Groups Antigen Specific Immunotherapy and Immune Monitoring, Technische Universität München, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München, Germany.
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308
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Oncogenic potential of hepatitis B virus encoded proteins. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 14:109-15. [PMID: 26426688 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Due to the limited treatment options hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer related death, and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the major risk factor for development of HCC worldwide. HCC is typically preceded by chronic inflammation, but may also develop in the absence of liver disease on the basis of HBV infection and even when virus replication is controlled by antivirals. In this situation, HBV antigen expression persists and direct oncogenic effects of HBV are integration of the viral DNA into the host genome as well as direct effects of viral proteins. These factors have to be taken into account in order to personalize HCC surveillance in CHB and unravel novel therapeutic approaches.
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309
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Doherty DG. Immunity, tolerance and autoimmunity in the liver: A comprehensive review. J Autoimmun 2015; 66:60-75. [PMID: 26358406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The hepatic immune system is constantly exposed to a massive load of harmless dietary and commensal antigens, to which it must remain tolerant. Immune tolerance in the liver is mediated by a number of specialized antigen-presenting cells, including dendritic cells, Kupffer cells, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells. These cells are capable of presenting antigens to T cells leading to T cell apoptosis, anergy, or differentiation into regulatory T cells. However, the hepatic immune system must also be able to respond to pathogens and tumours and therefore must be equipped with mechanisms to override immune tolerance. The liver is a site of accumulation of a number of innate lymphocyte populations, including natural killer cells, CD56(+) T cells, natural killer T cells, γδ T cells, and mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Innate lymphocytes recognize conserved metabolites derived from microorganisms and host cells and respond by killing target cells or promoting the differentiation and/or activation of other cells of the immune system. Innate lymphocytes can promote the maturation of antigen-presenting cells from their precursors and thereby contribute to the generation of immunogenic T cell responses. These cells may be responsible for overriding hepatic immune tolerance to autoantigens, resulting in the induction and maintenance of autoreactive T cells that mediate liver injury causing autoimmune liver disease. Some innate lymphocyte populations can also directly mediate liver injury by killing hepatocytes or bile duct cells in murine models of hepatitis, whilst other populations may protect against liver disease. It is likely that innate lymphocyte populations can promote or protect against autoimmune liver disease in humans and that these cells can be targeted therapeutically. Here I review the cellular mechanisms by which hepatic antigen-presenting cells and innate lymphocytes control the balance between immunity, tolerance and autoimmunity in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek G Doherty
- Division of Immunology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
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310
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CRISPR/Cas9 nickase-mediated disruption of hepatitis B virus open reading frame S and X. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13734. [PMID: 26334116 PMCID: PMC4558539 DOI: 10.1038/srep13734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Current antiviral therapies cannot cure hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection; successful HBV eradication would require inactivation of the viral genome, which primarily persists in host cells as episomal covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and, to a lesser extent, as chromosomally integrated sequences. However, novel designer enzymes, such as the CRISPR/Cas9 RNA-guided nuclease system, provide technologies for developing advanced therapy strategies that could directly attack the HBV genome. For therapeutic application in humans, such designer nucleases should recognize various HBV genotypes and cause minimal off-target effects. Here, we identified cross-genotype conserved HBV sequences in the S and X region of the HBV genome that were targeted for specific and effective cleavage by a Cas9 nickase. This approach disrupted not only episomal cccDNA and chromosomally integrated HBV target sites in reporter cell lines, but also HBV replication in chronically and de novo infected hepatoma cell lines. Our data demonstrate the feasibility of using the CRISPR/Cas9 nickase system for novel therapy strategies aiming to cure HBV infection.
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311
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Li M, Sun R, Xu L, Yin W, Chen Y, Zheng X, Lian Z, Wei H, Tian Z. Kupffer Cells Support Hepatitis B Virus-Mediated CD8+ T Cell Exhaustion via Hepatitis B Core Antigen-TLR2 Interactions in Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:3100-9. [PMID: 26304988 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) persistence is a fundamental process in chronic HBV infection and a key factor in all related liver diseases; however, the mechanisms have yet to be elucidated. We studied the role of TLR2 in HBV persistence using a well-established HBV-carrier mouse model generated by hydrodynamically injecting a phospho-adeno-associated virus/HBV1.2 plasmid into mice. We found that a genetic deficiency in TLR2 improves HBV elimination, whereas activating TLR2 led to more stable HBV persistence, suggesting that TLR2 activation is critical in HBV persistence. Furthermore, we noted that TLR2 activation could inhibit CD8(+) T cell function, causing the exhaustion phenotype in HBV-carrier mice, because TLR2 deficiency might rescue CD8(+) T cell function in a cellular adoptive experiment. TLR2 expression on Kupffer cells (KCs) was upregulated in HBV-carrier mice, which accounts for HBV persistence, because the difference in anti-HBV immunity between HBV-carrier wild-type and Tlr2(-/-) mice did not exist after KC depletion. In addition, similar to TLR2 deficiency, after KC depletion, CD8(+) T cells were more efficiently activated in HBV-carrier mice, leading to rapid HBV elimination. KCs produced more IL-10 upon TLR2 activation in response to direct hepatitis B core Ag stimulation, and the elevated IL-10 inhibited CD8(+) T cell function in HBV-carrier mice, because IL-10 deficiency or anti-IL-10R treatment resulted in CD8(+) T cells with stronger antiviral function. In conclusion, KCs support liver tolerance by inducing anti-HBV CD8(+) T cell exhaustion via IL-10 production after TLR2 activation by hepatitis B core Ag stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Rui Sun
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, China; and Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Long Xu
- Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Wenwei Yin
- Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Yongyan Chen
- Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Xiaodong Zheng
- Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Zhexiong Lian
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China; Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Haiming Wei
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China; Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
| | - Zhigang Tian
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310003, China; and Institute of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Chinese Academy of Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, China
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Baumert TF, Verrier ER, Nassal M, Chung RT, Zeisel MB. Host-targeting agents for treatment of hepatitis B virus infection. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 14:41-6. [PMID: 26262886 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease, including liver cirrhosis, liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-the second leading and fastest rising cause of cancer death world-wide. While de novo infection can be efficiently prevented by vaccination and chronic infection can be controlled using antivirals targeting the viral polymerase, the development of efficient antiviral strategies to eliminate the virus and thus to cure infection remains a key unmet medical need. The recent progress in the development of robust infectious HBV cell culture models now enables the investigation of the full viral life cycle, including a more detailed study of the molecular mechanisms of virus-host interactions responsible for viral persistence. The understanding of these virus-host interactions will be instrumental for the development of curative treatments. Host-dependency factors have recently emerged as promising candidates to treat and prevent infection by various pathogens. This review focuses on the potential of host-targeting agents (HTAs) as novel antivirals to treat and cure HBV infection. These include HTAs that inhibit de novo and re-infection, synthesis and spread of cccDNA as well as development of immune-based approaches eliminating or curing infected hepatocytes, including the eradication of viral cccDNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Baumert
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire, Pôle Hépato-digestif, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Liver Center and Gastrointestinal Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.
| | - Eloi R Verrier
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Michael Nassal
- Department of Internal Medicine 2/Molecular Biology, University Hospital Freiburg, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Raymond T Chung
- Liver Center and Gastrointestinal Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Mirjam B Zeisel
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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313
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Zeisel MB, Lucifora J, Mason WS, Sureau C, Beck J, Levrero M, Kann M, Knolle PA, Benkirane M, Durantel D, Michel ML, Autran B, Cosset FL, Strick-Marchand H, Trépo C, Kao JH, Carrat F, Lacombe K, Schinazi RF, Barré-Sinoussi F, Delfraissy JF, Zoulim F. Towards an HBV cure: state-of-the-art and unresolved questions--report of the ANRS workshop on HBV cure. Gut 2015; 64:1314-26. [PMID: 25670809 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-308943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
HBV infection is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although HBV infection can be efficiently prevented by vaccination, and treatments are available, to date there is no reliable cure for the >240 million individuals that are chronically infected worldwide. Current treatments can only achieve viral suppression, and lifelong therapy is needed in the majority of infected persons. In the framework of the French National Agency for Research on AIDS and Viral Hepatitis 'HBV Cure' programme, a scientific workshop was held in Paris in June 2014 to define the state-of-the-art and unanswered questions regarding HBV pathobiology, and to develop a concerted strategy towards an HBV cure. This review summarises our current understanding of HBV host-interactions leading to viral persistence, as well as the roadblocks to be overcome to ultimately address unmet medical needs in the treatment of chronic HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam B Zeisel
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Julie Lucifora
- Inserm U1052, CNRS UMR 5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Université de Lyon (UCBL), Lyon, France
| | | | - Camille Sureau
- INTS, Laboratoire de Virologie Moléculaire, Paris, France
| | - Jürgen Beck
- Department of Internal Medicine 2/Molecular Biology, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Massimo Levrero
- Center for Life Nanosciences (CNLS)-IIT/Sapienza, Rome, Italy Laboratory of Gene Expression, Department of Internal Medicine (DMISM), Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Michael Kann
- Université de Bordeaux, Microbiologie fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France CNRS, Microbiologie fondamentale et Pathogénicité, UMR 5234, Bordeaux, France CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Percy A Knolle
- Technische Universität München, Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, München, Germany
| | - Monsef Benkirane
- Institut de Génétique Humaine, Laboratoire de Virologie Moléculaire, CNRS UPR1142, Montpellier, France
| | - David Durantel
- Inserm U1052, CNRS UMR 5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Université de Lyon (UCBL), Lyon, France
| | - Marie-Louise Michel
- Laboratoire de Pathogenèse des Virus de l'Hépatite B, Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Brigitte Autran
- Laboratory of Immunity and Infection, Inserm U945, Paris, France Laboratory of Immunity and Infection, UPMC University Paris 06, Unité mixte de recherche-S945, Paris, France Inserm, IFR 113, Immunité-Cancer-Infection, Paris, France
| | - François-Loïc Cosset
- CIRI-International Center for Infectiology Research, Team EVIR, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France. Inserm, U1111, Lyon, France Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France. CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon, France LabEx Ecofect, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | | | - Christian Trépo
- Inserm U1052, CNRS UMR 5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Université de Lyon (UCBL), Lyon, France Department of Hepatology, Croix-Rousse Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Jia-Horng Kao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Department of Medical Research, Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, and Hepatitis Research Center, National Taiwan University College of Medicine and Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Fabrice Carrat
- Inserm, UMR_S 1136, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique, Paris, France Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Karine Lacombe
- Inserm, UMR_S 1136, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique, Paris, France Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Paris, France Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Raymond F Schinazi
- Center for AIDS Research, Emory University School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
- Inserm and Unit of Regulation of Retroviral Infections, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Fabien Zoulim
- Inserm U1052, CNRS UMR 5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Université de Lyon (UCBL), Lyon, France Department of Hepatology, Croix-Rousse Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
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314
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Inácio P, Zuzarte-Luís V, Ruivo MTG, Falkard B, Nagaraj N, Rooijers K, Mann M, Mair G, Fidock DA, Mota MM. Parasite-induced ER stress response in hepatocytes facilitates Plasmodium liver stage infection. EMBO Rep 2015; 16:955-64. [PMID: 26113366 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201439979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon infection of a mammalian host, Plasmodium parasites first replicate inside hepatocytes, generating thousands of new parasites. Although Plasmodium intra-hepatic development represents a substantial metabolic challenge to the host hepatocyte, how infected cells respond to and integrate this stress remains poorly understood. Here, we present proteomic and transcriptomic analyses, revealing that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated in host hepatocytes upon Plasmodium berghei infection. The expression of XBP1s--the active form of the UPR mediator XBP1--and the liver-specific UPR mediator CREBH is induced by P. berghei infection in vivo. Furthermore, this UPR induction increases parasite liver burden. Altogether, our data suggest that ER stress is a central feature of P. berghei intra-hepatic development, contributing to the success of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Inácio
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Vanessa Zuzarte-Luís
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Margarida T G Ruivo
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Brie Falkard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nagarjuna Nagaraj
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Koos Rooijers
- Division of Gene Regulation, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthias Mann
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Gunnar Mair
- Department of Parasitology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Maria M Mota
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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315
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Makarova-Rusher OV, Medina-Echeverz J, Duffy AG, Greten TF. The yin and yang of evasion and immune activation in HCC. J Hepatol 2015; 62:1420-9. [PMID: 25733155 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Current systemic treatment options for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are limited to sorafenib. With the recent FDA approval of the second PD1-PD-L1 pathway inhibitor, immunotherapy has gained even more interest as a potential novel treatment option for patients with HCC. This is due not only because of the failure of other treatment approaches in the past, but also because immunological mechanisms have been shown to play an important role during tumor development, growth, and treatment. Here we present a review of immunological mechanisms in the liver relevant for tumor progression and treatment. We summarize our current knowledge on immune activating and immune suppressing mechanisms during tumor initiation, development, and treatment. We try to explain the paradox of how inflammatory responses in a setting of chronic infection promote tumor development, while the primary aim of immunotherapy is to activate immunity. Finally we summarize recent advances in addition to providing an outlook for the immunotherapy of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oxana V Makarova-Rusher
- Gastrointestinal Malignancy Section, Thoracic and Gastrointestinal Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - José Medina-Echeverz
- Gastrointestinal Malignancy Section, Thoracic and Gastrointestinal Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Austin G Duffy
- Gastrointestinal Malignancy Section, Thoracic and Gastrointestinal Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tim F Greten
- Gastrointestinal Malignancy Section, Thoracic and Gastrointestinal Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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316
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Bansal R, Frelin L, Brenndörfer ED, Storm G, Prakash J, Sällberg M. Hepatitis C Virus Nonstructural 3/4A Protein Dampens Inflammation and Contributes to Slow Fibrosis Progression during Chronic Fibrosis In Vivo. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128466. [PMID: 26030283 PMCID: PMC4450868 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
HCV infection typically induces liver injury and inflammation, which appears to be responsible for the associated fibrogenesis. To date, the mechanism underlying the different rates of disease progression remains unclear. The aim of the study is to understand the possible role of the HCV non-structural (NS) 3/4A protein in the fibrosis progression. We used NS3/4A-expressing transgenic mice (NS3/4A-Tg) to accomplish the goals of the study. Different stages of liver fibrosis were induced in wild-type and NS3/4A-Tg mice by single carbon tetrachloride (acute) or multiple injections for 4 (intermediate) or 8 (chronic) weeks. Fibrotic parameters, inflammatory responses and hepatocyte turnover were extensively examined. Hepatic expression of HCV NS3/4A did not induce spontaneous liver damage. However, NS3/4A expression exerted contrasting effects during acute and chronic liver damage. During early fibrogenesis and intermediate fibrosis (4 weeks), NS3/4A-Tg mice exhibited enhanced liver damage whereas reduced fibrosis was observed in NS3/4A-Tg during chronic liver fibrosis (8 weeks). Furthermore, attenuated inflammation was observed in NS3/4A-Tg during chronic fibrosis with increase in M2 macrophages, hepatocyte proliferation, decreased hepatocyte apoptosis and decreased ductular reaction. In conclusion, during early fibrogenesis, HCV NS3/4A contributes to liver damage. While, during chronic liver fibrosis, NS3/4A dampens inflammation and induces hepatocyte regeneration thereby contributing to slow fibrosis progression to promote its survival or persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruchi Bansal
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Targeted Therapeutics, Department of Biomaterials, Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Lars Frelin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erwin Daniel Brenndörfer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gert Storm
- Targeted Therapeutics, Department of Biomaterials, Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jai Prakash
- Targeted Therapeutics, Department of Biomaterials, Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Matti Sällberg
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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317
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Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmune and Viral Chronic Hepatitis. J Immunol Res 2015; 2015:479703. [PMID: 26106627 PMCID: PMC4464004 DOI: 10.1155/2015/479703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In both autoimmune liver disease and chronic viral hepatitis, the injury results from an immune-mediated cytotoxic T cell response to liver cells. As such, it is not surprising that CD4(+) regulatory T cells, a key regulatory population of T cells able to curb immune responses, could be involved in both autoimmune hepatitis and chronic viral hepatitis. The liver can induce the conversion of naïve CD4(+) T cells to CD4(+) regulatory T cells and induce tolerance to locally expressed antigens. This tolerance mechanism is carefully regulated in physiological conditions but any imbalance could be pathological. An overly tolerant immune response can lead to chronic infections while an overreactive and unbridled immune response can lead to autoimmune hepatitis. With the recent advent of monoclonal antibodies able to target regulatory T cells (daclizumab) and improve immune responses and several ongoing clinical trials analysing the impact of regulatory T cell infusion on autoimmune liver disease or liver transplant tolerance, modulation of immunological tolerance through CD4(+) regulatory T cells could be a key element of future immunotherapies for several liver diseases allowing restoring the balance between proper immune responses and tolerance. .
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318
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Hepatitis B Virus-Infected HepG2hNTCP Cells Serve as a Novel Immunological Tool To Analyze the Antiviral Efficacy of CD8+ T Cells In Vitro. J Virol 2015; 89:7433-8. [PMID: 25972537 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00605-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8(+) T cells are the main effector lymphocytes in the control of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. However, limitations of model systems, such as low infection rates, restrict mechanistic studies of HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells. Here, we established a novel immunological cell culture model based on HBV-infected HepG2(hNTCP) cells that endogenously processed viral antigens and presented them to HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells. This induced cytolytic and noncytolytic CD8(+) T-cell effector functions and reduction of viral loads.
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319
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Shi Y, Song Q, Hu D, Zhuang X, Yu S. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte activity is enhanced in tumors with low IL-10 production in HBV-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 461:109-14. [PMID: 25862952 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.03.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers and can be induced by chronic HBV infection. The role of HBV-specific immune responses in mediating tumorigenesis and HCC prognosis is debated. The effect of intratumoral microenvironment on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) is also unclear. Here, we examined resected tumor tissue from 36 patients with HBV-induced HCC. We categorized study cohort based on ex vivo IL-10 secretion by tumor cells into high IL-10-secreting (Hi10) and low IL-10-secreting (Lo10) groups, and found that the Lo10 group was less sensitive to TLR ligand stimulation. TILs from the Lo10 group contained higher frequencies of HBV-specific IFN-g-producing cells and total IFN-g-producing cells, and possessed higher proliferative capacity. Moreover, the proliferative capacity of TILs from the Hi10 group was negatively correlated with IL-10 secretion from tumor cells. Together, our data demonstrated that low IL-10-producing capacity in HBV-induced HCC tumors is associated with enhanced TIL activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Shi
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou 221002, China.
| | - Qingwei Song
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou 221002, China
| | - Dianhe Hu
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou 221002, China
| | - Xiaohu Zhuang
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou 221002, China
| | - Shengcai Yu
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou 221002, China
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320
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Böttcher J, Knolle PA. Global transcriptional characterization of CD8+ T cell memory. Semin Immunol 2015; 27:4-9. [PMID: 25841628 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Revised: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The differentiation of memory CD8T cells after acute infections comprises generation of functionally distinct populations that either have proliferative potential or display cytotoxic effector functions and that either recirculate into lymphoid tissues or remain tissue-resident. The development of these functionally distinct cell populations is dictated by defined signals from the microenvironment that result in a coordinated expression of a network of transcription factors, which determine the functionality of memory T cells. Distinct transcriptional regulation observed during chronic viral infection that results in generation of T cells that control viral replication in the absence of immunopathology suggests the existence of so far unappreciated functional adaptation of T cell function to the particular need during chronic infections to control infection and avoid immunopathology. Furthermore, the non-canonical generation of CD8T cell memory outside of lymphoid tissues in the liver in the absence of inflammation is correlated with a distinct transcriptional profile and indicates further complexity in the commensurate immune response to infectious pathogens that escape innate immunity. Taken together, distinct profiles of transcriptional regulation are linked to CD8T cells with different functions and provide important mechanistic insight into the continuous functional adaptation of CD8T cells to generate a commensurate immune response to infectious challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Böttcher
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK, United Kingdom
| | - Percy A Knolle
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, München Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Germany; Institute of Experimental Immunology, Universität Bonn, Germany.
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321
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T-cell exhaustion in chronic hepatitis B infection: current knowledge and clinical significance. Cell Death Dis 2015; 6:e1694. [PMID: 25789969 PMCID: PMC4385920 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2015.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 01/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the major cause of inflammatory liver disease, of which the clinical recovery and effective anti-viral therapy is associated with the sustained viral control of effector T cells. In humans, chronic HBV infection often shows weak or absent virus-specific T-cell reactivity, which is described as the ‘exhaustion' state characterized by poor effector cytotoxic activity, impaired cytokine production and sustained expression of multiple inhibitory receptors, such as programmed cell death-1 (PD-1), lymphocyte activation gene-3, cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 and CD244. As both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells participate in the immune responses against chronic hepatitis virus through distinct manners, compelling evidences have been proposed, which restore the anti-viral function of these exhausted T cells by blocking those inhibitory receptors with its ligand and will pave the way for the development of more effective immunotherapeutic and prophylactic strategies for the treatment of chronic infectious diseases. A large number of studies have stated the essentiality of T-cell exhaustion in virus-infected diseases, such as LCMV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus infections and cancers. Besides, the functional restoration of HCV- and HIV-specific CD8+ T cells by PD-1 blockade has already been repeatedly verified, and also for the immunological control of tumors in humans, blocking the PD-1 pathway could be a major immunotherapeutic strategy. Although the specific molecular pathways of T-cell exhaustion remain ambiguous, several transcriptional pathways have been implicated in T-cell exhaustion recently; among them Blimp-1, T-bet and NFAT2 were able to regulate exhausted T cells during chronic viral infection, suggesting a distinct lineage fate for this sub-population of T cells. This paper summarizes the current literature relevant to T-cell exhaustion in patients with HBV-related chronic hepatitis, the options for identifying new potential therapeutic targets to treat HBV infection and highlights priorities for further study.
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322
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Lunemann S, Malone DFG, Grabowski J, Port K, Béziat V, Bremer B, Malmberg KJ, Manns MP, Sandberg JK, Cornberg M, Ljunggren HG, Wedemeyer H, Björkström NK. Effects of HDV infection and pegylated interferon α treatment on the natural killer cell compartment in chronically infected individuals. Gut 2015; 64:469-82. [PMID: 24721903 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-306767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although hepatitis delta is considered an immune-mediated disease, adaptive immune responses to hepatitis delta virus (HDV) are hardly detectable. Thus, the role of other immune responses, including those mediated by natural killer (NK) cells, must be considered in HDV pathogenesis and in treatments with immune-stimulating agents such as interferon (IFN)α. However, the phenotype and function of NK cells in chronic HDV infection, or in HDV-infected individuals undergoing IFNα treatment, have not been extensively studied. DESIGN We performed an extensive analysis of NK cells in chronically HDV-infected patients before and during treatment with IFNα, and compared the results with those for patients with HBV mono-infection as well as healthy controls. RESULTS In untreated HDV-infected patients, a higher than normal frequency of NK cells was observed in peripheral blood with unaltered phenotypic NK cell differentiation status. In contrast, long-term IFNα treatment of HDV-infected patients caused a significant change in NK cell differentiation status, with selective loss of terminally differentiated NK cells and, in parallel, a relative enrichment in immature NK cell subsets. Treatment was associated with marked functional impairment of the NK cells, which was independent of the changes in NK cell differentiation status. Furthermore, treatment polarised NK cell IFN signalling from STAT4 towards STAT1 dependency. Strikingly, a high frequency of CD56(dim) NK cells at baseline was positively associated with IFNα treatment outcome in the patients. CONCLUSIONS We describe in detail how HDV infection, and IFNα treatment of this infection, affects the NK cell compartment and what consequences this has for the functional capacity of NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Lunemann
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - David F G Malone
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Grabowski
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kerstin Port
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vivien Béziat
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Birgit Bremer
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Karl-Johan Malmberg
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Institute for Cancer Research, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael P Manns
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Johan K Sandberg
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus Cornberg
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hans-Gustaf Ljunggren
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Heiner Wedemeyer
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Niklas K Björkström
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden Liver Immunology Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Velazquez VM, Uebelhoer LS, Thapa M, Ibegbu C, Courtney C, Bosinger SE, Magliocca JF, Adams AB, Kirk AD, Knechtle SJ, Kalman D, Suthar M, Grakoui A. Systems biological analyses reveal the hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific regulation of hematopoietic development. Hepatology 2015; 61:843-56. [PMID: 25331524 PMCID: PMC4340762 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Chronic liver disease is characterized by the liver enrichment of myeloid dendritic cells (DCs). To assess the role of disease on myelopoiesis, we utilized a systems biology approach to study development in liver-resident cells expressing stem cell marker CD34. In patients with endstage liver disease, liver CD34+ cells were comprised of two subsets, designated CD34+CD146+ and CD34+CD146-, and hematopoietic function was restricted to CD34+CD146- cells. Liver CD34 frequencies were reduced during nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) compared to alcohol liver disease (ALD), and this reduction correlated with viral load in the HCV cohort. To better understand the relationship between liver CD34+CD146+ and CD34+CD146- subsets and any effects of disease on CD34 development, we used gene expression profiling and computational modeling to compare each subset during ALD and HCV. For CD34+CD146+ cells, increased expression of endothelial cell genes including von Willebrand factor, VE-cadherin, and eNOS were observed when compared to CD34+CD146- cells, and minimal effects of ALD and HCV diseases on gene expression were observed. Importantly for CD34+CD146- cells, chronic HCV was associated with a distinct "imprint" of programs related to cell cycle, DNA repair, chemotaxis, development, and activation, with an emphasis on myeloid and B lymphocyte lineages. This HCV signature was further translated in side-by-side analyses, where HCV CD34+CD146- cells demonstrated superior hematopoietic growth, colony formation, and diversification compared to ALD and NASH when cultured identically. Disease-associated effects on hematopoiesis were also evident by phenotypic alterations in the expression of CD14, HLA-DR, and CD16 by myeloid progeny cells. CONCLUSION Etiology drives progenitor fate within diseased tissues. The liver may be a useful source of hematopoietic cells for therapy, or as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luke S. Uebelhoer
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Manoj Thapa
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Chris Ibegbu
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Cynthia Courtney
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Steven E. Bosinger
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Joseph F. Magliocca
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Andrew B. Adams
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Allan D. Kirk
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Stuart J. Knechtle
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Daniel Kalman
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Mehul Suthar
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Department of Pediatrics and Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Arash Grakoui
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
,Corresponding author: Arash Grakoui, PhD, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Road, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329, (404) 727-5850 (phone), (404) 727-7768 (fax),
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324
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Expression of Viral Antigen by the Liver Leads to Chronic Infection Through the Generation of Regulatory T Cells. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 1:325-341.e1. [PMID: 28210682 PMCID: PMC5301191 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The constant exposure of the liver to food and bacterial antigens through the mesenteric circulation requires it to maintain tolerance while preserving the ability to mount an effective immune response against pathogens. We investigated the contribution of the liver's tolerogenic nature on the establishment of chronic viral infections. METHODS TTR-NP mice, which express the nucleoprotein (NP) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) specifically in hepatocytes under control of a modified transthyretin (TTR) promoter, were infected with the Armstrong (Arm) or WE acute strains of LCMV. RESULTS The infection persisted for at least 147 days in TTR-NP mice. Expression of NP by the liver induced a strong peripheral tolerance against NP that was mediated by interleukin-10-secreting CD4+ regulatory T cells, leading to high PD-1 (programmed death-1) expression and reduced effector function of virus-specific T cells. Despite an active immune response against LCMV, peripheral tolerance against a single viral protein was sufficient to induce T-cell exhaustion and chronic LCMV Armstrong (Arm) or WE infection by limiting the antiviral T-cell response in an otherwise immunocompetent host. Regulatory T-cell depletion of chronically infected TTR-NP mice led to functional restoration of LCMV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses and viral clearance. CONCLUSIONS Expression of a viral antigen by hepatocytes can induce a state of peripheral tolerance mediated by regulatory T cells that can lead to the establishment of a chronic viral infection. Strategies targeting regulatory T cells in patients chronically infected with hepatotropic viruses could represent a promising approach to restore functional antiviral immunity and clear infection.
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Key Words
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- APC, allophycocyanin
- Arm, Armstrong strain
- BTLA, B and T lymphocyte attenuator
- CFSE, carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester
- CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte
- Chronic Infection
- ELISA, enzyme-linked immunoassay
- FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorter
- FoxP3, forkhead box P3
- GP, glycoprotein
- HBV, hepatitis B virus
- HCV, hepatitis C virus
- Hepatitis
- IFN, interferon
- IL, interleukin
- IP, intraperitoneal
- IV, intravenous
- LCMV, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
- LIL, liver-infiltrating lymphocytes
- NP, nucleoprotein
- P14, GP33–41-specific TCR transgenic
- PD-1, programmed death-1
- PD-L1, programmed death-ligand-1
- PE, phycoerythrin
- RAG, recombination-activating gene
- TCR, T-cell receptor
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α
- TNP4, NP396–404-specific TCR transgenic
- TTR, transthyretin
- Tolerance
- Treg, regulatory T cell
- pfu, plaque-forming units
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325
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Ringelhan M, O'Connor T, Protzer U, Heikenwalder M. The direct and indirect roles of HBV in liver cancer: prospective markers for HCC screening and potential therapeutic targets. J Pathol 2015; 235:355-67. [PMID: 25196558 DOI: 10.1002/path.4434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Revised: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains the number one risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), accounting for more than 600 000 deaths/year. Despite highly effective antiviral treatment options, chronic hepatitis B (CHB), subsequent end-stage liver disease and HCC development remain a major challenge worldwide. In CHB, liver damage is mainly caused by the influx of immune cells and destruction of infected hepatocytes, causing necro-inflammation. Treatment with nucleoside/nucleotide analogues can effectively suppress HBV replication in patients with CHB and thus decrease the risk for HCC development. Nevertheless, the risk of HCC in treated patients showing sufficient suppression of HBV DNA replication is significantly higher than in patients with inactive CHB, regardless of the presence of baseline liver cirrhosis, suggesting direct, long-lasting, predisposing effects of HBV. Direct oncogenic effects of HBV include integration in the host genome, leading to deletions, cis/trans-activation, translocations, the production of fusion transcripts and generalized genomic instability, as well as pleiotropic effects of viral transcripts (HBsAg and HBx). Analysis of these viral factors in active surveillance may allow early identification of high-risk patients, and their integration into a molecular classification of HCC subtypes might help in the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Ringelhan
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany; Second Medical Department, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany; German Centre for Infection research (DZIF), Munich Partner Site, Germany
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326
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Strauss O, Dunbar PR, Bartlett A, Phillips A. The immunophenotype of antigen presenting cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system in normal human liver--a systematic review. J Hepatol 2015; 62:458-68. [PMID: 25315649 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS), comprised of monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, is essential in tissue homeostasis and in determining the balance of the immune response through its role in antigen presentation. It has been identified as a therapeutic target in infectious disease, cancer, autoimmune disease and transplant rejection. Here, we review the current understanding of the immunophenotype and function of the MPS in normal human liver. Using well-defined selection criteria, a search of MEDLINE and EMBASE databases identified 76 appropriate studies. The majority (n=67) described Kupffer cells (KCs), although the definition of KC differs between sources, and little data were available regarding their function. Only 10 papers looked at liver dendritic cells (DCs), and largely confirmed the presence of the major dendritic cell subsets identified in human blood. Monocytes were thoroughly characterized in four studies that utilized flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy and highlighted their prominent role in liver homeostasis and displayed subtle differences from circulating monocytes. There was some limited evidence that liver DCs are tolerogenic but neither liver dendritic cell subsets nor macrophages have been thoroughly characterized, using either multi-colour flow cytometry or multi-parameter fluorescence microscopy. The lobular distribution of different subsets of liver MPS cells was also poorly described, and the ability to distinguish between passenger leukocytes and tissue resident cells remains limited. It was apparent that further research, using modern immunological techniques, is now required to accurately characterize the cells of the MPS in human liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto Strauss
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - P Rod Dunbar
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Adam Bartlett
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Anthony Phillips
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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327
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Duarte S, Baber J, Fujii T, Coito AJ. Matrix metalloproteinases in liver injury, repair and fibrosis. Matrix Biol 2015; 44-46:147-56. [PMID: 25599939 PMCID: PMC4495728 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The liver is a large highly vascularized organ with a central function in metabolic homeostasis, detoxification, and immunity. Due to its roles, the liver is frequently exposed to various insults which can cause cell death and hepatic dysfunction. Alternatively, the liver has a remarkable ability to self-repair and regenerate after injury. Liver injury and regeneration have both been linked to complex extracellular matrix (ECM) related pathways. While normal degradation of ECM components is an important feature of tissue repair and remodeling, irregular ECM turnover contributes to a variety of liver diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are the main enzymes implicated in ECM degradation. MMPs not only remodel the ECM, but also regulate immune responses. In this review, we highlight some of the MMP-attributed roles in acute and chronic liver injury and emphasize the need for further experimentation to better understand their functions during hepatic physiological conditions and disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Duarte
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - John Baber
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Takehiro Fujii
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Ana J Coito
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplant Center, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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328
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Castro-García FP, Corral-Jara KF, Escobedo-Melendez G, Sandoval-Hernandez MA, Rosenstein Y, Roman S, Panduro A, Fierro NA. Conjugated bilirubin affects cytokine profiles in hepatitis A virus infection by modulating function of signal transducer and activator of transcription factors. Immunology 2015; 143:578-87. [PMID: 24943111 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is the major cause of acute liver failure in paediatric patients. The clinical spectrum of infection is variable, and liver injury is determined by altered hepatic enzyme function and bilirubin concentration. We recently reported differences in cytokine profiles between distinct HAV-induced clinical courses, and bilirubin has been recognized as a potential immune-modulator. However, how bilirubin may affect cytokine profiles underlying the variability in the course of infection has not been determined. Herein, we used a transcription factor (TF) binding site identification approach to retrospectively analyse cytokine expression in HAV-infected children and to predict the entire set of TFs associated with the expression of specific cytokine profiles. The results suggested that modulation of the activity of signal transducers and activators of transcription proteins (STATs) may play a central role during HAV infection. This led us to compare the degree of STAT phosphorylation in peripheral blood lymphoid cells (PBLCs) from paediatric patients with distinct levels of conjugated bilirubin (CB). Low CB levels in sera were associated with increased STAT-1 and STAT-5 phosphorylation. A positive correlation was observed between the serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) content and CB values, whereas higher levels of CB correlated with reduced serum IL-8 values and with a reduction in the proportion of PBLCs positive for STAT-5 phosphorylation. When CB was used to stimulate patients' PBLCs in vitro, the levels of IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α were increased. The data showed that bilirubin plays a role in STAT function and affects cytokine profile expression during HAV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flor P Castro-García
- Unidad de Inmunovirología, Hospital Civil de Guadalajara Fray Antonio Alcalde, Guadalajara, Mexico; Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
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329
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Abstract
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the leading cause of persistent liver diseases, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the precise mechanism underlying the development of HBV-related diseases is not fully understood. In addition, the therapeutic strategies for the diseases are less than optimum. microRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that have been described as a "fine-tuner" in various cellular events. The dysregulation of miRNAs play a role in the development of the cancer as well as viral interference. Recent articles have demonstrated that several miRNAs are deregulated by HBV infection and contribute to viral replication and pathogenesis. Thus, it suggests that the precise mechanism between miRNA and HBV biology will be leading to the development of the novel diagnosis and therapy. This chapter aims to provide the basic principals of miRNAs in development of the HBV-related diseases. We also discuss about the possibility of miRNAs on the clinical application for diagnosis and therapy of HBV-related diseases.
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330
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Szabo G, Saha B, Bukong TN. Alcohol and HCV: implications for liver cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 815:197-216. [PMID: 25427909 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-09614-8_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Liver cancers are one of the deadliest known malignancies which are increasingly becoming a major public health problem in both developed and developing countries. Overwhelming evidence suggests a strong role of infection with hepatitis B and C virus (HBV and HCV), alcohol abuse, as well as metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes either individually or synergistically to cause or exacerbate the development of liver cancers. Although numerous etiologic mechanisms for liver cancer development have been advanced and well characterized, the lack of definite curative treatments means that gaps in knowledge still exist in identifying key molecular mechanisms and pathways in the pathophysiology of liver cancers. Given the limited success with current therapies and preventive strategies against liver cancer, there is an urgent need to identify new therapeutic options for patients. Targeting HCV and or alcohol-induced signal transduction, or virus-host protein interactions may offer novel therapies for liver cancer. This review summarizes current knowledge on the mechanistic development of liver cancer associated with HCV infection and alcohol abuse as well as highlights potential novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyongyi Szabo
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA,
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331
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Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection acquired in adult life is generally self-limited while chronic persistence of the virus is the prevalent outcome when infection is acquired perinatally. Both control of infection and liver cell injury are strictly dependent upon protective immune responses, because hepatocyte damage is the price that the host must pay to get rid of intracellular virus. Resolution of acute hepatitis B is associated with functionally efficient, multispecific antiviral T-cell responses which are preceded by a poor induction of intracellular innate responses at the early stages of infection. Persistent control of infection is provided by long-lasting protective memory, which is probably sustained by continuous stimulation of the immune system by trace amounts of virus which are never totally eliminated, persisting in an occult episomic form in the nucleus of liver cells even after recovery from acute infection. Chronic virus persistence is instead characterized by a lack of protective T-cell memory maturation and by an exhaustion of HBV-specific T-cell responses. Persistent exposure of T cells to high antigen loads is a key determinant of functional T-cell impairment but also other mechanisms can contribute to T-cell inhibition, including the tolerogenic effect of the liver environment. The degree of T-cell impairment is variable and its severity is related to the level of virus replication and antigen load. The antiviral T-cell function is more efficient in patients who can control infection either partially, such as inactive HBsAg carriers with low levels of virus replication, or completely, such as patients who achieve HBsAg loss either spontaneously or after antiviral therapy. Thus, understanding the features of the immune responses associated with control of infection is needed for the successful design of novel immune modulatory therapies based on the reconstitution of efficient antiviral responses in chronic HBV patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Ferrari
- Unit of Infectious Disease and Hepatology, Laboratory of Viral Immunopathology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
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332
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Hepatitis B virus regulates apoptosis and tumorigenesis through the microRNA-15a-Smad7-transforming growth factor beta pathway. J Virol 2014; 89:2739-49. [PMID: 25540364 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02784-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection causes chronic hepatitis in hundreds of millions of people worldwide, which can eventually lead to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Previously, we found that HBV mRNAs can absorb microRNA-15a (miR-15a) to affect apoptosis through the Bcl-2 pathway. We asked whether HBV could inhibit apoptosis and promote tumorigenesis through different pathways. In this study, we found that the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) pathway-inhibitory factor Smad7 is a novel target of miR-15a. We demonstrated that HBV can upregulate the level of Smad7 by downregulating miR-15a. Furthermore, we examined the level of Smad7 in liver samples from HBV-infected HCC patients and found that HBV mRNAs are positively correlated with the level of Smad7. By taking the approach of using immunoblotting and luciferase reporter assays, we revealed that HBV can abrogate TGF-β signaling via upregulating Smad7. By using annexin V staining and caspase 3/7 activity assays, we found that HBV can inhibit TGF-β-induced apoptosis of HepG2 cells. We also showed that HBV can promote tumor growth in BALB/c nude mice through upregulating the expression of Smad7. In conclusion, we demonstrated that HBV can upregulate Smad7 expression and inhibit TGF-β signaling, which makes the cells resistant to TGF-β-induced apoptosis and promotes tumorigenesis. IMPORTANCE Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection causes chronic hepatitis, which can eventually lead to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). TGF-β signaling is closely linked to liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and subsequent HCC progression and plays a unique role in the pathogenesis of HCC. At the early stage of tumor formation, TGF-β functions as a tumor suppressor that inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis. Previously, we found that HBV mRNAs can sponge off miR-15a to affect apoptosis through the Bcl-2 pathway. In this study, we identified that the TGF-β-inhibitory factor Smad7 is a novel target of miR-15a. We reveal that HBV can abrogate TGF-β signaling via upregulating Smad7, inhibit TGF-β-induced apoptosis, as well as promote tumor development. Our study provides evidence to support the idea that viral RNAs can exert their functions as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) toward microRNA and participate in important cellular processes.
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333
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Xue M, Fan F, Ding L, Liu J, Su S, Yin P, Cao M, Zhao W, Hu HM, Wang L. An autophagosome-based therapeutic vaccine for HBV infection: a preclinical evaluation. J Transl Med 2014; 12:361. [PMID: 25526800 PMCID: PMC4301925 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-014-0361-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background For more than 240 million chronic HBV carriers worldwide, effective therapeutic HBV vaccines are urgently needed. Recently, we demonstrated that autophagosomes were efficient antigens carriers and capable to cross-prime robust T-cell responses and mediate regression of multiple established tumors. Here we tested whether autophagosomes derived from HBV expressing cells could also function as a therapeutic vaccine. Methods We generated an autophagosome-based HBV vaccine from HBV-expressing hepatoma cells and examined its ability to induce polyvalent anti-HBV T-cell responses and therapeutic efficacy in mouse models that mimic acute and chronic HBV infection in human. Results When compared to the vaccine based on recombinant HBsAg, autophagosome-based HBV vaccine cross-primed multi-specific anti-HBV T-cell responses and significantly reduced HBV replication and HBcAg expression in livers of both acute and chronic mouse models. Therapeutic effect of this HBV vaccine depended on anti-HBV CD8+ effector T cells and associated with increased HBsAg and HBcAg specific IFN-γ producing T cells in the chronic mouse model. Conclusions These results indicated that autophagosome-based HBV vaccine could effectively suppress the HBV replication, clear the HBV infected hepatocytes, and break the HBV tolerance in mouse model. The potential clinical application of autophagosome-based HBV vaccine is discussed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-014-0361-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Xue
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Fei Fan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Lei Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Jingyu Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Shu Su
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Pengfei Yin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Meng Cao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Wei Zhao
- Cancer Research and Biotherapy Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
| | - Hong-ming Hu
- Cancer Research and Biotherapy Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China. .,Laboratory of Cancer Immunobiology, Earle A. Chiles Research Institute, Providence Portland Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, USA.
| | - Lixin Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China. .,Cancer Research and Biotherapy Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
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334
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Mouse models for therapeutic vaccination against hepatitis B virus. Med Microbiol Immunol 2014; 204:95-102. [DOI: 10.1007/s00430-014-0378-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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335
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Knolle PA, Böttcher J, Huang LR. The role of hepatic immune regulation in systemic immunity to viral infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2014; 204:21-7. [PMID: 25523194 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-014-0371-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The liver has particular immune functions attributed by its unique microenvironment and its liver-resident cell populations. During autoimmunity and viral hepatitis, the liver serves as target for effector responses of immune cells. However, skewing of effector T cell functions through tolerogenic liver-resident antigen-presenting cells and through the immune regulatory hepatic microenvironment. Importantly, the liver also participates in shaping systemic antigen-specific immunity. Local antigen-presenting cell populations, in particular liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), cross-present soluble, circulating or hepatocyte-derived antigens to naïve CD8 T cells. Upon priming by cross-presenting LSECs, naïve CD8 T cells develop into a unique population of antigen-experienced memory-like T cell population that can be reactivated in an inflammatory context to protect against infection with viruses or bacteria. Furthermore, upon prolonged inflammatory TNF-dependent signaling, the induction of intrahepatic myeloid cell aggregates for T cell population expansion (iMATEs) is observed in liver tissue. iMATEs are formed by inflammatory monocytes developing into dendritic cells and function to attract recently activated CD8 T cells. Those CD8 T cells located within the cocoon-like iMATE structure show strong proliferation initiated by co-stimulatory signaling. Locally expanded CD8 T cells are key to control acute and chronic viral infections. The mechanistic understanding of local hepatic T cell priming and local expansion of effector CD8 T cells will help to develop novel therapeutic vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Percy A Knolle
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675, Munich, Germany,
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336
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The RNA sensor RIG-I dually functions as an innate sensor and direct antiviral factor for hepatitis B virus. Immunity 2014; 42:123-32. [PMID: 25557055 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Host innate recognition triggers key immune responses for viral elimination. The sensing mechanism of hepatitis B virus (HBV), a DNA virus, and the subsequent downstream signaling events remain to be fully clarified. Here we found that type III but not type I interferons are predominantly induced in human primary hepatocytes in response to HBV infection, through retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-mediated sensing of the 5'-ε region of HBV pregenomic RNA. In addition, RIG-I could also counteract the interaction of HBV polymerase (P protein) with the 5'-ε region in an RNA-binding dependent manner, which consistently suppressed viral replication. Liposome-mediated delivery and vector-based expression of this ε region-derived RNA in liver abolished the HBV replication in human hepatocyte-chimeric mice. These findings identify an innate-recognition mechanism by which RIG-I dually functions as an HBV sensor activating innate signaling and to counteract viral polymerase in human hepatocytes.
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337
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Ringelhan M, Reisinger F, Yuan D, Weber A, Heikenwalder M. Modeling human liver cancer heterogeneity: virally induced transgenic models and mouse genetic models of chronic liver inflammation. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN PHARMACOLOGY 2014; 67:14.31.1-14.31.17. [PMID: 25446288 DOI: 10.1002/0471141755.ph1431s67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In addition to being the most common primary liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the second most common cause of cancer-related death in humans. Treatment options are limited for this chemoresistant cancer, with liver transplantation and surgical intervention in early stages being the most successful treatments. Drug development over the past 15 years has focused on generating mouse models that mimic the human pathology for HCC. This has enabled the laboratory testing of potentially new human therapeutics. Described in this unit are the classification of HCC and an overview of hepatitis virus-related transgenic and genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) that are employed for elucidating the mechanism(s) responsible for the development of HCC, with particular emphasis on genetic, dietary, and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Ringelhan
- Institute of Virology, München, Germany.,2nd Medical Department, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, München, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), München, Germany
| | | | | | - Achim Weber
- Institute of Surgical Pathology, Zürich, Switzerland
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338
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Bengsch B, Martin B, Thimme R. Restoration of HBV-specific CD8+ T cell function by PD-1 blockade in inactive carrier patients is linked to T cell differentiation. J Hepatol 2014; 61:1212-9. [PMID: 25016223 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The upregulation of several inhibitory signalling pathways by exhausted HBV-specific CD8+ T cells in chronic infection is thought to contribute to viral persistence. Blockade of inhibitory receptors to reinvigorate exhausted T cell function is a promising novel therapeutic approach. However, little information is available regarding the relative contribution of individual inhibitory pathways to HBV-specific CD8+ T cell failure and the impact of inhibitory receptor blockade on restoration of T cell function in chronic HBV. METHODS 98 HLA-A2+ chronically infected patients were analysed ex vivo for HBV-specific CD8+ T cell responses, the expression of multiple inhibitory receptors and T cell differentiation markers. The effects of inhibitory receptor blockade targeting PD-1, 2B4, Tim-3, CTLA-4, and BTLA were assessed in vitro. RESULTS In our cohort, ex vivo HBV-specific CD8+ T cell responses were identified preferentially in HBeAg patients with low ALT and low viral load (inactive carriers). We observed a clear hierarchy of inhibitory receptor expression dominated by PD-1. The response to inhibitory receptor blockade was heterogeneous. Compared to the blockade of other inhibitory receptors, blockade of the PD-1 pathway resulted in the strongest increase in function. Of note, a positive effect of PD-1 blockade was linked to intermediate T cell differentiation. CONCLUSIONS Despite the expression of multiple inhibitory receptors by HBV-specific CD8+ T cells, expression and response to blockade was dominated by PD-1. However, PD-1 expression did not predict response to blockade. Rather, response to blockade was associated with intermediate T cell differentiation. These findings have important implications for our understanding of inhibitory receptor blockade as a novel therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertram Bengsch
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital of Freiburg, Germany; Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Bianca Martin
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital of Freiburg, Germany; Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robert Thimme
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital of Freiburg, Germany.
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339
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Ma Z, Zhang E, Yang D, Lu M. Contribution of Toll-like receptors to the control of hepatitis B virus infection by initiating antiviral innate responses and promoting specific adaptive immune responses. Cell Mol Immunol 2014; 12:273-82. [PMID: 25418467 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2014.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well accepted that adaptive immunity plays a key role in the control of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. In contrast, the contribution of innate immunity has only received attention in recent years. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) sense pathogen-associated molecule patterns and activate antiviral mechanisms, including intracellular antiviral pathways and the production of antiviral effector interferons (IFNs) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Experimental results from in vitro and in vivo models have demonstrated that TLRs mediate the activation of cellular signaling pathways and the production of antiviral cytokines, resulting in a suppression of HBV replication. However, HBV infection is associated with downregulation of TLR expression on host cells and blockade of the activation of downstream signaling pathways. In primary HBV infection, TLRs may slow down HBV infection, but contribute only indirectly to viral clearance. Importantly, TLRs may modulate HBV-specific T- and B-cell responses in vivo, which are essential for the termination of HBV infection. Thus, TLR agonists are promising candidates to act as immunomodulators for the treatment of chronic HBV infection. Antiviral treatment may recover TLR expression and function in chronic HBV infection and may increase the efficacy of therapeutic approaches based on TLR activation. A combined therapeutic strategy with antiviral treatment and TLR activation could facilitate the restoration of HBV-specific immune responses and thereby, achieve viral clearance in chronically infected HBV patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Ma
- 1] Institute of Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany [2] Department of Infectious Diseases, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ejuan Zhang
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Dongliang Yang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Mengji Lu
- Institute of Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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340
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Huang CR, Lo SJ. Hepatitis D virus infection, replication and cross-talk with the hepatitis B virus. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:14589-14597. [PMID: 25356023 PMCID: PMC4209526 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i40.14589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral hepatitis remains a worldwide public health problem. The hepatitis D virus (HDV) must either coinfect or superinfect with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). HDV contains a small RNA genome (approximately 1.7 kb) with a single open reading frame (ORF) and requires HBV supplying surface antigens (HBsAgs) to assemble a new HDV virion. During HDV replication, two isoforms of a delta antigen, a small delta antigen (SDAg) and a large delta antigen (LDAg), are produced from the same ORF of the HDV genome. The SDAg is required for HDV replication, whereas the interaction of LDAg with HBsAgs is crucial for packaging of HDV RNA. Various clinical outcomes of HBV/HDV dual infection have been reported, but the molecular interaction between HBV and HDV is poorly understood, especially regarding how HBV and HDV compete with HBsAgs for assembling virions. In this paper, we review the role of endoplasmic reticulum stress induced by HBsAgs and the molecular pathway involved in their promotion of LDAg nuclear export. Because the nuclear sublocalization and export of LDAg is regulated by posttranslational modifications (PTMs), including acetylation, phosphorylation, and isoprenylation, we also summarize the relationship among HBsAg-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling, LDAg PTMs, and nuclear export mechanisms in this review.
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341
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Schurich A, Henson SM. The Many Unknowns Concerning the Bioenergetics of Exhaustion and Senescence during Chronic Viral Infection. Front Immunol 2014; 5:468. [PMID: 25309548 PMCID: PMC4174864 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system cannot be continuously reactivated throughout the lifetime of an organism; there is a finite point at which repeated antigenic challenge leads to the loss of lymphocyte function or the cells themselves. Antigen-specific T cells can be compromised in two ways through the distinct processes of replicative senescence and exhaustion. Senescence is initiated by a DNA damage response whereas exhaustion triggers inhibitory receptors to dampen the immune response. These two distinct pathways not only differ in their initiation but also growing evidence suggests that their biogenergetics is also different. Here, we review recent findings uncovering the metabolism of these unique states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Schurich
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London , London , UK
| | - Sian M Henson
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London , London , UK
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342
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Chen CF, Feng X, Liao HY, Jin WJ, Zhang J, Wang Y, Gong LL, Liu JJ, Yuan XH, Zhao BB, Zhang D, Chen GF, Wan Y, Guo J, Yan HP, He YW. Regulation of T cell proliferation by JMJD6 and PDGF-BB during chronic hepatitis B infection. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6359. [PMID: 25219359 PMCID: PMC4163673 DOI: 10.1038/srep06359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
T cell functional exhaustion during chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection may contribute to the failed viral clearance; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that jumonji domain-containing protein 6 (JMJD6) is a potential regulator of T cell proliferation during chronic HBV infection. The expression of JMJD6 was reduced in T lymphocytes in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients, and this reduction in JMJD6 expression was associated with impaired T cell proliferation. Moreover, silencing JMJD6 expression in primary human T cells impaired T cell proliferation. We found that JMJD6 promotes T cell proliferation by suppressing the mRNA expression of CDKN3. Furthermore, we have identified platelet derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) as a regulator of JMJD6 expression. PDGF-BB downregulates JMJD6 expression and inhibits the proliferation of human primary T cells. Importantly, the expression levels of JMJD6 and PDGF-BB in lymphocytes from CHB patients were correlated with the degree of liver damage and the outcome of chronic HBV infection treatment. Our results demonstrate that PDGF-BB and JMJD6 regulate T cell function during chronic HBV infection and may provide insights for the treatment strategies for CHB patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai-Feng Chen
- 1] MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China [2]
| | - Xia Feng
- 1] Center for Infection and Immunity, YouAn Hospital, The Beijing Capital Medical University, Beijing, China [2]
| | - Hui-Yu Liao
- 1] Center for Infection and Immunity, YouAn Hospital, The Beijing Capital Medical University, Beijing, China [2]
| | - Wen-Jing Jin
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Diagnosis and Treatment Center of Liver Fibrosis, 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
| | - Lu-Lu Gong
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing-Jun Liu
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Hui Yuan
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin-Bin Zhao
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ding Zhang
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences &Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Guo-Feng Chen
- Diagnosis and Treatment Center of Liver Fibrosis, 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Wan
- Biomedical Analysis Center, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jian Guo
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
| | - Hui-Ping Yan
- Center for Infection and Immunity, YouAn Hospital, The Beijing Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - You-Wen He
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710
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343
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Petropolis DB, Faust DM, Deep Jhingan G, Guillen N. A new human 3D-liver model unravels the role of galectins in liver infection by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004381. [PMID: 25211477 PMCID: PMC4161482 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigations of human parasitic diseases depend on the availability of appropriate in vivo animal models and ex vivo experimental systems, and are particularly difficult for pathogens whose exclusive natural hosts are humans, such as Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasite responsible for amoebiasis. This common infectious human disease affects the intestine and liver. In the liver sinusoids E. histolytica crosses the endothelium and penetrates into the parenchyma, with the concomitant initiation of inflammatory foci and subsequent abscess formation. Studying factors responsible for human liver infection is hampered by the complexity of the hepatic environment and by the restrictions inherent to the use of human samples. Therefore, we built a human 3D-liver in vitro model composed of cultured liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatocytes in a 3D collagen-I matrix sandwich. We determined the presence of important hepatic markers and demonstrated that the cell layers function as a biological barrier. E. histolytica invasion was assessed using wild-type strains and amoebae with altered virulence or different adhesive properties. We showed for the first time the dependence of endothelium crossing upon amoebic Gal/GalNAc lectin. The 3D-liver model enabled the molecular analysis of human cell responses, suggesting for the first time a crucial role of human galectins in parasite adhesion to the endothelial cells, which was confirmed by siRNA knockdown of galectin-1. Levels of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including galectin-1 and -3, were highly increased upon contact of E. histolytica with the 3D-liver model. The presence of galectin-1 and -3 in the extracellular medium stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokine release, suggesting a further role for human galectins in the onset of the hepatic inflammatory response. These new findings are relevant for a better understanding of human liver infection by E. histolytica. The study of liver infection is based on animal models, but the animal physiology does not always reflect the reality of the human host. This is particularly true for pathogens whose exclusive natural hosts are humans, such as Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasite responsible for amoebiasis. Here, we constructed an experimental human 3D-liver model able to reproduce the first steps of amoebic hepatic infection (barrier crossing, tissue migration and pro-inflammatory reaction). Using this 3D-liver model we were able to decipher the first stages of hepatic invasion by E. histolytica and to unravel the role played by galectin-1 and galectin-3 during amoebic hepatic adhesion and pro-inflammatory reaction. Moreover, the model enables analysis usually not possible with in vivo samples, such as the quantification of pro-inflammatory cytokines released inside the tissue microenvironment. Our 3D-liver model has the potential to bridge the gap between animal models and the reality of the human host for the study of amoebic infection and other infectious diseases of the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora B Petropolis
- Institut Pasteur, Cell Biology and Infection Department, Cell Biology of Parasitism Unit, Paris, France; INSERM U786, Paris, France
| | - Daniela M Faust
- Institut Pasteur, Cell Biology and Infection Department, Cell Biology of Parasitism Unit, Paris, France; INSERM U786, Paris, France
| | - Gagan Deep Jhingan
- National Institute of Immunology, Signal Transduction Lab-1 Department, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, India
| | - Nancy Guillen
- Institut Pasteur, Cell Biology and Infection Department, Cell Biology of Parasitism Unit, Paris, France; INSERM U786, Paris, France
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344
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Transfer of MHC-class-I molecules among liver sinusoidal cells facilitates hepatic immune surveillance. J Hepatol 2014; 61:600-8. [PMID: 24798625 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS In the liver, antigen-presenting cell populations such as Kupffer cells, liver dendritic cells, and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) participate through cross-presentation to CD8 T cells (CTLs) in hepatic immune-regulation and immune-surveillance. The participation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in immune regulation is controversial. Here we studied HSC's contribution to antiviral CTL immunity. METHODS Flow cytometric analysis of MHC-I molecules at the cell surface of liver cells from mice with cell-type restricted MHC-I expression. Mice with HSC-restricted MHC-I expression were infected with a hepatotropic virus and analyzed for development of viral hepatitis after CTL transfer. RESULTS HSCs transferred MHC-I molecules to LSECs and these molecules were employed for LSEC cross-presentation to CTLs. Such transfer of MHC-I molecules was sufficient to support in vivo LSEC cross-presentation of soluble antigens to CTLs. Importantly, this transfer of MHC-I molecules contributed to anti-viral CTL immunity leading to development of immune-mediated hepatitis. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate transfer of MHC-I molecules among sinusoidal liver cell populations as a potent mechanism to increase anti-viral CTL effector function. The transfer of MHC-I molecules from HSCs supplies LSECs with additional MHC-I molecules for their own cell-intrinsic cross-presentation. Such cross-allocation of MHC-I molecules in liver cell populations is distinct from cross-dressing that occurs among immune cell populations in lymphoid tissues where peptide-loaded MHC-I molecules are transferred. Our findings thus reveal a novel mechanism that increases local cross-presentation and CTL effector function in the liver, which may be instrumental for immune-surveillance during viral infection of antigen-presenting liver cells.
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345
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Jo J, Tan AT, Ussher JE, Sandalova E, Tang XZ, Tan-Garcia A, To N, Hong M, Chia A, Gill US, Kennedy PT, Tan KC, Lee KH, De Libero G, Gehring AJ, Willberg CB, Klenerman P, Bertoletti A. Toll-like receptor 8 agonist and bacteria trigger potent activation of innate immune cells in human liver. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004210. [PMID: 24967632 PMCID: PMC4072808 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of innate immune cells to sense and respond to impending danger varies by anatomical location. The liver is considered tolerogenic but is still capable of mounting a successful immune response to clear various infections. To understand whether hepatic immune cells tune their response to different infectious challenges, we probed mononuclear cells purified from human healthy and diseased livers with distinct pathogen-associated molecules. We discovered that only the TLR8 agonist ssRNA40 selectively activated liver-resident innate immune cells to produce substantial quantities of IFN-γ. We identified CD161Bright mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) and CD56Bright NK cells as the responding liver-resident innate immune cells. Their activation was not directly induced by the TLR8 agonist but was dependent on IL-12 and IL-18 production by ssRNA40-activated intrahepatic monocytes. Importantly, the ssRNA40-induced cytokine-dependent activation of MAIT cells mirrored responses induced by bacteria, i.e., generating a selective production of high levels of IFN-γ, without the concomitant production of TNF-α or IL-17A. The intrahepatic IFN-γ production could be detected not only in healthy livers, but also in HBV- or HCV-infected livers. In conclusion, the human liver harbors a network of immune cells able to modulate their immunological responses to different pathogen-associated molecules. Their ability to generate a strong production of IFN-γ upon stimulation with TLR8 agonist opens new therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of diverse liver pathologies. The ability of human pathogens, like HBV, HCV or Plasmodium spp. to infect the liver might be influenced by its tolerogenic features. However, hepatic tolerance is not absolute since protective immunity can be triggered. Our goal was to define how to deliberately elicit an intrahepatic protective immune response. To achieve this, we purified immune cells residing in the vascular bed of human livers and we probed their reactivity against different pathogen-associated molecules, mimicking signature components of viruses or bacteria. We found that robust production of anti-viral cytokine IFN-γ was induced only by the TLR8 agonist ssRNA40. Mechanistically, ssRNA40 triggered hepatic monocytes to produce IL-12 and IL-18 cytokines, which stimulated IFN-γ production by liver-resident CD161Bright MAIT and CD56Bright NK cells. We also demonstrated that ssRNA40-mediated activation could occur in pathologic (HBV- or HCV-chronically infected) livers and that a similar cytokine-mediated activation of intrahepatic cells could also be triggered upon bacterial infection. Thus, we showed that the liver immune cells can respond vigorously to specific pathogen-associated molecules. The selective production of IFN-γ by liver-resident cells could have therapeutic implications for the treatment of chronic liver infections.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured
- Coculture Techniques
- Enterococcus faecalis/immunology
- Enterococcus faecalis/metabolism
- Enterococcus faecalis/pathogenicity
- Escherichia coli/immunology
- Escherichia coli/metabolism
- Escherichia coli/pathogenicity
- Hepacivirus/immunology
- Hepacivirus/pathogenicity
- Hepatitis B/immunology
- Hepatitis B/metabolism
- Hepatitis B/pathology
- Hepatitis B/virology
- Hepatitis B virus/immunology
- Hepatitis B virus/pathogenicity
- Hepatitis C/immunology
- Hepatitis C/metabolism
- Hepatitis C/pathology
- Hepatitis C/virology
- Humans
- Immunity, Innate/drug effects
- Interferon-gamma Release Tests
- Killer Cells, Natural/drug effects
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/drug effects
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/pathology
- Liver/drug effects
- Liver/immunology
- Liver/microbiology
- Liver/pathology
- Monocytes/drug effects
- Monocytes/immunology
- Monocytes/metabolism
- Oligoribonucleotides/pharmacology
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa/immunology
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa/metabolism
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa/pathogenicity
- Riboflavin/biosynthesis
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/drug effects
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Toll-Like Receptor 8/agonists
- Toll-Like Receptor 8/metabolism
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Juandy Jo
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Anthony T. Tan
- Program Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - James E. Ussher
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital & Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Elena Sandalova
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Xin-Zi Tang
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Alfonso Tan-Garcia
- Program Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Natalie To
- Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Hong
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Adeline Chia
- Program Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Upkar S. Gill
- Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick T. Kennedy
- Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Gennaro De Libero
- Experimental Immunology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adam J. Gehring
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - Christian B. Willberg
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital & Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Klenerman
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital & Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio Bertoletti
- Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency of Science Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
- Program Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
- School of Immunity and Infection, College of Medical and Dental Science, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston Birmingham, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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346
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Knolle PA, Thimme R. Hepatic immune regulation and its involvement in viral hepatitis infection. Gastroenterology 2014; 146:1193-207. [PMID: 24412289 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The liver has unique immune regulatory functions that promote the induction of tolerance rather than responses to antigens encountered locally. These functions are mediated by local expression of coinhibitory receptors and immunosuppressive mediators that help prevent overwhelming tissue damage. Over the years, we have gained more insight into the local regulatory cues that determine the functional complexity of immune responses regulated locally in the liver. Both the unique hepatic microenvironment and the particular liver sinusoidal cell populations, in addition to hepatocytes, actively modulate immune responses locally in the liver and thereby determine the outcome of hepatic immune responses. This is of high biological and clinical relevance in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections, which can cause acute and persistent infections associated with chronic inflammation in humans that eventually progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Here, we review current knowledge about the balance between immunity and tolerance in the liver and how this may affect our understanding of the determinants of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus clearance, persistence, and virus-induced liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Percy A Knolle
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Technische Universität München and Institutes of Molecular Medicine and Experimental Immunology, Universität Bonn, Bonn.
| | - Robert Thimme
- Department of Medicine, Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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347
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Feuth T, Van Baarle D, Hoepelman AIM, Van Erpecum KJ, Siersema PD, Arends JE. Activation of extrinsic apoptosis pathway in HCV monoinfected and HIV–HCV coinfected patients, irrespective of liver disease severity. Apoptosis 2014; 19:1128-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s10495-014-0992-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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348
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Altomonte J, Ebert O. Sorting Out Pandora's Box: Discerning the Dynamic Roles of Liver Microenvironment in Oncolytic Virus Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Front Oncol 2014; 4:85. [PMID: 24795862 PMCID: PMC4001031 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viral therapies have recently found their way into clinical application for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a disease with limited treatment options and poor prognosis. Adding to the many intrinsic challenges of in vivo oncolytic viral therapy, is the complex microenvironment of the liver, which imposes unique limitations to the successful delivery and propagation of the virus. The normal liver milieu is characterized by an intricate network of hepatocytes and non-parenchymal cells including Kupffer cells, stellate cells, and sinusoidal endothelial cells, which can secrete anti-viral cytokines, provide a platform for non-specific uptake, and form a barrier to efficient viral spread. In addition, natural killer cells are greatly enriched in the liver, contributing to the innate defense against viruses. The situation is further complicated when HCC arises in the setting of underlying hepatitis virus infection and/or hepatic cirrhosis, which occurs in more than 90% of clinical cases. These conditions pose further inhibitory effects on oncolytic virus (OV) therapy due to the presence of chronic inflammation, constitutive cytokine expression, altered hepatic blood flow, and extracellular matrix deposition. In addition, OVs can modulate the hepatic microenvironment, resulting in a complex interplay between virus and host. The immune system undoubtedly plays a substantial role in the outcome of OV therapy, both as an inhibitor of viral replication, and as a potent mechanism of virus-mediated tumor cell killing. This review will discuss the particular challenges of oncolytic viral therapy for HCC, as well as some potential strategies for modulating the immune system and synergizing with the hepatic microenvironment to improve therapeutic outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Altomonte
- II. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München , München , Germany
| | - Oliver Ebert
- II. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München , München , Germany
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349
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Larrubia JR, Moreno-Cubero E, Lokhande MU, García-Garzón S, Lázaro A, Miquel J, Perna C, Sanz-de-Villalobos E. Adaptive immune response during hepatitis C virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:3418-3430. [PMID: 24707125 PMCID: PMC3974509 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i13.3418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection affects about 170 million people worldwide and it is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV is a hepatotropic non-cytopathic virus able to persist in a great percentage of infected hosts due to its ability to escape from the immune control. Liver damage and disease progression during HCV infection are driven by both viral and host factors. Specifically, adaptive immune response carries out an essential task in controlling non-cytopathic viruses because of its ability to recognize infected cells and to destroy them by cytopathic mechanisms and to eliminate the virus by non-cytolytic machinery. HCV is able to impair this response by several means such as developing escape mutations in neutralizing antibodies and in T cell receptor viral epitope recognition sites and inducing HCV-specific cytotoxic T cell anergy and deletion. To impair HCV-specific T cell reactivity, HCV affects effector T cell regulation by modulating T helper and Treg response and by impairing the balance between positive and negative co-stimulatory molecules and between pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. In this review, the role of adaptive immune response in controlling HCV infection and the HCV mechanisms to evade this response are reviewed.
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350
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Bolen CR, Ding S, Robek MD, Kleinstein SH. Dynamic expression profiling of type I and type III interferon-stimulated hepatocytes reveals a stable hierarchy of gene expression. Hepatology 2014; 59:1262-72. [PMID: 23929627 PMCID: PMC3938553 DOI: 10.1002/hep.26657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite activating similar signaling cascades, the type I and type III interferons (IFNs) differ in their ability to antagonize virus replication. However, it is not clear whether these cytokines induce unique antiviral states, particularly in the liver, where the clinically important hepatitis B and C viruses cause persistent infection. Here, clustering and promoter analyses of microarray-based gene expression profiling were combined with mechanistic studies of signaling pathways to dynamically characterize the transcriptional responses induced by these cytokines in Huh7 hepatoma cells and primary human hepatocytes. Type I and III IFNs differed greatly in their level of interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) induction with a clearly detectable hierarchy (IFN-β > IFN-α > IFN-λ3 > IFN-λ1 > IFN-λ2). Notably, although the hierarchy identified varying numbers of differentially expressed genes when quantified using common statistical thresholds, further analysis of gene expression over multiple timepoints indicated that the individual IFNs do not in fact regulate unique sets of genes. The kinetic profiles of IFN-induced gene expression were also qualitatively similar with the important exception of IFN-α. While stimulation with either IFN-β or IFN-λs resulted in a similar long-lasting ISG induction, IFN-α signaling peaked early after stimulation then declined due to a negative feedback mechanism. The quantitative expression hierarchy and unique kinetics of IFN-α reveal potential specific roles for individual IFNs in the immune response, and elucidate the mechanism behind previously observed differences in IFN antiviral activity. While current clinical trials are focused on IFN-λ1 as a potential antiviral therapy, the finding that IFN-λ3 invariably possesses the highest activity among type III IFNs suggests that this cytokine may have superior clinical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R. Bolen
- Interdepartmental program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | - Siyuan Ding
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Michael D. Robek
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Steven H. Kleinstein
- Interdepartmental program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, CT
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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