301
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Ye J, Zhang B, Xu J, Chang Q, McNutt MA, Korteweg C, Gong E, Gu J. Molecular pathology in the lungs of severe acute respiratory syndrome patients. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 170:538-45. [PMID: 17255322 PMCID: PMC1851867 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a novel infectious disease with disastrous clinical consequences, in which the lungs are the major target organs. Previous studies have described the general pathology in the lungs of SARS patients and have identified some of the cell types infected by SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). However, at the time of this writing, there were no comprehensive reports of the cellular distribution of the virus in lung tissue. In this study, we have performed double labeling combining in situ hybridization with immunohistochemistry and alternating each of these techniques separately in consecutive sections to evaluate the viral distribution on various cell types in the lungs of seven patients affected with SARS. We found that SARS-CoV was present in bronchial epithelium, type I and II pneumocytes, T lymphocytes, and macrophages/monocytes. For pneumocytes, T lymphocytes, and macrophages, the infection rates were calculated. In addition, our present study is the first to demonstrate infection of endothelial cells and fibroblasts in SARS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juxiang Ye
- Department of Pathology, Dean, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, 38 Xueyuan Rd., Beijing 100083, China
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302
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Smith AL, Ganesh L, Leung K, Jongstra-Bilen J, Jongstra J, Nabel GJ. Leukocyte-specific protein 1 interacts with DC-SIGN and mediates transport of HIV to the proteasome in dendritic cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:421-30. [PMID: 17296787 PMCID: PMC2118718 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20061604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) capture and internalize human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 through C-type lectins, including DC-SIGN. These cells mediate efficient infection of T cells by concentrating the delivery of virus through the infectious synapse, a process dependent on the cytoplasmic domain of DC-SIGN. Here, we identify a cellular protein that binds specifically to the cytoplasmic region of DC-SIGN and directs internalized virus to the proteasome. This cellular protein, leukocyte-specific protein 1 (LSP1), was defined biochemically by immunoprecipitation and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. LSP1 is an F-actin binding protein involved in leukocyte motility and found on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane. LSP1 interacted specifically with DC-SIGN and other C-type lectins, but not the inactive mutant DC-SIGNΔ35, which lacks a cytoplasmic domain and shows altered virus transport in DCs. LSP1 diverts HIV-1 to the proteasome. Down-regulation of LSP1 with specific small interfering RNAs in human DCs enhanced HIV-1 transfer to T cells, and bone marrow DCs from lsp1−/− mice also showed an increase in transfer of HIV-1BaL to a human T cell line. Proteasome inhibitors increased retention of viral proteins in lsp1+/+ DCs, and substantial colocalization of virus to the proteasome was observed in wild-type compared with LSP1-deficient cells. Collectively, these data suggest that LSP1 protein facilitates virus transport into the proteasome after its interaction with DC-SIGN through its interaction with cytoskeletal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin L Smith
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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303
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Kuhn JH, Li W, Radoshitzky SR, Choe H, Farzan M. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Entry as a Target of Antiviral Therapies. Antivir Ther 2007. [DOI: 10.1177/135965350701200s05.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The identification in 2003 of a coronavirus as the aetiological agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) intensified efforts to understand the biology of corona-viruses in general and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in particular. Rapid progress was made in describing the SARS-CoV genome, evolution and lifecycle. Identification of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as an obligate cellular receptor for SARS-CoV contributed to understanding of the SARS-CoV entry process, and helped to characterize two targets of antiviral therapeutics: the SARS-CoV spike protein and ACE2. Here we describe the role of these proteins in SARS-CoV replication and potential therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing entry of SARS-CoV into target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens H Kuhn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Wenhui Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
| | - Sheli R Radoshitzky
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
| | - Hyeryun Choe
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael Farzan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
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304
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Lozach PY, Burleigh L, Staropoli I, Amara A. The C type lectins DC-SIGN and L-SIGN: receptors for viral glycoproteins. Methods Mol Biol 2007; 379:51-68. [PMID: 17502670 PMCID: PMC7122727 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-393-6_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
DC-SIGN and L-SIGN are C-type lectins that recognize carbohydrate structures present on viral glycoproteins and function as attachment factors for several enveloped viruses. DC-SIGN and L-SIGN enhance viral entry and facilitate infection of cells that express the cognate entry receptor (cis-infection). They are also able to capture viruses and transfer viral infections to other target cells (trans-infection). In this chapter, we will give an overview of protocols used to produce soluble viral glycoproteins at high levels and to study the molecular basis of viruses/DC-SIGN and L-SIGN binding and internalization. We will also describe techniques to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which DC-SIGN or L-SIGN spread viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Yves Lozach
- Laboratoire de Pathogénie Virale Moléculaire, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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305
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Perlman S, Holmes KV. Interaction between the spike protein of human coronavirus NL63 and its cellular receptor ACE2. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 581:281-4. [PMID: 17037543 PMCID: PMC7123575 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33012-9_47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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306
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Perlman S, Holmes KV. Proteolysis of SARS-associated coronavirus spike glycoprotein. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 581:235-40. [PMID: 17037535 PMCID: PMC7123722 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33012-9_39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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307
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Li GM, Li YG, Yamate M, Li SM, Ikuta K. Lipid rafts play an important role in the early stage of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus life cycle. Microbes Infect 2006; 9:96-102. [PMID: 17194611 PMCID: PMC7110773 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2006] [Revised: 10/18/2006] [Accepted: 10/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Lipid rafts are involved in the life cycle of many viruses. In this study, we showed that lipid rafts also play an important role in the life cycle of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-coronavirus (CoV). Cholesterol depletion by pretreatment of Vero E6 cells with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) inhibited the production of SARS-CoV particles released from the infected cells. This inhibition was prevented by addition of cholesterol to the culture medium, indicating that the reduction of virus particle release was caused by the loss of cholesterol in the cell membrane. In contrast, cholesterol depletion at the post-entry stage (3 h post-infection) caused only a limited effect on virus particle release. Northern blot analysis revealed that the levels of viral mRNAs were significantly affected by pretreatment with MβCD, but not by treatment at 3 h post-infection. Interestingly, no apparent evidence for colocalization of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 with lipid rafts in the membrane of Vero E6 cells was obtained. These results suggest that lipid rafts could contribute to SARS-CoV infection in the early replication process in Vero E6 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gui-Mei Li
- Department of Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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308
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Shih YP, Chen CY, Liu SJ, Chen KH, Lee YM, Chao YC, Chen YMA. Identifying epitopes responsible for neutralizing antibody and DC-SIGN binding on the spike glycoprotein of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 2006; 80:10315-24. [PMID: 17041212 PMCID: PMC1641789 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01138-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) uses dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3 grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) to facilitate cell entry via cellular receptor-angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. For this project, we used recombinant baculoviruses expressing different lengths of SARS-CoV spike (S) protein in a capture assay to deduce the minimal DC-SIGN binding region. Our results identified the region location between amino acid (aa) residues 324 to 386 of the S protein. We then generated nine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against the S protein to map the DC-SIGN-binding domain using capture assays with pseudotyped viruses and observed that MAb SIa5 significantly blocked S protein-DC-SIGN interaction. An enhancement assay using the HKU39849 SARS-CoV strain and human immature dendritic cells confirmed our observation. Data from a pepscan analysis and M13 phage peptide display library system mapped the reactive MAb SIa5 epitope to aa residues 363 to 368 of the S protein. Results from a capture assay testing three pseudotyped viruses with mutated N-linked glycosylation sites of the S protein indicate that only two pseudotyped viruses (N330Q and N357Q, both of which lost glycosylation sites near the SIa5 epitope) had diminished DC-SIGN-binding capacity. We also noted that MAb SIb4 exerted a neutralizing effect against HKU39849; its reactive epitope was mapped to aa residues 435 to 439 of the S protein. We offer the data to facilitate the development of therapeutic agents and preventive vaccines against SARS-CoV infection.
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MESH Headings
- Antibodies, Monoclonal
- Antibodies, Viral
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Baculoviridae/genetics
- Base Sequence
- Binding Sites/genetics
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/metabolism
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/virology
- Epitope Mapping
- Epitopes/chemistry
- Epitopes/genetics
- Glycosylation
- Humans
- In Vitro Techniques
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Membrane Glycoproteins/chemistry
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/immunology
- Models, Molecular
- Mutagenesis, Site-Directed
- Neutralization Tests
- Protein Binding
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/chemistry
- Recombinant Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Proteins/immunology
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus/genetics
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus/immunology
- Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome/immunology
- Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome/virology
- Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
- Viral Envelope Proteins/chemistry
- Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ping Shih
- AIDS Prevention and Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 111, Taiwan, Republic of China
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309
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Werling D, Coffey TJ. Pattern recognition receptors in companion and farm animals - the key to unlocking the door to animal disease? Vet J 2006; 174:240-51. [PMID: 17137812 PMCID: PMC7110490 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2006] [Revised: 08/07/2006] [Accepted: 10/04/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system is essential for host defence and is responsible for early detection of potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Upon recognition of microbes by innate immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, diverse signalling pathways are activated that combine to define inflammatory responses that direct sterilisation of the threat and/or orchestrate development of the adaptive immune response. Innate immune signalling must be carefully controlled and regulation comes in part from interactions between activating and inhibiting signalling receptors. In recent years, an increasing number of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including C-type lectin receptors and Toll-like receptors (TLRs), has been described that participate in innate recognition of microbes, especially through the so called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Recent studies demonstrate strong interactions between signalling through these receptors. Whereas useful models to study these receptors in great detail in the murine and human system are now emerging, relatively little is known regarding these receptors in companion and farm animals. In this review, current knowledge regarding these receptors in species of veterinary relevance is summarised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Werling
- Royal Veterinary College, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK.
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310
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Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a coronavirus (CoV), SARSCoV. SARS-CoV belongs to the family Coronaviridae, which are enveloped RNA viruses in the order Nidovirales. Global research efforts are continuing to increase the understanding of the virus, the pathogenesis of the disease it causes (SARS), and the “heterogeneity of individual infectiousness” as well as shedding light on how to prepare for other emerging viral diseases. Promising drugs and vaccines have been identified. The milestones achieved have resulted from a truly international effort. Molecular studies dissected the adaptation of this virus as it jumped from an intermediary animal, the civet, to humans, thus providing valuable insights into processes of molecular emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy R Tong
- Department of Pathology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Laichikok, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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311
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Tseng CTK, Huang C, Newman P, Wang N, Narayanan K, Watts DM, Makino S, Packard MM, Zaki SR, Chan TS, Peters CJ. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection of mice transgenic for the human Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 virus receptor. J Virol 2006; 81:1162-73. [PMID: 17108019 PMCID: PMC1797529 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01702-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus infection of humans are needed to elucidate SARS pathogenesis and develop vaccines and antivirals. We developed transgenic mice expressing human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, a functional receptor for the virus, under the regulation of a global promoter. A transgenic lineage, designated AC70, was among the best characterized against SARS coronavirus infection, showing weight loss and other clinical manifestations before reaching 100% mortality within 8 days after intranasal infection. High virus titers were detected in the lungs and brains of transgene-positive (Tg+) mice on days 1 and 3 after infection. Inflammatory mediators were also detected in these tissues, coinciding with high levels of virus replication. Lower virus titers were also detected in other tissues, including blood. In contrast, infected transgene-negative (Tg-) mice survived without showing any clinical illness. Pathologic examination suggests that the extensive involvement of the central nervous system likely contributed to the death of Tg+ mice, even though viral pneumonia was present. Preliminary studies with mice of a second lineage, AC63, in which the transgene expression was considerably less abundant than that in the AC70 line, revealed that virus replication was largely restricted to the lungs but not the brain. Importantly, despite significant weight loss, infected Tg+ AC63 mice eventually recovered from the illness without any mortality. The severity of the disease that developed in these transgenic mice--AC70 in particular--makes these mouse models valuable not only for evaluating the efficacy of antivirals and vaccines, but also for studying SARS coronavirus pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Te K Tseng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, G-150 Keiller Building, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA.
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312
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Kim JO, Chakrabarti BK, Guha-Niyogi A, Louder MK, Mascola JR, Ganesh L, Nabel GJ. Lysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by a specific secreted human phospholipase A2. J Virol 2006; 81:1444-50. [PMID: 17093191 PMCID: PMC1797512 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01790-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) proteins affect cellular activation, signal transduction, and possibly innate immunity. A specific secretory PLA2, sPLA2-X, is shown here to neutralize human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) through degradation of the viral membrane. Catalytic function was required for antiviral activity, and the target cells of infection were unaffected. sPLA2-X potently reduced gene transfer of HIV-1 Env-pseudotyped lentivirus vectors and inhibited the replication of both CCR5- and CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 in human CD4+ T cells. Virions resistant to damage by antibody and complement were sensitive to lysis by sPLA2-X, suggesting a novel mechanism of antiviral surveillance independent of the acquired immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Ouk Kim
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Room 4502, Bldg. 40, MSC-3005, 40 Convent Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892-3005, USA
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313
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Wang H, Rao S, Jiang C. Molecular pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Microbes Infect 2006; 9:119-26. [PMID: 17142081 PMCID: PMC7110495 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2006] [Accepted: 06/21/2006] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The global outbreak in 2002–2003 of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) posed a serious threat to public health and had a significant impact on socioeconomic stability. Although the global outbreak of SARS has been contained, there are serious concerns over its re-emergence and bioterrorism potential, and up to date, no specific treatment exists for this disease. Here we review the progress of studies on the pathogenesis of the disease, in particular, studies on the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chengyu Jiang
- Corresponding author. Tel: +86 10 6529 6908; fax: +86 10 6278 0741.
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314
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Hofmann H, Simmons G, Rennekamp AJ, Chaipan C, Gramberg T, Heck E, Geier M, Wegele A, Marzi A, Bates P, Pöhlmann S. Highly conserved regions within the spike proteins of human coronaviruses 229E and NL63 determine recognition of their respective cellular receptors. J Virol 2006; 80:8639-52. [PMID: 16912312 PMCID: PMC1563880 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00560-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated that the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) also mediates cellular entry of the newly discovered human coronavirus (hCoV) NL63. Here, we show that expression of DC-SIGN augments NL63 spike (S)-protein-driven infection of susceptible cells, while only expression of ACE2 but not DC-SIGN is sufficient for entry into nonpermissive cells, indicating that ACE2 fulfills the criteria of a bona fide hCoV-NL63 receptor. As for SARS-CoV, murine ACE2 is used less efficiently by NL63-S for entry than human ACE2. In contrast, several amino acid exchanges in human ACE2 which diminish SARS-S-driven entry do not interfere with NL63-S-mediated infection, suggesting that SARS-S and NL63-S might engage human ACE2 differentially. Moreover, we observed that NL63-S-driven entry was less dependent on a low-pH environment and activity of endosomal proteases compared to infection mediated by SARS-S, further suggesting differences in hCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV cellular entry. NL63-S does not exhibit significant homology to SARS-S but is highly related to the S-protein of hCoV-229E, which enters target cells by engaging CD13. Employing mutagenic analyses, we found that the N-terminal unique domain in NL63-S, which is absent in 229E-S, does not confer binding to ACE2. In contrast, the highly homologous C-terminal parts of the NL63-S1 and 229E-S1 subunits in conjunction with distinct amino acids in the central regions of these proteins confer recognition of ACE2 and CD13, respectively. Therefore, despite the high homology of these sequences, they likely form sufficiently distinct surfaces, thus determining receptor specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Hofmann
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
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315
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Falkowska E, Durso RJ, Gardner JP, Cormier EG, Arrigale RA, Ogawa RN, Donovan GP, Maddon PJ, Olson WC, Dragic T. L-SIGN (CD209L) isoforms differently mediate trans-infection of hepatoma cells by hepatitis C virus pseudoparticles. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:2571-2576. [PMID: 16894195 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82034-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
L-SIGN is a C-type lectin that is expressed on liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. Capture of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) by this receptor results in trans-infection of hepatoma cells. L-SIGN alleles have been identified that encode between three and nine tandem repeats of a 23 residue stretch in the juxtamembrane oligomerization domain. Here, it was shown that these repeat-region isoforms are expressed at the surface of mammalian cells and variably bind HCV envelope glycoprotein E2 and HCV pseudoparticles. Differences in binding were reflected in trans-infection efficiency, which was highest for isoform 7 and lowest for isoform 3. These findings provide a molecular mechanism whereby L-SIGN polymorphism could influence the establishment and progression of HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Falkowska
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology Department, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Robert J Durso
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Jason P Gardner
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Emmanuel G Cormier
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology Department, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Robert A Arrigale
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Raymond N Ogawa
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Gerald P Donovan
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Paul J Maddon
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - William C Olson
- Progenics Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA
| | - Tatjana Dragic
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology Department, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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316
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Ziółkowska NE, O'Keefe BR, Mori T, Zhu C, Giomarelli B, Vojdani F, Palmer KE, McMahon JB, Wlodawer A. Domain-swapped structure of the potent antiviral protein griffithsin and its mode of carbohydrate binding. Structure 2006; 14:1127-35. [PMID: 16843894 PMCID: PMC7126681 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2006.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2006] [Revised: 05/22/2006] [Accepted: 05/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The crystal structure of griffithsin, an antiviral lectin from the red alga Griffithsia sp., was solved and refined at 1.3 A resolution for the free protein and 0.94 A for a complex with mannose. Griffithsin molecules form a domain-swapped dimer, in which two beta strands of one molecule complete a beta prism consisting of three four-stranded sheets, with an approximate 3-fold axis, of another molecule. The structure of each monomer bears close resemblance to jacalin-related lectins, but its dimeric structure is unique. The structures of complexes of griffithsin with mannose and N-acetylglucosamine defined the locations of three almost identical carbohydrate binding sites on each monomer. We have also shown that griffithsin is a potent inhibitor of the coronavirus responsible for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Antiviral potency of griffithsin is likely due to the presence of multiple, similar sugar binding sites that provide redundant attachment points for complex carbohydrate molecules present on viral envelopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasza E Ziółkowska
- Protein Structure Section, Macromolecular Crystallography Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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317
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de Witte L, van Kooyk Y, Geijtenbeek TBH. Dendritic cell-mediated viral transmission: a potential drug target? Future Virol 2006. [DOI: 10.2217/17460794.1.5.615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are important in the sexual transmission of HIV-1, the most common route of acquiring HIV-1. HIV-1 subverts the biological function of DCs to facilitate its transport from site of entry at mucosal tissues to lymphoid tissues to infect T cells. Recent data have furthered our understanding of how DCs mediate viral transmission to T cells. DCs capture HIV-1 through specific attachment receptors, such as DC-SIGN, which not only facilitate HIV-1 transmission, but also infection of DCs. Therefore, these receptors are very promising targets for the design of inhibitors or vaccination strategies to prevent mucosal HIV-1 transmission. It is becoming evident that other viruses also use DCs for their transmission. This review will discuss the mechanism of HIV-1 transmission and potential intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lot de Witte
- VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, v.d. Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yvette van Kooyk
- VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, v.d. Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Teunis BH Geijtenbeek
- VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology & Immunology, v.d. Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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318
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Abstract
Coronaviruses are large, enveloped RNA viruses of both medical and veterinary importance. Interest in this viral family has intensified in the past few years as a result of the identification of a newly emerged coronavirus as the causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). At the molecular level, coronaviruses employ a variety of unusual strategies to accomplish a complex program of gene expression. Coronavirus replication entails ribosome frameshifting during genome translation, the synthesis of both genomic and multiple subgenomic RNA species, and the assembly of progeny virions by a pathway that is unique among enveloped RNA viruses. Progress in the investigation of these processes has been enhanced by the development of reverse genetic systems, an advance that was heretofore obstructed by the enormous size of the coronavirus genome. This review summarizes both classical and contemporary discoveries in the study of the molecular biology of these infectious agents, with particular emphasis on the nature and recognition of viral receptors, viral RNA synthesis, and the molecular interactions governing virion assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Masters
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, 12201, USA
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319
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Lai WK, Sun PJ, Zhang J, Jennings A, Lalor PF, Hubscher S, McKeating JA, Adams DH. Expression of DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR on human sinusoidal endothelium: a role for capturing hepatitis C virus particles. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 169:200-8. [PMID: 16816373 PMCID: PMC1698775 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.051191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells are unique among endothelial cells in their ability to internalize and process a diverse range of antigens. DC-SIGNR, a type 2 C-type lectin expressed on liver sinusoids, has been shown to bind with high affinity to hepatitis C virus (HCV) E2 glycoprotein. DC-SIGN is a closely related homologue reported to be expressed only on dendritic cells and a subset of macrophages and has similar binding affinity to HCV E2 glycoprotein. These receptors function as adhesion and antigen presentation molecules. We report distinct patterns of DC-SIGNR and DC-SIGN expression in human liver tissue and show for the first time that both C-type lectins are expressed on sinusoidal endothelial cells. We confirmed that these receptors are functional by demonstrating their ability to bind HCV E2 glycoproteins. Although these lectins on primary sinusoidal cells support HCV E2 binding, they are unable to support HCV entry. These data support a model where DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR on sinusoidal endothelium provide a mechanism for high affinity binding of circulating HCV within the liver sinusoids allowing subsequent transfer of the virus to underlying hepatocytes, in a manner analogous to DC-SIGN presentation of human immunodeficiency virus on dendritic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai K Lai
- Liver Research Laboratories, Institute of Biomedical Research, Birmingham University, Edgbaston, B15 2TH, United Kingdom.
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320
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Kam YW, Kien F, Roberts A, Cheung YC, Lamirande EW, Vogel L, Chu SL, Tse J, Guarner J, Zaki SR, Subbarao K, Peiris M, Nal B, Altmeyer R. Antibodies against trimeric S glycoprotein protect hamsters against SARS-CoV challenge despite their capacity to mediate FcgammaRII-dependent entry into B cells in vitro. Vaccine 2006; 25:729-40. [PMID: 17049691 PMCID: PMC7115629 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2006] [Revised: 07/30/2006] [Accepted: 08/10/2006] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Vaccine-induced antibodies can prevent or, in the case of feline infectious peritonitis virus, aggravate infections by coronaviruses. We investigated whether a recombinant native full-length S-protein trimer (triSpike) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) was able to elicit a neutralizing and protective immune response in animals and analyzed the capacity of anti-S antibodies to mediate antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) of virus entry in vitro and enhancement of replication in vivo. SARS-CoV-specific serum and mucosal immunoglobulins were readily detected in immunized animals. Serum IgG blocked binding of the S-protein to the ACE2 receptor and neutralized SARS-CoV infection in vitro. Entry into human B cell lines occurred in a FcγRII-dependent and ACE2-independent fashion indicating that ADE of virus entry is a novel cell entry mechanism of SARS-CoV. Vaccinated animals showed no signs of enhanced lung pathology or hepatitis and viral load was undetectable or greatly reduced in lungs following challenge with SARS-CoV. Altogether our results indicate that a recombinant trimeric S protein was able to elicit an efficacious protective immune response in vivo and warrant concern in the safety evaluation of a human vaccine against SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiu Wing Kam
- HKU-Pasteur Research Centre, 8 Sassoon Road, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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321
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Spiegel M, Schneider K, Weber F, Weidmann M, Hufert FT. Interaction of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus with dendritic cells. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:1953-1960. [PMID: 16760397 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) of humans is caused by a novel coronavirus of zoonotic origin termed SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). The virus induces severe injury of lung tissue, as well as lymphopenia and destruction of the architecture of lymphatic tissue by as-yet-unknown mechanisms. In this study, the interaction of SARS-CoV with dendritic cells (DCs), the key regulators of immune responses, was analysed. Monocyte-derived DCs were infected with SARS-CoV and analysed for viability, surface-marker expression and alpha interferon (IFN-alpha) induction. SARS-CoV infection was monitored by quantitative RT-PCR, immunofluorescence analysis and recovery experiments. SARS-CoV infected both immature and mature DCs, although replication efficiency was low. Immature DCs were activated by SARS-CoV infection and by UV-inactivated SARS-CoV. Infected DCs were still viable on day 6 post-infection, but major histocompatibility complex class I upregulation was missing, indicating that DC function was impaired. Additionally, SARS-CoV infection induced a delayed activation of IFN-alpha expression. Therefore, it is concluded that SARS-CoV has the ability to circumvent both the innate and the adaptive immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Spiegel
- Institute for Virology, University of Goettingen, Kreuzbergring 57, 37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Schneider
- Department of Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Strasse 11, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Friedemann Weber
- Department of Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Strasse 11, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manfred Weidmann
- Institute for Virology, University of Goettingen, Kreuzbergring 57, 37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Frank T Hufert
- Institute for Virology, University of Goettingen, Kreuzbergring 57, 37075 Goettingen, Germany
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322
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Sha Y, Wu Y, Cao Z, Xu X, Wu W, Jiang D, Mao X, Liu H, Zhu Y, Gong R, Li W. A convenient cell fusion assay for the study of SARS-CoV entry and inhibition. IUBMB Life 2006; 58:480-6. [PMID: 16916786 PMCID: PMC7165495 DOI: 10.1080/15216540600820974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
SARS-CoV spike (S) protein-mediated cell fusion is important for the viral entry mechanism and identification of SARS-CoV entry inhibitors. In order to avoid the high risks involved in handling SARS-CoV and to facilitate the study of viral fusion mechanism, we established the cell lines: SR-COS7 cells that stably express both SARS-CoV S protein and red fluorescence protein, R-COS7 cells that stably express red fluorescence protein, and AG-COS7 cells that stably express both ACE2 and green fluorescence protein, respectively. When SR-COS7 cells or R-COS7 cells were cocultured with AG-COS7 cells, syncytia with yellow fluorescence were conveniently observed after 12 h in SR-COS7 cells plus AG-COS7 cells, but not in R-COS7 cells plus AG-COS7 cells. The cell-to-cell fusion efficiency was simply determined for quantitative analysis based on the number of syncytium detected by flow cytometry. Such new cell-to-cell fusion model was further assessed by the potent HR2 peptide inhibitor, which led to the obvious decrease of the cell-to-cell fusion efficiency. The successful fusion and inhibition of cell-based binding assay shows that it can be well used for the study of SARS-CoV entry and inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- YongGang Sha
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, PR China
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323
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Yeung KS, Yamanaka GA, Meanwell NA. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus entry into host cells: Opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Med Res Rev 2006; 26:414-33. [PMID: 16521129 PMCID: PMC7168515 DOI: 10.1002/med.20055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A novel human coronavirus (CoV) has been identified as the etiological agent that caused the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003. The spike (S) protein of this virus is a type I surface glycoprotein that mediates binding of the virus to the host receptor and the subsequent fusion between the viral and host membranes. Because of its critical role in viral entry, the S protein is an important target for the development of anti-SARS CoV therapeutics and prophylactics. This article reviews the structure and function of the SARS CoV S protein in the context of its role in virus entry. Topics that are discussed include: the interaction between the S1 domain of the SARS spike protein and the cellular receptor, angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and the structural features of the ectodomain of ACE2; the antigenic determinants presented by the S protein and the nature of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies that are elicited in vivo; the structure of the 4,3-hydrophobic heptad repeats HR1 and HR2 of the S2 domain and their interaction to form a six-helical bundle during the final stages of fusion. Opportunities for the design and development of anti-SARS agents based on the inhibition of receptor binding, the therapeutic uses of S-directed monoclonal antibodies and inhibitors of HR1-HR2 complex formation are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kap-Sun Yeung
- Department of Chemistry, The Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 5 Research Parkway, P.O. Box 5100, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492, USA.
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324
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de Haan CAM, Rottier PJM. Hosting the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus: specific cell factors required for infection. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8:1211-8. [PMID: 16803585 PMCID: PMC7162409 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00744.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
As with all viruses, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS‐CoV) utilizes specific host cell factors during its infection cycle. Some of these factors have been identified and are now increasingly scrutinized as targets to intervene with infection. In this brief review, we describe the current understanding of how the SARS‐CoV is able to use the cellular machinery for its replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis A M de Haan
- Division Virology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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325
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Sullivan NJ, Geisbert TW, Geisbert JB, Shedlock DJ, Xu L, Lamoreaux L, Custers JHHV, Popernack PM, Yang ZY, Pau MG, Roederer M, Koup RA, Goudsmit J, Jahrling PB, Nabel GJ. Immune protection of nonhuman primates against Ebola virus with single low-dose adenovirus vectors encoding modified GPs. PLoS Med 2006; 3:e177. [PMID: 16683867 PMCID: PMC1459482 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2005] [Accepted: 02/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ebola virus causes a hemorrhagic fever syndrome that is associated with high mortality in humans. In the absence of effective therapies for Ebola virus infection, the development of a vaccine becomes an important strategy to contain outbreaks. Immunization with DNA and/or replication-defective adenoviral vectors (rAd) encoding the Ebola glycoprotein (GP) and nucleoprotein (NP) has been previously shown to confer specific protective immunity in nonhuman primates. GP can exert cytopathic effects on transfected cells in vitro, and multiple GP forms have been identified in nature, raising the question of which would be optimal for a human vaccine. METHODS AND FINDINGS To address this question, we have explored the efficacy of mutant GPs from multiple Ebola virus strains with reduced in vitro cytopathicity and analyzed their protective effects in the primate challenge model, with or without NP. Deletion of the GP transmembrane domain eliminated in vitro cytopathicity but reduced its protective efficacy by at least one order of magnitude. In contrast, a point mutation was identified that abolished this cytopathicity but retained immunogenicity and conferred immune protection in the absence of NP. The minimal effective rAd dose was established at 10(10) particles, two logs lower than that used previously. CONCLUSIONS Expression of specific GPs alone vectored by rAd are sufficient to confer protection against lethal challenge in a relevant nonhuman primate model. Elimination of NP from the vaccine and dose reductions to 10(10) rAd particles do not diminish protection and simplify the vaccine, providing the basis for selection of a human vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy J Sullivan
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Thomas W Geisbert
- 2United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joan B Geisbert
- 2United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Devon J Shedlock
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ling Xu
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Laurie Lamoreaux
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Paul M Popernack
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Mario Roederer
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Richard A Koup
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Peter B Jahrling
- 4Integrated Research Facility, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gary J Nabel
- 1Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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326
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Li W, Wong SK, Li F, Kuhn JH, Huang IC, Choe H, Farzan M. Animal origins of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus: insight from ACE2-S-protein interactions. J Virol 2006; 80:4211-9. [PMID: 16611880 PMCID: PMC1472041 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.9.4211-4219.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School and New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA.
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327
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Tripet B, Kao DJ, Jeffers SA, Holmes KV, Hodges RS. Template-based coiled-coil antigens elicit neutralizing antibodies to the SARS-coronavirus. J Struct Biol 2006; 155:176-94. [PMID: 16697221 PMCID: PMC7129695 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2006.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Spike (S) glycoprotein of coronaviruses (CoV) mediates viral entry into host cells. It contains two hydrophobic heptad repeat (HR) regions, denoted HRN and HRC, which oligomerize the S glycoprotein into a trimer in the native state and when activated collapse into a six-helix bundle structure driving fusion of the host and viral membranes. Previous studies have shown that peptides of the HR regions can inhibit viral infectivity. These studies imply that the HR regions are accessible and that agents which can interact with them may prevent viral entry. In the present study, we have investigated an approach to generate antibodies that specifically recognize the HRN and HRC regions of the SARS-CoV spike (S) glycoprotein in order to evaluate whether these antibodies can inhibit viral infectivity and thus neutralize the SARS-CoV. In this regard, we incorporated HRN and HRC coiled-coil surface residues into a de novo designed two-stranded α-helical coiled-coil template for generating conformation-specific antibodies that recognize α-helices in proteins (Lu, S.M., Hodges, R.S., 2002. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 23515–23524). Eighteen surface residues from two regions of HRN and HRC were incorporated into the template and used to generate four anti-sera, HRN1, HRN2, HRC1, and HRC2. Our results show that all of the elicited anti-sera can specifically recognize HRN or HRC peptides and the native SARS-CoV S protein in an ELISA format. Flow cytometry (FACS) analysis, however, showed only HRC1 and HRC2 anti-sera could bind to native S protein expressed on the cell surface of Chinese hamster ovary cells, i.e., the cell surface structure of the S glycoprotein precluded the ability of the HRN1 or HRN2 anti-sera to see their respective epitope sites. In in vitro viral infectivity assays, no inhibition was observed for either HRN1 or HRN2 anti-serum, whereas both HRC1 and HRC2 anti-sera could inhibit SARS-CoV infection in a dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, the HRC1 anti-serum, which was a more effective inhibitor of viral infectivity compared to HRC2 anti-serum, could only bind the pre-fusogenic state of HRC, i.e., the HRC1 anti-serum did not recognize the six-helix bundle conformation (fusion state) whereas HRC2 anti-serum did. These results suggest that antibodies that are more specific for the pre-fusogenic state of HRC may be better neutralizing antibodies. Overall, these results clearly demonstrate that the two-stranded coiled-coil template acts as an excellent presentation system for eliciting helix-specific antibodies against highly conserved viral antigens and HRC1 and HRC2 peptides may represent potential candidates for use in a peptide vaccine against the SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Tripet
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Daniel J. Kao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Scott A. Jeffers
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Robert S. Hodges
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
- Corresponding author. Fax: +1 303 724 3249.
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328
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Chan WE, Chuang CK, Yeh SH, Chang MS, Chen SSL. Functional characterization of heptad repeat 1 and 2 mutants of the spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 2006; 80:3225-37. [PMID: 16537590 PMCID: PMC1440416 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.7.3225-3237.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
To understand the roles of heptad repeat 1(HR1) and HR2 of the spike (S) protein of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in virus-cell interactions, the conserved Leu or Ile residues located at positions 913, 927, 941, and 955 in HR1 and 1151, 1165, and 1179 in HR2 were individually replaced with an alpha-helix-breaker Pro residue. The 913P mutant was expressed mainly as a faster-migrating, lower-molecular-weight S(L) form, while the wild type and all other mutants produced similar levels of both the S(L) form and the slower-migrating, higher-molecular-weight S(H) form. The wild-type S(L) form was processed to the S(H) form, whereas the S(L) form of the 913P mutant was inefficiently converted to the S(H) form after biosynthesis. None of these mutations affected cell surface expression or binding to its cognate ACE2 receptor. In a human immunodeficiency virus type 1/SARS S coexpression study, all mutants except the 913P mutant incorporated the S(H) form into the virions as effectively as did the wild-type S(H) form. The mutation at Ile-1151 did not affect membrane fusion or viral entry. The impaired viral entry of the 927P, 941P, 955P, and 1165P mutants was due to their inability to mediate membrane fusion, whereas the defect in viral entry of the 1179P mutant occurred not at the stage of membrane fusion but rather at a postfusion stage. Our study demonstrates the functional importance of HR1 and HR2 of the SARS-CoV spike protein in membrane fusion and viral entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woan-Eng Chan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan, Republic of China
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329
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Gramberg T, Zhu T, Chaipan C, Marzi A, Liu H, Wegele A, Andrus T, Hofmann H, Pöhlmann S. Impact of polymorphisms in the DC-SIGNR neck domain on the interaction with pathogens. Virology 2006; 347:354-63. [PMID: 16413044 PMCID: PMC7111803 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2005] [Revised: 09/19/2005] [Accepted: 11/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The lectins DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR augment infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebolavirus (EBOV) and other pathogens. The neck domain of these proteins drives multimerization, which is believed to be required for efficient recognition of multivalent ligands. The neck domain of DC-SIGN consists of seven sequence repeats with rare variations. In contrast, the DC-SIGNR neck domain is polymorphic and, in addition to the wild type (wt) allele with seven repeat units, allelic forms with five and six sequence repeats are frequently found. A potential association of the DC-SIGNR genotype and risk of HIV-1 infection is currently under debate. Therefore, we investigated if DC-SIGNR alleles with five and six repeat units exhibit defects in pathogen capture. Here, we show that wt DC-SIGNR and patient derived alleles with five and six repeats bind viral glycoproteins, augment viral infection and tetramerize with comparable efficiency. Moreover, coexpression of wt DC-SIGNR and alleles with five repeats did not decrease the interaction with pathogens compared to expression of each allele alone, suggesting that potential formation of hetero-oligomers does not appreciably reduce pathogen binding, at least under conditions of high expression. Thus, our results do not provide evidence for diminished pathogen capture by DC-SIGNR alleles with five and six repeat units. Albeit, we cannot exclude that subtle, but in vivo relevant differences remained undetected, our analysis suggests that indirect mechanisms could account for the association of polymorphisms in the DC-SIGNR neck region with reduced risk of HIV-1 infection.
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MESH Headings
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/chemistry
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/genetics
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/metabolism
- Cell Adhesion Molecules/physiology
- Cell Culture Techniques
- HIV Infections/metabolism
- HIV-1/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/chemistry
- Lectins, C-Type/genetics
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Lectins, C-Type/physiology
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/chemistry
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology
- Repetitive Sequences, Nucleic Acid/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics
- Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Gramberg
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Tuofu Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Microbiology, University of Washington, School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Chawaree Chaipan
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andrea Marzi
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Huanliang Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Anja Wegele
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas Andrus
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Heike Hofmann
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Virology, University of Kiel, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Stefan Pöhlmann
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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330
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Yen YT, Liao F, Hsiao CH, Kao CL, Chen YC, Wu-Hsieh BA. Modeling the early events of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in vitro. J Virol 2006; 80:2684-93. [PMID: 16501078 PMCID: PMC1395447 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.6.2684-2693.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical picture of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is characterized by pulmonary inflammation and respiratory failure, resembling that of acute respiratory distress syndrome. However, the events that lead to the recruitment of leukocytes are poorly understood. To study the cellular response in the acute phase of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-host cell interaction, we investigated the induction of chemokines, adhesion molecules, and DC-SIGN (dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin) by SARS-CoV. Immunohistochemistry revealed neutrophil, macrophage, and CD8 T-cell infiltration in the lung autopsy of a SARS patient who died during the acute phase of illness. Additionally, pneumocytes and macrophages in the patient's lung expressed P-selectin and DC-SIGN. In in vitro study, we showed that the A549 and THP-1 cell lines were susceptible to SARS-CoV. A549 cells produced CCL2/monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and CXCL8/interleukin-8 (IL-8) after interaction with SARS-CoV and expressed P-selectin and VCAM-1. Moreover, SARS-CoV induced THP-1 cells to express CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL8/IL-8, CCL3/MIP-1alpha, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL4/MIP-1beta, and CCL5/RANTES, which attracted neutrophils, monocytes, and activated T cells in a chemotaxis assay. We also demonstrated that DC-SIGN was inducible in THP-1 as well as A549 cells after SARS-CoV infection. Our in vitro experiments modeling infection in humans together with the study of a lung biopsy of a patient who died during the early phase of infection demonstrated that SARS-CoV, through a dynamic interaction with lung epithelial cells and monocytic cells, creates an environment conducive for immune cell migration and accumulation that eventually leads to lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Yen
- Graduate Institute of Immunology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1 Jen-Ai Road, Section 1, Taipei 10051, Taiwan
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331
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Follis KE, York J, Nunberg JH. Furin cleavage of the SARS coronavirus spike glycoprotein enhances cell-cell fusion but does not affect virion entry. Virology 2006; 350:358-69. [PMID: 16519916 PMCID: PMC7111780 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2005] [Revised: 01/27/2006] [Accepted: 02/03/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The fusogenic potential of Class I viral envelope glycoproteins is activated by proteloytic cleavage of the precursor glycoprotein to generate the mature receptor-binding and transmembrane fusion subunits. Although the coronavirus (CoV) S glycoproteins share membership in this class of envelope glycoproteins, cleavage to generate the respective S1 and S2 subunits appears absent in a subset of CoV species, including that responsible for the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). To determine whether proteolytic cleavage of the S glycoprotein might be important for the newly emerged SARS-CoV, we introduced a furin recognition site at single basic residues within the putative S1–S2 junctional region. We show that furin cleavage at the modified R667 position generates discrete S1 and S2 subunits and potentiates membrane fusion activity. This effect on the cell–cell fusion activity by the S glycoprotein is not, however, reflected in the infectivity of pseudotyped lentiviruses bearing the cleaved glycoprotein. The lack of effect of furin cleavage on virion infectivity mirrors that observed in the normally cleaved S glycoprotein of the murine coronavirus and highlights an additional level of complexity in coronavirus entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Follis
- Montana Biotechnology Center, Science Complex Room 221, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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332
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Abstract
The previous epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has ended. However, many questions concerning how the aetiological agent, the novel SARS coronavirus (CoV), causes illness in humans remain unanswered. The pathology of fatal cases of SARS is dominated by diffuse alveolar damage. Specific histological changes are not detected in other organs. These contrast remarkably with the clinical picture, in which there are apparent manifestations in multiple organs. Both pathogen and host factors are important in the pathogenesis of SARS. The choice of specific receptors and the unique genome of the SARS‐CoV are important elements in understanding the biology of the pathogen. For the host cells, the outcome of SARS‐CoV infection, whether there are cytopathic effects or not, depends on the cell types that are infected. At the whole‐body level, immune‐mediated damage, due to activation of cytokines and/or chemokines and, perhaps, autoimmunity, may play key roles in the clinical and pathological features of SARS. Continued research is still required to determine the pathogenetic mechanisms involved and to combat this new emerging human infectious disease. Copyright © 2006 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony WI Lo
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Nelson LS Tang
- Department of Chemical Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Center of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Ka‐Fai To
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
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333
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Sims AC, Baric RS, Yount B, Burkett SE, Collins PL, Pickles RJ. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection of human ciliated airway epithelia: role of ciliated cells in viral spread in the conducting airways of the lungs. J Virol 2006; 79:15511-24. [PMID: 16306622 PMCID: PMC1316022 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.24.15511-15524.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) emerged in 2002 as an important cause of severe lower respiratory tract infection in humans, and in vitro models of the lung are needed to elucidate cellular targets and the consequences of viral infection. The SARS-CoV receptor, human angiotensin 1-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), was detected in ciliated airway epithelial cells of human airway tissues derived from nasal or tracheobronchial regions, suggesting that SARS-CoV may infect the proximal airways. To assess infectivity in an in vitro model of human ciliated airway epithelia (HAE) derived from nasal and tracheobronchial airway regions, we generated recombinant SARS-CoV by deletion of open reading frame 7a/7b (ORF7a/7b) and insertion of the green fluorescent protein (GFP), resulting in SARS-CoV GFP. SARS-CoV GFP replicated to titers similar to those of wild-type viruses in cell lines. SARS-CoV specifically infected HAE via the apical surface and replicated to titers of 10(7) PFU/ml by 48 h postinfection. Polyclonal antisera directed against hACE2 blocked virus infection and replication, suggesting that hACE2 is the primary receptor for SARS-CoV infection of HAE. SARS-CoV structural proteins and virions localized to ciliated epithelial cells. Infection was highly cytolytic, as infected ciliated cells were necrotic and shed over time onto the luminal surface of the epithelium. SARS-CoV GFP also replicated to a lesser extent in ciliated cell cultures derived from hamster or rhesus monkey airways. Efficient SARS-CoV infection of ciliated cells in HAE provides a useful in vitro model of human lung origin to study characteristics of SARS-CoV replication and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy C Sims
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2107 McGavran-Greenberg Hall, CB 7435, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435, USA.
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334
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Broer R, Boson B, Spaan W, Cosset FL, Corver J. Important role for the transmembrane domain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein during entry. J Virol 2006; 80:1302-10. [PMID: 16415007 PMCID: PMC1346921 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.3.1302-1310.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The spike protein (S) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is responsible for receptor binding and membrane fusion. It contains a highly conserved transmembrane domain that consists of three parts: an N-terminal tryptophan-rich domain, a central domain, and a cysteine-rich C-terminal domain. The cytoplasmic tail of S has previously been shown to be required for assembly. Here, the roles of the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of S in the infectivity and membrane fusion activity of SARS-CoV have been studied. SARS-CoV S-pseudotyped retrovirus (SARSpp) was used to measure S-mediated infectivity. In addition, the cell-cell fusion activity of S was monitored by a Renilla luciferase-based cell-cell fusion assay. S(VSV-Cyt), an S chimera with a cytoplasmic tail derived from vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-G), and S(MHV-TMDCyt), an S chimera with the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains of mouse hepatitis virus, displayed wild-type-like activity in both assays. S(VSV-TMDCyt), a chimera with the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains of VSV-G, was impaired in the SARSpp and cell-cell fusion assays, showing 3 to 25% activity compared to the wild type, depending on the assay and the cells used. Examination of the oligomeric state of the chimeric S proteins in SARSpp revealed that S(VSV-TMDCyt) trimers were less stable than wild-type S trimers, possibly explaining the lowered fusogenicity and infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rene Broer
- Department of Medical Microbiology, E4-P, Leiden University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
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335
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Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2006; 69:635-64. [PMID: 16339739 PMCID: PMC1306801 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.69.4.635-664.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 752] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-strand RNA viruses classified within the Nidovirales order. This coronavirus family consists of pathogens of many animal species and of humans, including the recently isolated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This review is divided into two main parts; the first concerns the animal coronaviruses and their pathogenesis, with an emphasis on the functions of individual viral genes, and the second discusses the newly described human emerging pathogen, SARS-CoV. The coronavirus part covers (i) a description of a group of coronaviruses and the diseases they cause, including the prototype coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus, which is one of the recognized animal models for multiple sclerosis, as well as viruses of veterinary importance that infect the pig, chicken, and cat and a summary of the human viruses; (ii) a short summary of the replication cycle of coronaviruses in cell culture; (iii) the development and application of reverse genetics systems; and (iv) the roles of individual coronavirus proteins in replication and pathogenesis. The SARS-CoV part covers the pathogenesis of SARS, the developing animal models for infection, and the progress in vaccine development and antiviral therapies. The data gathered on the animal coronaviruses continue to be helpful in understanding SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA.
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336
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Kong WP, Xu L, Stadler K, Ulmer JB, Abrignani S, Rappuoli R, Nabel GJ. Modulation of the immune response to the severe acute respiratory syndrome spike glycoprotein by gene-based and inactivated virus immunization. J Virol 2006; 79:13915-23. [PMID: 16254327 PMCID: PMC1280202 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.22.13915-13923.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the initial isolates of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV) are sensitive to neutralization by antibodies through their spike (S) glycoprotein, variants of S have since been identified that are resistant to such inhibition. Optimal vaccine strategies would therefore make use of additional determinants of immune recognition, either through cellular or expanded, cross-reactive humoral immunity. Here, the cellular and humoral immune responses elicited by different combinations of gene-based and inactivated viral particles with various adjuvants have been assessed. The T-cell response was altered by different prime-boost immunizations, with the optimal CD8 immunity induced by DNA priming and replication-defective adenoviral vector boosting. The humoral immune response was enhanced most effectively through the use of inactivated virus with adjuvants, either MF59 or alum, and was associated with stimulation of the CD4 but not the CD8 response. The use of inactivated SARS virus with MF59 enhanced the CD4 and antibody response even after gene-based vaccination. Because both cellular and humoral immune responses are generated by gene-based vaccination and inactivated viral boosting, this strategy may prove useful in the generation of SARS-CoV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-pui Kong
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 40, Room 4502, MSC-3005, 40 Convent Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-3005, USA
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337
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Jia HP, Look DC, Shi L, Hickey M, Pewe L, Netland J, Farzan M, Wohlford-Lenane C, Perlman S, McCray PB. ACE2 receptor expression and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection depend on differentiation of human airway epithelia. J Virol 2006; 79:14614-21. [PMID: 16282461 PMCID: PMC1287568 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.23.14614-14621.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 622] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) demonstrate that the respiratory tract is a major site of SARS-coronavirus (CoV) infection and disease morbidity. We studied host-pathogen interactions using native lung tissue and a model of well-differentiated cultures of primary human airway epithelia. Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the receptor for both the SARS-CoV and the related human respiratory coronavirus NL63, was expressed in human airway epithelia as well as lung parenchyma. As assessed by immunofluorescence staining and membrane biotinylation, ACE2 protein was more abundantly expressed on the apical than the basolateral surface of polarized airway epithelia. Interestingly, ACE2 expression positively correlated with the differentiation state of epithelia. Undifferentiated cells expressing little ACE2 were poorly infected with SARS-CoV, while well-differentiated cells expressing more ACE2 were readily infected. Expression of ACE2 in poorly differentiated epithelia facilitated SARS spike (S) protein-pseudotyped virus entry. Consistent with the expression pattern of ACE2, the entry of SARS-CoV or a lentivirus pseudotyped with SARS-CoV S protein in differentiated epithelia was more efficient when applied to the apical surface. Furthermore, SARS-CoV replicated in polarized epithelia and preferentially exited via the apical surface. The results indicate that infection of human airway epithelia by SARS coronavirus correlates with the state of cell differentiation and ACE2 expression and localization. These findings have implications for understanding disease pathogenesis associated with SARS-CoV and NL63 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Peng Jia
- Department of Pediatrics, 240-G EMRB, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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338
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Chan VSF, Chan KYK, Chen Y, Poon LLM, Cheung ANY, Zheng B, Chan KH, Mak W, Ngan HYS, Xu X, Screaton G, Tam PKH, Austyn JM, Chan LC, Yip SP, Peiris M, Khoo US, Lin CLS. Homozygous L-SIGN (CLEC4M) plays a protective role in SARS coronavirus infection. Nat Genet 2006; 38:38-46. [PMID: 16369534 PMCID: PMC7097088 DOI: 10.1038/ng1698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Accepted: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by infection of a previously undescribed coronavirus (CoV). L-SIGN, encoded by CLEC4M (also known as CD209L), is a SARS-CoV binding receptor that has polymorphism in its extracellular neck region encoded by the tandem repeat domain in exon 4. Our genetic risk association study shows that individuals homozygous for CLEC4M tandem repeats are less susceptible to SARS infection. L-SIGN is expressed in both non-SARS and SARS-CoV-infected lung. Compared with cells heterozygous for L-SIGN, cells homozygous for L-SIGN show higher binding capacity for SARS-CoV, higher proteasome-dependent viral degradation and a lower capacity for trans infection. Thus, homozygosity for L-SIGN plays a protective role during SARS infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera S F Chan
- Department of Surgery, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Kelvin Y K Chan
- Department of Pathology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Yongxiong Chen
- Department of Surgery, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Leo L M Poon
- Department of Microbiology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Annie N Y Cheung
- Department of Pathology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Bojian Zheng
- Department of Microbiology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Kwok-Hung Chan
- Department of Microbiology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - William Mak
- Department of Genome Research Centre, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Hextan Y S Ngan
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Xiaoning Xu
- Human Immunology Unit, The Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Paul K H Tam
- Department of Surgery, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
- Department of Genome Research Centre, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | | | - Li-Chong Chan
- Department of Pathology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Shea-Ping Yip
- Department of Health Technology and Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Malik Peiris
- Department of Microbiology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Ui-Soon Khoo
- Department of Pathology, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
| | - Chen-Lung S Lin
- Department of Surgery, Hong Kong Jockey Club Clinical Research Center, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, SAR China
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339
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Duan J, Ji X, Feng J, Han W, Zhang P, Cao W, Guo X, Qi C, Yang D, Jin G, Gao G, Yan X. A Human Neutralizing Antibody against a Conformational Epitope Shared by Oligomeric Sars S1 Protein. Antivir Ther 2006. [DOI: 10.1177/135965350601100101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
An antibody phage-display library was constructed from the B cells of convalescent severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) patients and screened using inactivated SARS coronavirus (CoV) virions as antigens. More than 80 positive clones were isolated from the library and one of them, scFv H12, was extensively characterized. scFv H12 bound to SARS-CoV with high affinity (equilibrium dissociation constant, Kd=73.5 nM), and neutralized SARS virions in vitro. The facts that scFv H12 bound to the SARS-S1 protein under non-reducing conditions and that it did not bind to monomeric S1 protein under reducing conditions strongly suggest that scFv H12 recognizes a conformational epitope shared by oligomeric S1 proteins. This study should aid in the manufacture of neutralizing antibody, provide a better understanding the immunological characteristics of SARS protein and facilitate the design of a SARS vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhu Duan
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Ji
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Feng
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Han
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Panhe Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Wuchun Cao
- Department of Epidemiology, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Xueming Guo
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Cai Qi
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dongling Yang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Gang Jin
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guangxia Gao
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiyun Yan
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, and Centre for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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340
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Perlman S, Holmes KV. Attachment factor and receptor engagement of SARS coronavirus and human coronavirus NL63. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 581:219-27. [PMID: 17037533 PMCID: PMC7124012 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33012-9_37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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341
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Abstract
Cell-to-cell spread of retroviruses via virological synapse (VS) contributes to overall progression of disease. VS are specialized pathogen-induced cellular structures that facilitate cell-to-cell transfer of HIV-1 and HTLV-1. VS provide a mechanistic explanation for cell-associated retroviral replication. While VS share some common features with neurological or immunological synapses, they also exhibit important differences. The role of VS might not be limited to human retroviruses and the emerging role of a plant synapse suggests that VS might well be conserved structures for cell-cell spreading of both animal and plant viruses. Dissection of the VS is just at its beginning, but already offers ample information and fascinating insights into mechanisms of viral replication and cell-to-cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Garcia
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, University Hospital of Geneva, 4-747, 24 Rue Micheli-du-Crest, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Piguet
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, University Hospital of Geneva, 4-747, 24 Rue Micheli-du-Crest, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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342
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Perlman S, Holmes KV. Insights from the association of SARS-CoV S-protein with its receptor, ACE2. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 581:209-18. [PMID: 17037532 PMCID: PMC7123956 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33012-9_36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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343
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Abstract
The world was shocked in early 2003 when a pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was imminent. The outbreak of this novel disease, caused by a novel coronavirus (the SARS-coronavirus), hit hardest in the Asian Pacific region, though eventually it spread to five continents. The speed of the spread of the SARS epidemic was unprecedented due to the highly efficient intercontinental transportation. An international collaborative effort through the World Health Organization (WHO) has helped to identify the aetiological agent about 1 month after the onset of the epidemic. The power of molecular biology and bioinformatics has enabled the complete decoding of the viral genome within weeks. Over 1000 publications on the phylogeny, epidemiology, genomics, laboratory diagnostics, antiviral, immunization, pathogenesis, clinical disease, and management accumulated within just 1 year. Although the exact animal reservoir of virus and how it evolved into a human pathogen are still obscure, accurate diagnosis and epidemiological control of the disease are now possible. This article reviews what is currently known about the virus and the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samson S. Y. Wong
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, University Pathology Building, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - K. Y. Yuen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, University Pathology Building, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
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344
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Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2005. [PMID: 16339739 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.69.4.635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-strand RNA viruses classified within the Nidovirales order. This coronavirus family consists of pathogens of many animal species and of humans, including the recently isolated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This review is divided into two main parts; the first concerns the animal coronaviruses and their pathogenesis, with an emphasis on the functions of individual viral genes, and the second discusses the newly described human emerging pathogen, SARS-CoV. The coronavirus part covers (i) a description of a group of coronaviruses and the diseases they cause, including the prototype coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus, which is one of the recognized animal models for multiple sclerosis, as well as viruses of veterinary importance that infect the pig, chicken, and cat and a summary of the human viruses; (ii) a short summary of the replication cycle of coronaviruses in cell culture; (iii) the development and application of reverse genetics systems; and (iv) the roles of individual coronavirus proteins in replication and pathogenesis. The SARS-CoV part covers the pathogenesis of SARS, the developing animal models for infection, and the progress in vaccine development and antiviral therapies. The data gathered on the animal coronaviruses continue to be helpful in understanding SARS-CoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA.
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345
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Desprès P, Sakuntabhai A, Julier C. Association d’un variant génétique du récepteur d’attachement DC-SIGN (CD209) à la gravité de la dengue. Med Sci (Paris) 2005; 21:905-6. [PMID: 16274635 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/20052111905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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346
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Ziegler T, Matikainen S, Rönkkö E, Osterlund P, Sillanpää M, Sirén J, Fagerlund R, Immonen M, Melén K, Julkunen I. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus fails to activate cytokine-mediated innate immune responses in cultured human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. J Virol 2005; 79:13800-5. [PMID: 16227300 PMCID: PMC1262618 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.21.13800-13805.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of host innate immune responses was studied in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SCV)-infected human A549 lung epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs). In all cell types, SCV-specific subgenomic mRNAs were seen, whereas no expression of SCV proteins was found. No induction of cytokine genes (alpha interferon [IFN-alpha], IFN-beta, interleukin-28A/B [IL-28A/B], IL-29, tumor necrosis factor alpha, CCL5, or CXCL10) or IFN-alpha/beta-induced MxA gene was seen in SCV-infected A549 cells, macrophages, or DCs. SCV also failed to induce DC maturation (CD86 expression) or enhance major histocompatibility complex class II expression. Our data strongly suggest that SCV fails to activate host cell cytokine gene expression in human macrophages and DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thedi Ziegler
- Department of Viral Diseases and Immunology, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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347
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Gramberg T, Hofmann H, Möller P, Lalor PF, Marzi A, Geier M, Krumbiegel M, Winkler T, Kirchhoff F, Adams DH, Becker S, Münch J, Pöhlmann S. LSECtin interacts with filovirus glycoproteins and the spike protein of SARS coronavirus. Virology 2005; 340:224-36. [PMID: 16051304 PMCID: PMC7111772 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2005] [Revised: 05/10/2005] [Accepted: 06/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cellular attachment factors like the C-type lectins DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR (collectively referred to as DC-SIGN/R) can augment viral infection and might promote viral dissemination in and between hosts. The lectin LSECtin is encoded in the same chromosomal locus as DC-SIGN/R and is coexpressed with DC-SIGNR on sinusoidal endothelial cells in liver and lymphnodes. Here, we show that LSECtin enhances infection driven by filovirus glycoproteins (GP) and the S protein of SARS coronavirus, but does not interact with human immunodeficiency virus type-1 and hepatitis C virus envelope proteins. Ligand binding to LSECtin was inhibited by EGTA but not by mannan, suggesting that LSECtin unlike DC-SIGN/R does not recognize high-mannose glycans on viral GPs. Finally, we demonstrate that LSECtin is N-linked glycosylated and that glycosylation is required for cell surface expression. In summary, we identified LSECtin as an attachment factor that in conjunction with DC-SIGNR might concentrate viral pathogens in liver and lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Gramberg
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Heike Hofmann
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Peggy Möller
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Patricia F. Lalor
- Liver Research Group, Institute for Biomedical Science, The University of Birmingham Medical School, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, The University of Birmingham Medical School, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | - Andrea Marzi
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martina Geier
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mandy Krumbiegel
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas Winkler
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Chair of Genetics, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Department of Virology, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - David H. Adams
- Liver Research Group, Institute for Biomedical Science, The University of Birmingham Medical School, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, The University of Birmingham Medical School, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | - Stephan Becker
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Jan Münch
- Department of Virology, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Stefan Pöhlmann
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Corresponding author. Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Center, University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Glückstraße 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany. Fax: +49 9131 8529111.
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348
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Cambi A, Figdor CG. Levels of complexity in pathogen recognition by C-type lectins. Curr Opin Immunol 2005; 17:345-51. [PMID: 15950451 PMCID: PMC7127008 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2005.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 05/25/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In pathogen recognition by C-type lectins, several levels of complexity can be distinguished; these might modulate the immune response in different ways. Firstly, the pathogen-associated molecular pattern repertoire expressed at the microbial surface determines the interactions with specific receptors. Secondly, each immune cell type possesses a specific set of pathogen-recognition receptors. Thirdly, changes in the cell-surface distribution of C-type lectins regulate carbohydrate binding by modulating receptor affinity for different ligands. Crosstalk between these receptors results in a network of multimolecular complexes, adding a further level of complexity in pathogen recognition.
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349
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Chan WS, Wu C, Chow SCS, Cheung T, To KF, Leung WK, Chan PKS, Lee KC, Ng HK, Au DMY, Lo AWI. Coronaviral hypothetical and structural proteins were found in the intestinal surface enterocytes and pneumocytes of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Mod Pathol 2005; 18:1432-9. [PMID: 15920543 PMCID: PMC7100671 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.3800439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a newly emerging infectious disease that haunted the world from November 2002 to July 2003. Little is known about the biology and pathophysiology of the novel coronavirus that causes SARS. The tissue and cellular distributions of coronaviral hypothetical and structural proteins in SARS were investigated. Antibodies against the hypothetical (SARS 3a, 3b, 6, 7a and 9b) and structural proteins (envelope, membrane, nucleocapsid and spike) of the coronavirus were generated from predicted antigenic epitopes of each protein. The presence of these proteins were first verified in coronavirus-infected Vero E6 tissue culture model. Immunohistochemical studies on different human tissues, including a cohort of nine autopsies, two liver biopsies and intestinal biopsies of SARS patients, further confirmed the existence of coronaviral hypothetical and structural proteins in the cytoplasm of pneumocytes and small intestinal surface enterocytes in SARS patients. With this vast array of antibodies, no signal was observed in other cell types including those organs in which reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reactions were reported to be positive. Structural proteins and the functionally undefined hypothetical proteins were expressed in coronavirus-infected cells with distinct expression pattern in different organs in SARS patients. These antipeptide antibodies can be useful for the diagnosis of SARS at the tissue level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai S Chan
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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350
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Kwon YJ, Standley SM, Goh SL, Fréchet JM. Enhanced antigen presentation and immunostimulation of dendritic cells using acid-degradable cationic nanoparticles. J Control Release 2005; 105:199-212. [PMID: 15935507 PMCID: PMC7114674 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2004] [Revised: 02/23/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Acid-degradable cationic nanoparticles encapsulating a model antigen (i.e., ovalbumin) were prepared by inverse microemulsion polymerization with acid-cleavable acetal cross-linkers. Incubation of these degradable nanoparticles with dendritic cells derived from bone marrow (BMDCs) resulted in the enhanced presentation of ovalbumin-derived peptides, as quantified by B3Z cells, a CD8+ T cell hybridoma. The cationic nature of the particles contributed to the increased surface endocytosis (or phagocytosis) observed with BMDCs, which is the first barrier to overcome for successful antigen delivery. The acid sensitivity of the particles served to direct more ovalbumin antigens to be processed into the appropriately trimmed peptide fragments and presented via the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway following hydrolysis within the acidic lysosomes. It was also shown that adjuvant molecules such as unmethylated CpG oligonucleotides (CpG ODN) and anti-interleukin-10 oligonucleotides (AS10 ODN) could be co-delivered with the protein antigen for maximized cellular immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jean M.J. Fréchet
- Corresponding author. Department of Chemistry, University of California, 718 Latimer Hall, Berkeley CA 94720-1460, United States. Tel.: +1 510 643 3077; fax: +1 510 643 3079.
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